Be sure to see the original script and the test cases in the prior posts.
We need to understand a little about what a web request is. This can help us do the refactoring.
It can help to think of a web server a function that maps a request to a response. The request is really a composite object with headers, \(h\), method verb, \(v\), and URL, (\u\). Similarly, the response is a composite with headers, \(h\), and content, (\c\).
$$h, c = s(h, v, u)$$
The above is true for idempotent requests; usually, the method verb is GET.
Some requests make a state change, however, and use method verbs like POST, PUT, PATCH, or DELETE.
$$h, c; \hat S = s(h, v, u; S)$$
There's a state, \(S\), which is transformed to a new state, \(\hat S\), as part of making the request.
For the most part, CGI scripts are limited to GET and POST methods. The GET method is (ideally) for idempotent, no-state-change requests. The POST should be limited to making state changes. In some cases, there will be an explicit GET-after-POST sequence of operations using an intermediate redirection so the browser's "back" button works properly.
In too many cases, the rules aren't followed well and their will be state transitions on GET and idempotent POST operations. Sigh.
Multiple Resources
Most web servers will provide content for a number of resource instances. Often they will work with a number of instances of a variety of resource types. The degenerate case is a server providing content for a single instance of a single type.
Each resource comes from the servers's universe of resources, \(R\).
$$r \in R$$
Each resource type, \(t(r )\), is part of some overall collection of types that describe the various resources. In some cases we'll identify resources with a path that includes the type of the resource, \(t(r )\), and an identifier within that type, \(i(r )\), \(\langle t( r ), i( r ) \rangle\). This often maps to a character string "type/name" that's part of a URL's path.
We can think of a response's content as the HTML markup, \(m_h\), around a resource, \(r\), managed by the web server.
$$ c = m_h( r )$$
This is a representation of the resource's state. The HTML representation can have both semantic and style components. We might, for example, have a number of HTML structure elements like <p>, as well as CSS styles. Ideally, the styles don't convey semantic information, but the HTML tags do.
Multiple Services
There are often multiple, closely-related services within a web server. A common design pattern is to have services that vary based on a path item,
\(p(u)\), within the url.
$$
h, m_h(r ); \hat S = s(h, v, u; S) =
\begin{cases}
s_x(h, v, u; S) \textbf{ if $p(u) = x$} \\
s_y(h, v, u; S) \textbf{ if $p(u) = y$} \\
\end{cases}
$$
There isn't, of course, any formal requirement for a tidy mapping from some element of the path, \(p(u)\), to a type, \(t ( r ) \), that characterizes a resource, \(r\). Utter chaos is allowed. Thankfully, it's not common.
While there may not be a tidy type-based mapping, there must be a mapping from a triple and a state, \(\langle h, u, v; S \rangle \) to a resource, \(r\). This mapping can be considered a database or filesystem query, \(q(\langle h, u, v; S \rangle)\). The request may also involve state change. It can help to think of the state as a function that can emit a new state for a request.
This implies two low-level processing concepts:
$$ \{ r \in R | q(\langle h, u, v; S \rangle, r) \} $$
And
$$ \hat S = S(\langle h, u, v \rangle) $$
The query processing to locate resources is one aspect of the underlying model. The state change for the universe of resources is another aspect of the underlying model. Each request must return a resource; it may also make a state change.
What's essential, then, is to see how these various \(s_x\) functions are related to the original code. The \(m_h(r)\) function, the \(p( u )\) mappings, and the \(s_{t(u)}(h, v, u; S)\) functions are all separate features that can be disentangled from each other.
Why All The Math?
We need to be utterly ruthless about separating several things that are often jumbled together.
- A web server works with a universe of resources. These can be filesystem objects, database rows, external web services, anything.
- Resources have an internal state. Resources may also have internal types (or classes) to define common features.
- There's at least one function to create an HTML representation of state. This may be partial or ambiguous. It may also be complete and unambiguous.
- There is at least one function to map a URL to zero or more resources. This can (and often does) result in 404 errors because a resource cannot be found.
- There may be a function to create a server state from the existing server state and a request. This can result in 403 errors because an operation is forbidden.
Additionally, there can be user authentication and authorization rules. The users are simply resources. Authentication is simply a query to locate a user. It may involve using the password as part of the user lookup. Users can have roles. Authorization is a property of a user's role required by a specific query or state change (or both.)
As we noted in the overview, the HTML representation of state is handled (entirely) by Jinja. HTML templates are used. Any non-Jinja HTML processing in legacy CGI code can be deleted.
The mapping from URL to resource may involve several steps. In Flask, some of these steps are handled by the mapping from a URL to a view function. This is often used to partition resources by type. Within a view function, individual resources will be located based on URL mapping.
What do we do?
In our example code, we have a great deal of redundant HTML processing. One sensible option is to separate all of the HTML printing into one or more functions that emit the various kinds of pages.
In our example, the parsing of the path is a single, long nested bunch of if-elif processing. This should be refactored into individual functions. A single, top-level function can decide what the URL pattern and verb mean, and then delegate the processing to a view function. The view function can then use an HTML rendering function to build the resulting page.
One family of URL's result in presentation of a form. Another family of URL's processes the form input. The form data leads to a resource with internal state. The form content should be used to define a Python class. A separate class should read and write files with these Python objects. The forms should be defined at a high level using a module like WTForms.
When rewriting, I find it helps to keep several things separated:
- A class for the individual resource objects.
- A form that is one kind of serialization of the resource objects.
- An HTML page that is another kind of serialization of the resource objects.
While these things are related very closely, they are not isomorphic to each other. Objects may have implementation details or derived values that should not be trivially shown on a form or HTML page.
In our example, the form only has two fields. These should be properly described in a class. The field objects have different types. The types should also be modeled more strictly, not treated casually as a piece of a file path. (What happens if we use a type name of "this/that"?)
Persistent state change is handled with filesystem updates. These, too, are treated informally, without a class to encapsulate the valid operations, and reject invalid operations.
Some Examples
Here is one the HTML output functions.
def html_post_response(type_name, name, data):
print "Status: 201 CREATED"
print "Content-Type: text/html"
print
print "<!DOCTYPE html>"
print "<html>"
print "<head><title>Created New %s</title></head>" % type_name
print "<body>"
print "<h1>Created New %s</h1>" % type_name
print "<p>Path: %s/%s</p>" % (type_name, name)
print "<p>Content: </p><pre>"
print data
print "</pre>"
# cgi.print_environ()
print "</body>"
print "</html>"
There are several functions like this. We aren't wasting any time optimizing all these functions. We're simply segregating them from the rest of the processing. There's a huge amount of redundancy; we'll fix this when we starting using jinja templates.
Here's the revised main() function.
def main():
try:
os.mkdir("data")
except OSError:
pass
path_elements = os.environ["PATH_INFO"].split("/")
if path_elements[0] == "" and path_elements[1] == "resources":
if os.environ["REQUEST_METHOD"] == "POST":
type_name = path_elements[2]
base = os.path.join("data", type_name)
try:
os.mkdir(base)
except OSError:
pass
name = str(uuid.uuid4())
full_name = os.path.join(base, name)
data = cgi.parse(sys.stdin)
output_file = open(full_name, 'w')
output_file.write(repr(data))
output_file.write('\n')
output_file.close()
html_post_response(type_name, name, data)
elif os.environ["REQUEST_METHOD"] == "GET" and len(path_elements) == 3:
type_name = path_elements[2]
html_get_form_response(type_name)
elif os.environ["REQUEST_METHOD"] == "GET" and len(path_elements) == 4:
type_name = path_elements[2]
resource_name = path_elements[3]
full_name = os.path.join("data", type_name, resource_name)
input_file = open(full_name, 'r')
content = input_file.read()
input_file.close()
html_get_response(type_name, resource_name, content)
else:
html_error_403_response(path_elements)
else:
html_error_404_response(path_elements)
This has the HTML output fully segregated from the rest of the processing. We can now see the request parsing and the model processing more clearly. This lets us move further and refactor into yet smaller and more focused functions. We can see file system updates and file path creation as part of the underlying model.
Since these examples are contrived. The processing is essentially a repr() function call. Not too interesting, but the point is to identify this clearly by refactoring the application to expose it.
Summary
When we start to define the classes to properly model the persistent objects and their state, we'll see that there are zero lines of legacy code that we can keep.
Zero lines of legacy code have enduring value.
This is not unusual. Indeed, I think it's remarkably common.
Reworking a CGI application should not be called a "migration."
- There is no "migration" of code from Python 2 to Python 3. The Python 2 code is (almost) entirely useless except to explain the use cases.
- There is no "migration" of code from CGI to some better framework. Flask (and any of the other web frameworks) are nothing like CGI scripts.
The functionality should be completely rewritten into Python 3 and Flask. The processing concept is preserved. The data is preserved. The code is not preserved.
In some projects, where there are proper classes defined, there may be some code that can be preserved. However, a Python dataclass may do everything a more complex Python2 class definition does with a lot less code. The Python2 code is not sacred. Code should not be preserved because someone thinks it might reduce cost or risk.
The old code is useful for three things.
- Define the unit test cases.
- Define the integration test cases.
- Answer questions about edge cases when writing new code.
This means we won't be using the 2to3 tool to convert any of the code.
It also means the unit test cases are the new definition of the project. These are the single most valuable part of the work. Given test cases that describe the old application, writing the new app using Flask is relatively easy.
