close
Jump to content

Apidima Cave

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Apidima Cave
Apidima Cave is located in Greece
Apidima Cave
Location within Greece
Apidima Cave is located in Peloponnese
Apidima Cave
Location within Peloponnese
LocationOn western Mani Peninsula, west of Areopoli, southern Greece
Coordinates36°39′41″N 22°21′48″E / 36.66139°N 22.36333°E / 36.66139; 22.36333[1]
GeologyKarstic cave in limestone cliffside
Entrances5
Entrances listA, B, C, D, E
AccessOnly by boat
Websitefhw.gr/chronos/01/en/pl/housing/apidima.html

Apidima Cave (Greek: Σπήλαιο Απήδημα, Spilaio Apidima) is a complex of five caves[2][3][4] located on the western shore of Mani Peninsula in southern Greece. The partial crania of two hominins are attributed to early Homo, before the full separation of Neanderthals and anatomically-modern humans.

Description

[edit]

The Apidima Cave complex consists of five[2][3] (previously reported as four) karstic caves [4] in the limestone cliffside on the west shore of the Mani Peninsula in southern Greece.[5] Today the caves open on the face of a large sea cliff and are accessible only by boat,[6] but during the ice ages the sea level went lower by more than 100 m (330 ft), and several seashore caves around the world, today submerged or situated at the wave zone—Apidima Cave belonging to the latter category—rose well above the water surface and were occupied by early people.[7]

The complex consists of four small caves, designated "A", "B", "C" and "D".[4] It was formed by erosion within the Middle Triassic to Late Eocene limestone of depth 500 m (1,600 ft), from 4–24 m (13–79 ft) above sea level, in a vertical zone of depth 20 m (66 ft).[8] The development of the caves is due to the vertical strikes of the limestone, while the horizontal opening is made by the sea.[8]

Archaeology

[edit]

Research programme

[edit]

The scientific research programme at Apidima began in 1978 and is being conducted by the National Archaeological Museum of Greece in collaboration with the Laboratory of Historical Geology-Palaeontology of Athens University, the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploitation and the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.[9]

Findings

[edit]

Approximately 20,000 bones, bone fragments, and teeth from various fauna have been collected since 1978 from this site by Theodore Pitsios and his team. There are a few animal specimens with probable traces of butchering.[8] The two Homo fossils were excavated from the thick and cohesive breccia 4 m (13 ft) above sea level.[8]

In addition to fossils, researchers located several tools, including handaxes and tools produced from local flint, along the perimeters of poljes at the Kokkinopilos and Alonaki locations.[10] Evidence of fire use was also found.[11] As of 1999, Theodore Pitsios, a Professor of Physical Anthropology and Faculty member of Medicine at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens,[12] estimated that over 30 thousand fossils had been collected from Apidima Cave. Of these, two are hominin crania imbedded in breccia rock in different layers of stratigraphy.[11]

Homo fossils

[edit]

Researchers uncovered two significant fossils in Apidima Cave "A" in 1978. The two fossils are now referred to as Apidima 1 and Apidima 2.[13][2] Stone tools were found in all four caves.[6] Research published in July 2019 indicates that the Apidima 2 skull fragment (designated LAO 1/S2[4]) has Neanderthal morphology, and using uranium-thorium dating,[13] was found to be more than 170,000 years old.[14][15][16] The Apidima 1 skull fossil (designated LAO 1/S1[4]) was found to be older, dated—using the same method—to more than 210,000 years old.

Apidima I

[edit]

Apidima I consists of the posterior portion of a cranium, which shows signs of erosion. In 2019 Harvati et al proposed that Apidima 1 is the earliest European example of an anatomically-modern human.[13] If so, Apidima 1 would have been the oldest evidence of Homo sapiens outside Africa,[14][13][17][18] more than 150,000 years older than other H. sapiens finds in Europe.[13][15][17][19] The oldest currently-accepted anatomically-modern human outside Africa is a maxilla from Misliya Cave in Mount Carmel, Israel, with a maximum age of about 190,000 years ago.[20]

Apidima II

[edit]

The second cranium, labeled Apidima 2 and dated more than 150 thousand years ago, is more obviously related to Neanderthals, including a large and continuous brow ridge.[21] The fossilized cranium appeared to have multiple fractures, as well as distortion of the left side of the skull, suggestive of sediment pressure after deposition.[22] Apidima 2 has been analyzed by CT scan in which the cranium was virtually reconstructed, eliminating fractures and distortion.[22]

Identification as Homo erectus

[edit]

In 2020 de Lumley et al concluded that the anatomical features of both skulls can be attributed to the group of evolved European Homo erectus hominins, with some early Neanderthal features, similar to the skulls of Sima de los Huesos, Swanscombe, Biache-Saint-Vaast and Lazaret, but they can be differentiated from the classical Neanderthals.[23]

Animal fossil findings

[edit]

Fossils of rhinoceros, elephant, deer, and caprids have been found at the Kalamakia site, north of Apidima. The deer and caprids are considered to have been food items.[8] At Apidima, Caves B and C held fossils of leopard (Panthera pardus) and European Badger (Meles meles), whereas Caves C and D contained fossils from multiple lynx (Lynx lynx). Cave C also provided fossil remains of the European Wildcat species (Felis silvestris) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), as well as remains of the beech marten (Martes foina).[8]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Apidima Cave - location.
  2. 1 2 3 Harvati, Katerina; Stringer, Chris; Karkanas, Panagiotis (2011). "Multivariate analysis and classification of the Apidima 2 cranium from Mani, Southern Greece". Journal of Human Evolution. 60 (2): 246–250. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.09.008. PMID 21122894.
  3. 1 2 Harvati, Katerina (2022), "The Hominin Fossil Record from Greece", in Vlachos, Evangelos (ed.), Fossil Vertebrates of Greece Vol. 1, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 669–688, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68398-6_19, ISBN 978-3-030-68397-9, S2CID 245038672, retrieved 28 September 2022
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Harvati, K.; Delson, E. (1999). "Conference Report: Paleoanthropology of the Mani Peninsula (Greece)". Journal of Human Evolution. 36 (3): 343–348. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.508.7565. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0284. PMID 10074388.
  5. ↑ Harvati, Katerina; Darlas, Andreas; Bailey, Shara E.; Rein, Thomas R.; El Zaatari, Sireen; Fiorenza, Luca; Kullmer, Ottmar; Psathi, Eleni (2013). "New Neanderthal remains from Mani peninsula, Southern Greece: The Kalamakia Middle Paleolithic cave site". Journal of Human Evolution. 64 (6): 486–499. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.02.002. PMID 23490263.
  6. 1 2 Signals of Evolution in the Territory of Greece. Paleoanthropological Findings. Christos Valsamis. Intensive Course in Biological Anthropology. 1st Summer School of the European Anthropological Association. 16–30 June 2007, Prague, Czech Republic.
  7. ↑ Flemming, Nic; Antonioli, Fabrizio (2017). "Prehistoric Archaeology, Palaeontology, and Climate Change Indicators from Caves Submerged by Change of Sea Level". In Campbell, Peter B. (ed.). The Archaeology of Underwater Caves. Southampton: Highfield Press. ISBN 978-0992633677.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tsoukala, Evangelia (1999). "Quarternary large mammals from the Apidima Caves (Lakonia, S Peloponnese, Greece)" (PDF). Beiträge zur Paläontologie. 24: 207–229.
  9. ↑ Apidima Cave. Accessed on 10 July 2019.
  10. ↑ Harvati, Katerina; Panagopoulou, Eleni; Runnels, Curtis (2009). "The paleoanthropology of Greece". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 18 (4): 131–143. doi:10.1002/evan.20219. S2CID 84911310.
  11. 1 2 Pitsios, Th. K. (1999). "Paleoanthropological research at the cave site of Apidima and the surrounding region (South Peloponnese, Greece)". Anthropologischer Anzeiger. 57 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1127/anthranz/57/1999/1. ISSN 0003-5548. JSTOR 29540829. PMID 10320921.
  12. ↑ Mouliou, Marlen (2018). Turning Ιnside Οut European University Heritage: Collections, Audiences, Stakeholders (PDF). Athens, Greece: National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Press and contributors. p. 7. ISBN 9789604661862.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Katerina Harvati; Carolin Röding; Abel M. Bosman; Fotios A. Karakostis; Rainer Grün; Chris Stringer; Panagiotis Karkanas; Nicholas C. Thompson; Vassilis Koutoulidis; Lia A. Moulopoulos; Vassilis G. Gorgoulis; Mirsini Kouloukoussa (2019). "Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia". Nature. 571 (7766): 500–504. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z. hdl:10072/397334. PMID 31292546. S2CID 195873640.
  14. 1 2 Earliest modern human found outside Africa. BBC News. 10 July 2019.
  15. 1 2 Zimmer, Carl (10 July 2019). "A Skull Bone Discovered in Greece May Alter the Story of Human Prehistory - The bone, found in a cave, is the oldest modern human fossil ever discovered in Europe. It hints that humans began leaving Africa far earlier than once thought". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  16. ↑ Bartsiokas, Antonis; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Aubert, Maxime; Grün, Rainer (2017). "U-series dating and classification of the Apidima 2 hominin from Mani Peninsula, Southern Greece". Journal of Human Evolution. 109: 22–29. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.008. PMID 28688457.
  17. 1 2 Yong, Ed (10 July 2019). "The Story of Humans and Neanderthals in Europe Is Being Rewritten - A 210,000-year-old skull is the oldest Homo sapiens fossil found outside Africa". The Atlantic. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  18. ↑ Some Apidima Skull Is Earliest Homo Sapiens Outside Africa, Say Researchers. Archived 11 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine Gemma Tarlach, Discover. July 10, 2019.
  19. ↑ Staff (10 July 2019). "'Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock". Phys.org. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  20. ↑ Herschkovitz, Israel; et al. (26 January 2018). "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science. 359 (6374): 456–459. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..456H. doi:10.1126/science.aap8369. hdl:10072/372670. PMID 29371468.
  21. ↑ Linwood, S. L. (29 April 2022). Linwood, Simon Lin (ed.). Digital Health. doi:10.36255/exon-publications-digital-health. ISBN 9780645332018. PMID 35605064. S2CID 244522781.
  22. 1 2 Bräuer, Günter; Pitsios, Theodoros; Säring, Dennis; von Harling, Maximilian; Jessen, Frederik; Kroll, Angelika; Groden, Christoph (2020). "Virtual Reconstruction and Comparative Analyses of the Middle Pleistocene Apidima 2 Cranium (Greece)". The Anatomical Record. 303 (5): 1374–1392. doi:10.1002/ar.24225. ISSN 1932-8486. PMID 31336034. S2CID 198191481.
  23. ↑ Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, Gaspard Guipert, Henry de Lumley, Natassa Protopapa, Théodoros Pitsios, Apidima 1 and Apidima 2: Two anteneandertal skulls in the Peloponnese, Greece, L'Anthropologie, Volume 124, Issue 1, 2020, 102743, ISSN 0003-5521, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anthro.2019.102743.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apidima_Cave&oldid=1361755642"