Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire

Christopher P Atwood

Analyzing the messages and the responses that Chinggis Khan sent to and received from Ong Khan and his allies after his defeat at the hands of the latter at the battle of Qalaqaljit Elet in the spring of 1203, and explicating the terms of cimar (chimar) and törü that appear in the messages, this article looks at the political order and culture where the Chinggisid state rose. The article argues that pre-modern Mongolian and Inner Asian politics was guided by the idea of törü, which resembles the Indo-Buddhist idea of dharma, the Chinese idea of dao, and the European idea of natural law. It also argues that the hereditary divisional system that the Inner Asian state builders regularly employed to govern their nomadic populations, the institutions of dynastic succession, and the hereditary rights of princes and the nobility for inheritance fundamentally structured Inner Asian politics. Hence, it questions the conventional wisdom that depicts pre-modern Inner Asian politics not only as pragmatic, fluid, and fractious but also dependent on the personal charisma of leadership, and the personal bond and loyalty between leaders and followers, as if it were lacking enduring social, political institutions and order.

This article explores some past and present visual images of Chinggis Khan in order to better understand how religious and lay authorities manipulated and distorted his image to make it serve ritual purposes that bolstered their power.

Mobility in pastoral societies has often been treated as either a necessity for efficient pastoral production or else as a method of avoiding state power. Yet both the examples of itinerance in medieval Europe and the attested itineraries of medieval Inner Asian rulers suggest that power projection, not power avoidance, was a key component of Turco-Mongolian imperial mobility. By using new historico-geographical evidence, the itineraries of several pre-Chinggisid and Mongol empire figures—Ong Qa'an, Batu, Ögedei, and Möngke—may be mapped. The results show that imperial itinerance must be distinguished from pastoral mobility. They also show that movement in vast agglomerations of mob-grazing herds was not just a temporary response to military crisis but continued long into the peacetime of the Mongol empire. These results challenge a functionalist understanding of mobility and state structures in Inner Asia. * An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Mongolian and Inner Asian Studies Unit (MIASU) at the University of Cambridge on 11 March 2014. The author is grateful to Dr David Sneath and MIASU for inviting him to speak and to members of the unit and others of the public for the many helpful questions, suggestions and comments that followed. He would also like to thank Professors Jean-Luc Houle (Western Kentucky University) and William Honeychurch (Yale University) for their assistance on archaeological matters and Marissa Smit, graduate student in the Central Eurasian Studies Department, for her helpful comments on itinerance in medieval Europe. The author would also like to thank colleagues and staff at the Minpaku (National Museum of Ethnology, Japan) for their hospitality during the research and writing of much of this paper.

Encyclopedia of mongolia and the mongol empire Christopher P. Atwood Indiana University, Bloomington For Jeffrey and Claire w Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire Copyright © 2004 by Christopher P. Atwood All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Atwood, Christopher Pratt, 1964– Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol empire / Christopher P. Atwood. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9 (hardcover) ISBN 978-1-4381-2922-8 (e-book) 1. Mongolia—Encyclopedias. I. Title. DS798.4.A88 2004 951.7’3’003—dc222003061696 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quanti- ties for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M. Toro Cover design by Cathy Rincon Maps by Dale Williams Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. CONTENTS List of Illustrations and Maps iv Introduction vii Entries A to Z 1 Rulers and Leaders of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire 625 Chronology 630 Bibliography 638 Index 640 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS Photographs & Illustrations Collecting argal (dried dung) for fuel. Shiliin Gol, Inner Mongolia, 1987 15 Mongol soldier with a bow and arrow and flintlock, around 1870 20 Map of Ongni’ud Left Banner, Inner Mongoli 31 The White Pagoda in Beijing, designed by Aniga 49 The Wheel of Samsara 51 The town of Kyren (Buriat, Khüren) in the valley of the Irkut (Buriat, Erkhüü) River 58 Two Transbaikal Buriat taishas with their wives and three daughters, 1890 63 Buddhist temple at Gusinoozersk (Goose Lake) around 1770 65 Khainag (yak-cattle crossbreeds) grazing near the shore of Lake Khöwsgöl, 1992 77 Empress Chabui (d. 1281), wife of Qubilai Khan, wearing a boqta 82 Storefront of a Chinese firm in Khüriye (modern Ulaanbaatar) 96 Chinggis Khan (1206–1227). Anonymous court painter 99 Deel, or caftan, from a Yuan-era tomb excavated on the Onon River in southern Siberia 112 Leather belts and pouches from a Yuan-era tomb in Chita Region 113 “Yellow Milk” being fermented to make khuruud (a hard cheese) 124 Kalmyk women and children in a yurt, brewing distilled milk liquor 125 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino and General Danzin, summer 1924 129 Danzin-Rabjai (1803–1856) 131 Alexander killing the Habash monster, from the Demotte Shahnama 145 Coffin of Chinggis Khan and Börte after the spring sacrifice in 1935 162 War flag of the theocratic state, 1911–1919 180 Khangai (forest-steppe) landscape, Bulgan Province, 1992 181 iv List of Illustrations and Maps v Casket of a Mongol burial from the 13th or 14th centuries 190 The Migjid Janraisig Temple at Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery 195 Gobi landscape, east of Sainshand, 1992 200 Saddle arch of gilt silver, from Ternenis village, near Melitopol’ 203 Engraved silver stemcup with a lid from the Golden Horde 207 Five-Pagoda Monastery (Chinese, Wutasi) in Höhhot, built 1727 220 The Old Fiddler, by Ü. Yadamsüren, 1958 221 Regular and felt racing saddle hung up by the door of a yurt 222 Mongolian horse with saddle 223 A Khorchin farming village in Tongliao Municipality, around the White Month, 1988 242 Soldiers in an Inner Mongolian cavalry unit, 1947 248 Central Khalkha married woman’s hat and jewelry, showing the famous “horns” 266 Üjümüchin married woman’s jewelry, typical of the central Inner Mongolian style 266 The Eighth Jibzundamba Khutugtu, painted by “Busybody” Sharab 270 Print of the First Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Zanabazar 271 Vajradhara, by the First Jibzundamba Khutugtu 272 The Second Jibzundamba Khutugtu 274 The Khoshud Khural (Buddhist temple) 289 Kalmyk Princess Ölzätä Tundutov (Lesser Dörböd) and her entourage, 1892 290 Farming family in Khorchin, left flank, middle banner, 1988 309 Kitan with his horse. From a tomb painting, 11th century A.D. 316 Kitan pottery cockscomb pot 318 Badgar Juu Monastery (Chinese, Wudang Zhao) in Inner Mongolia’s Baotou municipality, 1985 327 Adult literacy class during the leftist period 330 Mongolian doctor wrapping Tibetan-style powdered medicines 345 The Mongols besieging a city 353 Scripts of the Mongolian language 375 Lamas performing in a yurt during the White Moon (lunar new year) services 394 Mongolia leaders under the New Turn policy 405 Griffon attacking a moose 412 Oboo, Khentii province, 1991 415 Ögedei, Great Khan (1229–1241) 416 Ruins of Ordu-Baligh 428 The Andingmen Gate 434 Stone turtle at Qara-Qorum 446 Qubilai Khan (1260–1294) 458 Mongol khan and his khatun (lady) enthroned at the quriltai 463 Ongghons and a shaman hat with antlers 496 vi List of Illustrations and Maps A Meeting with Lenin, by A. Sengetsokhio, painted in 1967 517 Seated “stone man” 520 General Sükhebaatur, his deputy Choibalsang, and his chief of staff 522 Preparing tea inside a Mongolian yurt 531 Soviet ruler Leonid Brezhnev and Mongolia’s Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal 548 A “stone man” from the Türk era, Bayan-Ölgii province 554 Sükhebaatur Square in Ulaanbaatar, 1989 566 Central bus system in Ulaanbaatar 568 Ulan-Ude, outside the main square 571 Wedding in Üjümüchin, Right Banner, Inner Mongolia, 1987 582 White Month spread at a pipe-fitter’s in Ulaanbaatar 585 The White Old Man 586 Champion wrestlers at the Great State Naadam 588 Temür Öljeitü Khan, emperor (1294–1307) of the Yuan dynasty 608 Mongol literati in the Yuan dynasty 609 Mongolian yurt and camp, Khöwsgöl, 1992 614 The yurt-courtyards outside Mörön, Khöwsgöl province 615 Prince Dawaachi and Prince Tseren 623 Maps Modern Buriatia 57 Chaghatay Khanate in 1331 84 The Golden Horde under Özbeg Khan, 1331–1341 204 Il-Khanate under Öljeitü and Abu Sa‘id, 1304–1335 232 Modern Inner Mongolia: Administrative Divisions 241 Northern Frontiers of the Jin Dynasty, 1211–1213 276 Kalmykia 284 Mongol Empire in 1259–1260 366 Modern Mongolia: Administrative Divisions 371 Present-Day Distribution of the Mongols and Related Peoples 387 Mongolian Plateau during the Rise of Chinggis Khan 390 Mongolia in the Northern Yuan, ca. 1550–1600 409 Mongolia under the Qing Dynasty, 1820 450 Chang (Yangtze) Valley, Showing the Location of the Major Battles of the Conquest of the Song, 1272–1276 510 Upper Mongols 575 Mongols of Xinjiang 594 Yuan Dynasty, 1330 604 INTRODUCTION For many centuries the Mongols have been both familiar The background of Mongolian history is treated in and unknown in the Western world. The great empire articles on the Mongolian plateau, on climate, fauna, and builder Chinggis (Genghis) Khan has passed into folklore flora, and on the fossil record and prehistory. The somewhere between Attila the Hun and Conan the nomadic empires that successively dominated Mongolia— Barbarian, yet the Mongols themselves remain shadowy the Xiongnu, or Huns; the Türks; the Uighurs; and the figures in the wastes between the more familiar Middle Kitans—and their archaeological remains are given sepa- East and China. A number of fine works have appeared in rate articles. Throughout their history, these peoples’ rela- recent years on the Mongol Empire, while the breakup of tions with China have proved crucial; the peculiar features the Soviet bloc has sparked a harvest of books on con- of these relations are described in the article on the tribute temporary Mongolia, yet in all these writings the two system. Mongols—the conquerors of the Middle Ages and the The Mongol Empire is summarized in the article of democratic reformers of today—remain separate, strand- that name, in which reference is made to further articles ed on opposite sides of 600 years of intervening history on the great khans, the major battles, and the institu- and culture. tions of the empire. At its height, the Mongol Empire The aim of this encyclopedia is to cover both the his- touched the destiny of almost all Eurasia, and readers tory and culture of the Mongolian peoples and of the will find articles on all the major peoples and dynasties Mongol Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries. While conquered by the Mongols as well as those who success- many see Mongol history simply as an outward explosion fully resisted the Mongol invasions. Contrary to the of a vast empire that left little legacy, the story of Mongol stereotypes, the Mongols were very much interested in history and culture is also one of a people and heritage the cultures of the peoples around them. Articles on the that developed from prehistory to the present on the empire’s religious policy and on the four main religions same windswept plateau. In this encyclopedia the article of the empire—Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and on history surveys Mongolian history and the various Islam—and on history writing under the empire— interpretations of it. Christian, East Asian, Islamic, and Mongolian—provide Many envoys and travelers left descriptions of the an entryway for exploring the Mongols’ cultural interac- customs and ways of life of the nomadic Mongols, so tion with the conquered peoples. different from the sedentary peoples of Europe, the In the third generation after its founding, the Mongol Middle East, and China. From the 18th century, outside Empire broke up into four rival empires, or khanates, observers again began to describe the culture of these each ruling a different part of Eurasia and headed by a dif- Mongolian peoples, thus forming a vast ethnographic ferent branch of the Mongol imperial family: the Il- literature now being expanded at a great rate by Mongol Khanate in the Middle East, the Chaghatay Khanate in scholars themselves. This information on the continu- Central Asia, the Golden Horde on the Russian steppes, ities and changes in ordinary Mongolian life is intro- and the Yuan dynasty in East Asia. Separate articles survey duced in articles on agriculture, hunting and fishing, each of these khanates and provide cross-references to clothing and dress, food and drink, yurts, and, of articles on significant persons, cultural achievements, and course, animal husbandry and nomadism. Articles on historical events. The three western dynasties shared a religion, shamanism, literature, oral poetry and tales, common fate over the course of the 14th century, breaking epics, medicine, and education survey the spiritual cul- up amid dynastic rivalries that threw up previously unim- ture of the Mongols. portant branches of the imperial family or new Mongol vii viii Introduction dynasties unrelated to the great family of Chinggis Khan. an independent nation, first declared in 1911 as a theocra- Articles on the Blue Horde, the Mangghud, the Jalayir, cy and now called the State of Mongolia. The communist Moghulistan, Timur, and the Qara’unas describe these regimes in Russia and China organized various Islamized Mongol epigones. autonomous units for the Mongol peoples within their The Mongols of today are descendants, however, of borders, ones which still exist. Readers seeking informa- those who remained in East Asia during the Mongols’ tion on the overall geography, economy, political system, Yuan dynasty. After 1368 those Mongols who had ethnic and social makeup, and administrative histories of remained nomads in the heartland were joined by those independent Mongolia or these autonomous units should expelled from China. Over the following centuries these turn first to articles under their contemporary names: Mongols created a unique culture of Buddhist nomads, Mongolia, State of; Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; receiving influences from Tibet, China, and the hunting Buriat Republic; Kalmyk Republic; Bayangol Mongol peoples of Siberia and Manchuria and synthesizing them Autonomous Prefectures; Haixi Mongol and Tibetan with their own pastoral nomadic traditions. For the Autonomous Prefecture; and so on. The entry “Mongolia, Mongols of today, the culture of the empire period is only State of” provides cross-references to the major personali- the beginning of their national history, one that continues ties, events, periods, and institutions in the life of inde- in succeeding dynasties and confederations: the Northern pendent Mongolia from 1911 on. The major provinces Yuan, the Oirats, Zünghars, the Khalkha, and others. and cities of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia are all given Articles on the Eight White Yurts, the 17th-century separate articles. The more important persons and events chronicles, Buddhist fine arts, the Second Conversion to in Inner Mongolian and Buriat history are also given sepa- Buddhism, and the great lineages of the “living Buddhas” rate entries. Russia (or, in its communist avatar, the Soviet give an orientation to the cultural and religious develop- Union), China, and Japan have all exercised powerful ments of this era. influences on Mongolia, and articles treat each of these By the 17th century, people of Mongolian origin had countries’ relations with modern Mongolia. expanded again, forming the Upper Mongols in Tibet, the The encyclopedia articles are organized alphabetical- Daurs in Manchuria, the Buriats in Siberia, the Xinjiang ly. Titles of articles that begin in numerals are alphabet- Mongols in Turkestan, and the Kalmyks along the Volga ized by the first letter in the title. Cross-references to in Europe. The encyclopedia devotes separate articles to other articles are given in SMALL CAPITAL LETTERS. each of these far-flung branches of the Mongol peoples as Suggestions for further reading are given at the end of well as to the Khalkha and Inner Mongolian peoples that articles for which important works exist. These are limit- dominate the Mongol heartland. Other articles describe ed to the English-language literature, although preference remnant populations stranded from Afghanistan to has been given to items with extensive and multilingual Manchuria by the receding tide of the 13th- and 14th- bibliographies. Ready reference to the major events in century world empire. While such groups, including the Mongolian history is provided by the chronology. Since Mogholis, Dongxiang, and Tu (Monguor), are not part of Mongolia, China, and Russia all use the metric system, the Mongolian community today, they do speak lan- measurements and figures are provided first in metric guages related to Mongolian, and their history sheds light units. The equivalents in the British/American system are on the fate of the Mongol Empire. Entries on the only approximate and in most cases are derived from the Kazakhs, Tuvans, and Ewenkis describe non-Mongol peo- original metric measurements. ples who have long been in contact with the Mongols and Given the wide variety of languages in which sources form minority populations on the Mongolian plateau. on Mongolian history have been written, it is understand- By 1771 almost all the Mongolian peoples had fallen able that there is considerable variation in spellings. under the rule of the Manchus, who also ruled China as During the 20th century sources written in the Mongolian its last Qing dynasty. Only the Buriats in Siberia and the language itself have become more important as the Kalmyks in the southern Russian steppes came under Mongols have begun to write their own history. In this Russian rule. Articles are devoted to the institutions that encyclopedia Mongolian spellings have been generally the Qing Empire used in ruling Mongolia, such as the used. Despite the impression sometimes given, neither fieflike banners, the leagues, and the ambans, or viceroys, diacriticals (apart from the umlaut) nor unfamiliar signs who supervised them; other entries refer to social classes are necessary to render Mongolian names satisfactorily in under the Qing dynasty and to the slow advance of English. Nevertheless, the Mongolian language itself has Chinese colonization, trade and moneylending, and the undergone much change, and rigid adherence to either influence of Chinese fiction. the medieval or the modern forms necessarily results in a In the 20th century the Mongol peoples in both the great number of unfamiliar forms. On the other hand, the Qing and czarist empires faced much more rapid coloniza- normally reasonable precept to use the most familiar tion. Only the Khalkha, occupying “Outer Mongolia,” that spelling is impossible to follow consistently, since most is, the center of the Mongolian plateau, were able to form names and terms exist in English in several spellings, no Introduction ix one of which has achieved clear predominance. Thus, the older clear script. The rendering of sounds in encyclopedia follows what is hoped is a reasonable com- Kalmyk-Oirat is roughly as no. 3 above. Z is pro- promise of transcribing Mongolian consistently but in nounced in Kalmyk-Oirat and Buriat like English z in ways adapted to the broad changes of pronunciation in zoo. Buriat zh is like the z in English azure. Kalymk- the differing eras of Mongolian history. In reverse order, Oirat ä is like the a in American English at. from the present to the Middle Ages, the principles are as follows: It should be noted that the spelling of the great con- queror commonly known as Genghis Khan is given here 1. For geographical terms in Mongolia and for names of throughout as Chinggis Khan, a usage that is historically persons active after 1940, forms are based on the correct and strongly preferred by the Mongolians them- Cyrillic script, which was designed in 1941 and intro- selves and increasingly by Western writers on Mongolian duced as the official script in 1950. There is today history. The old spelling “Genghis” was occasioned in the considerable variation in the transcription of these 18th century by a misreading of the Persian sources. terms, but based on pronunciation and historical con- Pronounced in English with a completely unwarranted siderations, I have used kh instead of h, z rather than hard g at the beginning, this spelling has now become dz, y rather than ï, and w rather than v. quite misleading. As a noun, Mongolians refers to citizens 2. For the period from around 1635 to 1940, the of independent Mongolia (“Outer Mongolia”), regardless spellings are based on the Uighur-Mongolian script of ethnicity, while Mongols refers to ethnic Mongols, spellings with the modern pronunciation of its letters. regardless of citizenship. Thus, kh is used for k/q and g for g/γ. Following the Chinese names and terms are given in the Pinyin sys- modern pronunciation in Khalkha Mongols, ch or ts is tem. It should be noted that in this system, x is pro- written for the scholarly ^c, and j or z is written ^j. Sh is nounced like English sh, q like English ch, zh like English used instead of ^s and before i. For the “broken i” and j, c like English ts, and z like English dz. Thus Qing is the intervocalic g/γ, which disappear in spoken pro- pronounced roughly like “ching,” Xu like “shoe,” Zhou nunciation, the modern pronunciation is followed. like “Joe,” Chucai like “choot’s eye,” and Ze like “dzuh.” Thus, Shara Nuur would be written for sir-a naγur. Mongolian words are spelled roughly as they sound. These rules are also generally followed for names and Stress is generally on the first syllable. Long vowels, which terms in Inner Mongolia, where the Uighur-Mongolian are written doubled, may be treated by the non-Mongolian script is still used. speaker simply as strong stress. The pronunciation of con- 3. For the period from the fall of the Mongol Empire in sonants is roughly as in English, with the following excep- 1368 to the rise of the Qing dynasty around 1635, the tions: 1) the medieval consonant q is like a k, only farther encyclopedia follows the Uighur-Mongolian script, as back in the throat; 2) gh (and even the modern g before its pronunciation is seen in the transcriptions in the the vowels a, o, and u) is much deeper than an English g Chinese sources that form much of our knowledge of and close to the uvular r in the French pronunciation of the period. This is similar to that in the period of “au revoir”; 3) kh is like the ch in the German pronuncia- 1635–1940, except that kh and gh are used before a, o, tion of “Bach”; 4) z is like the dz in English “adze”; 5) g is and u but k and g before e, i, ö, and ü. G is used at the always hard, regardless of the following vowel. end of a syllable. Ch is used for ^c and j for ^j. The vowels have changed greatly, and the modern 4. For the period of the Mongol Empire, the spellings are pronunciations of several vowels are rather different from based on the Uighur-Mongolian script as pronounced anything found in any European language. The following in the Mongolian language of the time. This pronunci- notes provide an approximate pronunciation: 1) a is like ation is particularly clearly represented in the invalu- a in English “father”; 2) o is like the o in English “top”; able Persian sources. Compared with the preceding 3) u sounds superficially like the o in English “toll” but is periods, q (not kh) and gh are used before a, o, or u, actually articulated farther back and lower down; 4) ö is and q is used after those vowels. (Around other vow- pronounced something like the eu in French “feu”; 5) ü is els, k and g are used.) The apostrophe is used to mark pronounced like the English oo in “pool”; 6) short (sin- the silent gh/g in words such as ba’urchi, “steward,” or gle) e and i both approximate the i in English “kit”; 7) “Hüle’ü”; the i is never “broken”; and the -y- is written long (double) ee is like the a in English “dale”; 8) long out in diphthongs like sayin or Quyildar. (double) ii is like the ea in English “team.” In modern Words used in Mongolian dialects or languages Mongolian, ai is pronounced like the a in American outside independent Mongolia are generally given in English “ban,” while oi is pronounced like the Mongolian the form most appropriate according to the pronunci- ö but with a glide into a slight i sound. ation. Buriat words and terms follow the Buriat I present this encyclopedia to the reading public with Cyrillic script, while Kalmyk-Oirat words and terms great trepidation, aware that I have attempted to cover a follow either the modern Kalmyk Cyrillic script or the vast topic with only limited powers. My only justification x Introduction is that such a single-volume reference work on Mongolia, and the United States. Apart from those with whom I the Mongol peoples, and the Mongol Empire has long have consulted personally, I have also followed the been a desideratum. It is my hope that the presentation research of the widest array of scholars, many of whom to a wide public of the substantial achievements of spe- have been acknowledged in the suggestions for further cialists in Mongolia all over the world outweighs whatev- reading. I find it distressing not to be able to record my er errors of fact and interpretation that undoubtedly debt to so many who write in non-English languages and remain and for which I must take full responsibility. In who have given guidance and assistance, either personal- authoring a work of this nature, I have benefited from the ly or through their books, particularly the scholars in expertise of numerous scholars who have helped with Mongolia and Inner Mongolia on whose work I have in facts and data: A. Hurelbaatar, Christopher Kaplonski, many cases relied heavily. My mother, Nancy Atwood, György Kara, Erjen Khamaganova, Peter Marsh, John R. helped me by reading several articles and offering editori- Krueger, Ellen McGill, Elena Remilev Schlueter, Elena al suggestions. Finally, as always, I thank my wife, Songster, Natalia Simukova, and Nikolay Tserenpilov. Okcha, for her support and assistance in all phases of this Susie Drost has, through her indefatigable work as office project, and my children, Jeffrey and Claire, who manager and treasurer of the Mongolia Society, assisted acquired from many dinner-table conversations a gratify- in the production of this book more than she knows ing fondness for Mongolia’s grasslands and horses and a through facilitating conferences, book trade, and other slightly excessive scorn for those who start the word forms of intellectual exchange between the Mongol lands Genghis with a hard g. To them this book is dedicated. Abadai See ABATAI KHAN. A ern ULAANBAATAR). Ceremonies were held there to cele- brate Mongolian independence in 1912, and the yurt was Abatai Khan (Abadai, Abudai) (1554–1588) Outer used for the secret party oath by the revolutionaries in Mongolian Prince who began the Khalkha conversion to 1919 (see 1921 REVOLUTION). The tent was destroyed in Buddhism and built the temple Erdeni Zuu 1938 and the site replaced by a Young Pioneers camp. Abatai, the son of the northern KHALKHA Mongol prince See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. Noonukhu Üizeng (b. 1534), was born with his index fingers smeared in blood, an omen of war such as that ‘Abbasid Caliphate As a symbol of Islamic unity and of his ancestor CHINGGIS KHAN. From 1567 to 1580 he rule, the caliphate in Baghdad challenged the Mongol warred on the OIRATS to the west, receiving the title of Empire’s claim to universal rule until its destruction in Sain Khan for his victories. In the mid-1580s he 1258. crowned his war with a victory over the Oirats’ The Arab family of ‘Abbas had founded the second Khoshud tribe at Köbkör Keriye, making his son Shubu- Arab-Islamic dynasty in 750. Seated in Baghdad and bear- udai khan of the Oirats. ing the title of caliph (khalifa), or “successor” of the In 1581 Abatai heard from merchants about the Inner Prophet, the ‘Abbasid caliphs were eventually reduced to Mongolian ruler ALTAN KHAN’s conversion to Buddhism purely symbolic influence, confirming sultans in their and invited the lama Shiregetü Güüshi Chorjiwa (fl. titles and symbolizing mainstream Sunni Islamic legiti- 1578–1618) from Altan’s Inner Mongolian city Guihua macy. Shi‘ite Muslims, however, rejected the whole insti- (modern HÖHHOT), who taught Abatai the rules of fasting tution of the caliphate. and the vow of right conduct. In 1585 Abatai took stones After centuries of purely symbolic influence, Caliph from the ruins of QARA-QORUM to begin building the an-Nasir li-dini’llah (r. 1180–1225) rebuilt the ‘Abbasids monastery ERDENI ZUU. In 1586 he visited Guihua, where as a significant local power. Ruling the area roughly of the Third Dalai Lama (1543–88) was staying. Presenting modern Iraq, an-Nasir built up an army of Turkish mili- rich gifts, Abatai received the Tantric Hevajra initiation tary slaves and Kurdish mercenaries (see KURDISTAN). and images and relics, which he installed in Erdeni Zuu. While often engaged in conflict with the Islamic powers, After his death his remains were interred at Erdeni Zuu. the caliphate continued to dispose of immense religious Although Abatai’s son Shubuudai was soon after prestige among Sunni Muslims. The sense of invulnerabil- killed by the Oirats and his power eclipsed, his descen- ity about the house of ‘Abbas rose in autumn 1217, when dants include the later Tüshiyetü khans and the great the Khorazm-shah, an-Nasir’s most formidable enemy, was lama-politician, the First Jibzundamba Khutugtu. Abatai’s foiled in an attack by unusual snows and retreated only to huge YURT, which could hold up to 300 persons, was later be destroyed by CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) two consecrated by the First Jibzundamba in Khüriye (mod- years later (see KHORAZM). 1 2 Abudai In 1230 three tümens of Mongol soldiers (nominally who accorded them relative autonomy, but the Sunnis of 30,000 men) under CHORMAQAN arrived in Azerbaijan Wasit resisted and were massacred. The conquests of with the mission to destroy the last Khorazm-shah Jalal- Basra, Khuzistan, and Irbil rounded out the subjugation ud-Din Mengüberdi and extend Mongol rule. In 1231 of the caliphate. A surviving ‘Abbasid later escaped to Jalal-ud-Din was killed, and the Mongols raided the MAMLUK EGYPT, and a shadow of the caliphate was contin- northern borders of the caliph’s sphere. From 1236 Mon- ued there. gol raids on Irbil and the caliphate, even down to the The Baghdad area formed the Mongol Il-Khans’ win- walls of Baghdad, became an almost annual occurrence, ter pasture and a major revenue source, although the although the armies of the caliphate defeated Mongol city’s commercial importance declined relative to the Il- detachments in 1238 and 1245. Khan capital, Tabriz. Despite these successes the caliph’s ministers hoped See also BAGHDAD, SIEGE OF; IL-KHANATE; ISLAM IN THE to come to terms with the Mongols, and by 1241 they MONGOL EMPIRE. were sending a rich annual tribute to the Mongols. Further reading: John Andrew Boyle, “The Death of Envoys from Baghdad attended both the coronation of the Last ‘Abbasid Caliph: A Contemporary Muslim GÜYÜG KHAN in 1246 and that of MÖNGKE KHAN in 1251. Account,” Journal of Semitic Studies 6 (1961): 145–161. Güyüg Khan insisted that the caliph fully submit and attend the Mongol court in person and probably planned Abudai See ABATAI KHAN. the conquest of Baghdad. However, the Khan died in 1248, and succession struggles blocked further action. When Möngke Khan ascended the throne, he sent his Academy of Sciences The Mongolian Academy of brother HÜLE’Ü to Iran, demanding that the caliph come Sciences expanded from a committee of eight scribes and to meet Hüle’ü personally and send troops to assist the folklorists in 1921 to become Mongolia’s center for schol- Mongols in reducing the strongholds of the radical Shi‘ite arly research and publication in all fields. sect, the ISMA‘ILIS. If the caliph refused, then Hüle’ü was Established by the government on November 9, to siege and destroy Baghdad. The caliphate rejected the 1921, the Books Institute (Nom-un khüriyeleng; Rus- Mongol demands, and in March 1257, having conquered sian Mongol’skii uchenyi komitet, “Mongolian Aca- the main Isma‘ili fortresses, Hüle’ü set out for Baghdad. demic Committee,” or Uchkom for short), later Baghdad’s situation was difficult. From 1242 devas- renamed the Philology Institute (Sudur bichig-ün tating floods and sectarian riots among adherents of vari- khüriyeleng), was a committee of eight men headed by ous Islamic schools had devastated the city, culminating the chairman Jamiyan (O. Jamyan, 1864–1930) and sec- in the great flood and anti-Shi‘ite riots of 1256. The retary Batuwachir (Ch. Bat-Ochir). The Buriat TSYBEN caliph, al-Musta‘sim b‘illah (r. 1242–58), was a weakling ZHAMTSARANO was the organization’s dynamo. The insti- who refused to spend money to maintain the army built tute had a budget of 3,000 silver dollars and met in by his predecessors, not so much from greed as from an Jamiyan’s yurt until the institute purchased a log cabin inability to conceive that the line of ‘Abbas could possibly in 1922. fall. The caliph’s Shi‘ite vizier, or prime minister, The institute began with a language and literature Mu‘ayyid-ad-Din Ibn ‘Alqami, vainly advocated submit- cabinet in 1921, adding a history and geography cabinet ting to the Mongols. For this, the caliph’s Dawatdar and a library in 1924 and a national archives in 1927. The (inkpot-holder), or secretary, Mujahid-ad-Din Aybeg, language and literature cabinet located, purchased, and accused Ibn ‘Alqami of being secretly in the pay of the preserved the rare block prints and manuscripts found all Mongols. At the same time, the war party had completely over the Mongolian countryside, building up a library of unrealistic expectations of how long Baghdad could 6,000 books in Mongolian and foreign languages by resist. 1925. The institute translated and reprinted Mongolian, In November 1257, Hüle’ü’s troops advanced on a Buddhist, and European classics, from the wise sayings of front extending from Luristan to al-Dujayl. The left wing CHINGGIS KHAN, to Indian folktales, to the Communist and center converged on Baghdad, while the right wing Manifesto. The institute also sent students to Leningrad crossed the Tigris and attacked Baghdad from the west. and Paris to study. Despite the Dawatdar’s momentary victory west of the After the leftist turn of 1929, the reprinting of Buddhist Tigris, the Mongols began the assault on Baghdad’s flood- classics and the dispatch of students to the “bourgeois” weakened walls on January 29, 1258. Despairing, the nations were discontinued. Translations, cooperation with caliph came out under safe conduct on February 10 and Soviet scientific and geographical expeditions, and publi- the city was given over to pillage for a week. Hüle’ü hesi- cations continued. It was renamed the Institute of Sci- tated over what to do with the caliph, but fear of the ences (Shinjlekh ukhaany khüreelen) in December 1930; caliphate’s prestige pushed him to put him and the entire new departments were added: the arable agriculture male ‘Abbasid family to death on February 20. The Shi‘ite cabinet and the Revolutionary Museum in 1931, the populations of Hilla and Najaf welcomed the Mongols, animal husbandry cabinet in 1943, and the Sükhebaatur Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 Museum and Marxism-Leninism cabinet in 1946. After GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY World War II the Institute of Sciences improved its facili- The Aga Buriat Autonomous Area occupies 19,500 square ties while preserving its mostly philological and historical kilometers (7,530 square miles) along the ONON RIVER’s orientation. northern bank. Administratively it is subject to Siberia’s In 1957 the renamed Institute of Sciences and Chita Region. In 1989 the area’s population was 77,188, Higher Education began to move into natural science, of which 42,362 (54.9 percent) were Buriat. The terrain is beginning with an observatory at Khürel Togoo and reor- low steppe (elevation 500–700 meters, or 1,650–2,300 ganizing itself into four subinstitutes: animal husbandry, feet, above sea level) in the south and east and forested social sciences, natural sciences, and medical sciences. uplands (elevation 800–1,000 meters; 2,600–3,300 feet) In February 1960, however, opponents of this move in the north and west. The Alkhanai peak, at 1,662 returned the institute back to its purely social-scientific meters (5,453 feet) above sea level, is the highest point. mission, yet when the academic impresario-turned-histo- Aga’s economy is based on stock breeding, farming, rian BAZARYN SHIRENDEW became chairman of the insti- and industry (food processing, lumber, and nonferrous tute in July 1960, he reversed this decision. In May 1961 metals). In 1989 the population was 31.6 percent urban. the institute was reborn as the Academy of Sciences The Orlovskii Ore-Dressing Plant producing tantalum (Shinjlekh ukhaany akademi), modeled on the Soviet concentrate was opened in 1960. A tentative recovery Academy of Sciences as an all-around research organiza- from the serious post-Soviet depression began in tion. Meanwhile, in September 1959 the First Interna- 1997–99. The Trans-Siberian Railway runs north of Aga, tional Congress of Mongolists finally reopened limited while the Chinese Eastern Railway cuts through Aga’s contact with non–Soviet-bloc countries in the field of eastern section. The capital, Aginskoye, is a small town of Mongolian studies. 9,286 (1989) originally formed around the Aga datsang The academy expanded under Shirendew for 20 (Buddhist monastery). years, yet Mongolia’s maximum leader YUMJAAGÌIN Traditional Buriat husbandry focused on large stock; TSEDENBAL disagreed with Shirendew’s aim of developing figures for 1924 show 231,035 head, of which 50 percent the natural sciences in Mongolia. His preferred model were sheep and goats, 36 percent cattle, and the remain- was the Science and Technological Information Center, der horses with a few camels. Soviet plans promoted set up in 1972 as a database for disseminating in Mongo- sheep breeding to feed the wool industry, and by 1968 the lia research done in other Soviet-bloc countries. The herd totaled 866,200 head, of which almost 93 percent party dismissed Shirendew in 1981 and publicly were sheep and goats and only 6 percent cattle. As pas- ridiculed the physicist B. Chadraa in 1982 for daring to tures degraded, animals were trucked over the border to attempt the production of advanced electronic compo- be grazed in Mongolia during the summer, a practice that nents in Mongolia. Mongolia halted in 1990. The unsustainable Soviet herd Democratization from 1989 opened up full scien- had diminished in 1998 to about 302,000 head, of which tific cooperation with all interested countries in all 23 percent were cattle and 73 percent sheep and goats. spheres. It also cast into question the traditional Sown acreage, insignificant before the Russian Revolu- Franco-Russian model of an academy completely sepa- tion, rose to 180,000 hectares (444,780 acres) in 1968. rate from teaching and raised the issue of new connec- Again, pasture degradation with the general post-Soviet tions with the market economy. A thorough depression forced retrenchment, as sown acreage declined reorganization followed under Chadraa, the new chair- to 118,500 (292,814 acres) in 1990 and 34,700 (85,744 man. In addition to 17 institutes and centers (10 in nat- acres) in 1998. Meanwhile, pigs, still only 1,900 head in ural sciences, seven in humanities and social sciences), 1968, have become a key subsistence stock, reaching the academy now contains Ulaanbaatar University 27,300 in 1998. (founded 1992) and controls nine corporations involved in research and development in animal products, con- HISTORY struction, energy, and other fields. The Aga steppe was part of the MONGOL TRIBE’s ONON See also CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY; DAMDINSÜREN, RIVER–KHERLEN RIVER homeland in the 12th and 13th cen- TSENDIIN; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY; turies. By the 16th century Transbaikalia was mostly set- REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; RINCHEN, BYAMBYN; TÖMÖR- tled by Khamnigan “Horse” EWENKIS and around the Aga TOGOO, DARAMYN. area by Mongol clans under KHALKHA Mongolian rule. Khori BURIATS fleeing from east of the Ergüne settled briefly on the Aga–Onon steppe. After submission to the A-chu See AJU. Russians in 1647, the Khori Buriats returned to Aga, sub- jecting the local Khamnigans to tribute. Nine of the Khori’s Aga Buriat Autonomous Area (Aginskiy, Agin) Cut 11 clans settled in Aga; the main ones are the Galzuud, off from the Buriat Republic in 1937, Aga is ironically the Sagaan, Sharaid, and Khalbin. By 1727 the Aga Buriats most Buriat of Russia’s Buriat autonomous units. were confirmed as subjects of the czar. Subsequently, 4 Agin Russian Cossack stations were set up south of Aga to block influence, Aga elected in September 1997 a Moscow the frontier with Mongolia. Originally administered as part singer with underworld ties, Iosif Davidovich Kobzon, as of the Khori tribe, in 1837 the Aga Buriats received a sepa- its representative to Russia’s State Duma (legislature). rate “steppe duma,” or autonomous administrative organ, Kobzon caused great controversy with his lobbying for a and a head taisha (akhalagsha taisha) of the Galzuud clan. restoration of Buriatia’s pre-1937 boundaries, yet the The Aga Buriats converted to Buddhism early in the area’s autonomy remains threatened by Moscow’s plans 19th century. Within barely 30 years from 1801, nine dat- for administrative consolidation. sangs (monasteries) were built along the Onon and Aga See also BURIATS; CLIMATE; DESERTIFICATION AND PAS- rivers. Aga (founded 1816) and Tsugol (founded 1801) dat- TURE DEGRADATION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FAUNA; sangs together had 1,400 lamas. Buddhist culture strongly FLAGS; FLORA; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. influenced the laity. Of the 38,784 Aga Buriats in 1908, 14 percent were literate, half in Mongolian, more than two- Agin See AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA. fifths in Tibetan, but fewer than 10 percent in Russian. This rate of literacy exceeded not only the Buriat but the general Aginskiy See AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA. Siberian average. The noted Aga intellectuals Gomobozhab Tsybikov (1873–1930), Bazar Baradiin (1878–1937), and TSYBEN ZHAMTSARANO were all prominent in the Buddhist agriculture See ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; reformist movement. On the eve of the Russian Revolu- FARMING. tion, Aga’s ethnic Russian population was still negligible, and the Buriats still nomadized in YURTS. Ahmad Fanakati (d. 1282) Qubilai Khan’s notorious During the Russian Revolution, many Aga Buriats had financial officer, who strengthened and expanded the impe- their land seized by Russian peasants; some Buriats fled to rial monopolies Mongolia and HULUN BUIR. By 1926 the region’s Buriat A native of Fanakat in the Ferghana valley, Ahmad served population dropped to only 31,700 (88 percent) out of a CHABUI, QUBILAI KHAN’s future empress, before her mar- total of 36,000. (See BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER riage and later served as provisioner for Qubilai’s house- MONGOLIA.) From 1921 Aga was included as a noncon- hold in North China. In 1262 Qubilai Khan appointed tiguous AIMAG (province) of 27,400 square kilometers Ahmad fiscal commissioner in chief (1262) and prefect of (10,580 square miles), first in the Buriat-Mongolian his Inner Mongolian capital, Kaiping (SHANGDU). Ahmad Autonomous Region and then in the Buriat-Mongolian increased revenues in the various metal, mineral, and salt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (BMASSR). Due to monopolies, raising, for example, the salt tax quota for strong resistance, collectivization was not generally imple- Taiyuan in 1264 from 150 ding (YASTUQ) of silver to 250, mented in Aga until 1933–35. In 1934 all monasteries and in 1271 to 1,000 ding. While himself of the privi- were closed, and soldiers billeted in Aga datsang. Finally, leged SEMUREN (western immigrant) class, he pushed on September 26, 1937, Aga was transferred in shrunken Qubilai to curtail the tax exemptions given to semuren form to Chita Region as a national area (okrug), the lowest ORTOQ merchants, clergy, soldiers, and craftsmen. level of national autonomy in the Soviet system. (In 1977 In September 1264 Qubilai promoted Ahmad to be Russia’s “national areas” were renamed “autonomous one of four managers (pingzhang) in the secretariat, the areas,” although without any practical difference.) central government organ. Ahmad’s relations with the Massive migration reduced the Buriat percentage in secretariat’s officials, mostly Mongols and Chinese sym- the area to only 47.6 percent of 49,100 in 1959. Despite pathetic to CONFUCIANISM, were hostile. In 1270 Qubilai Russification, by 1989 Aga still had the highest percent- approved the creation of a department of state affairs, age of Buriats claiming to speak their national language: headed by Ahmad, which would be independent of the 98 percent as compared with 90 percent in Ust’-Orda and secretariat. When this arrangement proved inefficient, 89 percent in the BURIAT REPUBLIC. In 1946 Aga Ahmad was brought back into the secretariat, again as monastery was reopened on a small scale. manager, but this time with his own collaborators in key During the Buriat cultural revival of the late 1980s positions. He also began promoting his family, making his and early 1990s, Tsugol datsang was revived in 1988, and son Husain route commander for DAIDU, the southern Aga datsang established new schools of Tibetan medicine capital (modern Beijing). Ahmad unsuccessfully opposed and astrology. A new environmental consciousness culmi- the Chinese institution of the censorate, repeatedly nated in the creation of the Alkhanai National Park in requesting that it be prohibited from “uselessly conduct- 1999. Although Buriat officials have controlled the area’s ing inspections” and “arbitrarily summoning clerks at the new democratic politics since 1990 and Aga was made an granaries and storehouses.” equal member of the Russian Federation in 1993, the area Impressed by Ahmad’s knowledge and debating is in serious financial difficulties. Since 1997 the gover- skills, Qubilai called him the most talented of his nor has been Bayr B. Zhamsuev (b. 1959). In search of Turkestani advisers and claimed he could “clarify the √aimag 5 way of Heaven, investigate the principles of Earth, and aimag (ayimaq, ayimagh, aimak) Originally meaning exert himself in Man’s affairs.” Ahmad’s nominal supe- “class” or “type,” the word aimag was used by the 18th rior, however, Grand Councillor Hantum, a Mongol century for the four traditional divisions of Khalkha and aristocrat of the JALAYIR clan, despised him and his then for the provinces of Mongolia and the subregional coterie as mere “businessmen” who “caught the profits units of Inner Mongolia. of the whole world in their nets.” Qubilai’s heir appar- The term aimag (ayimaq in Middle Mongolian) basi- ent, JINGIM, also hated Ahmad and once even assaulted cally means class or division. It was occasionally used in him at a court audience. In 1275, as the Yuan armies Middle Mongolian for traditional tribal-political units but occupied South China, Ahmad convinced Qubilai to more commonly for provinces of China or Tibet. In the convert Song paper money to the Yuan bills at the con- 17th century the word came to be used for the divisions fiscatory rate of 50 to 1 and to extend the monopolies of the larger Buddhist monasteries, each formed of monks immediately to the conquered territories, to be adminis- from a similar district. tered by special fiscal commissions appointed by Ahmad In the 17th century, aimag occasionally appeared himself. next to the administrative term OTOG. Combined with Chinese sources accuse Ahmad of oppressive taxes, ulus (realm, people under one ruler), it designated a par- multiplication of offices, judicial murder, nepotism, pecu- ticular political unit (traditionally called a “tribe,” lation, and accumulating concubines from the wives, sis- although not consanguineous). In this sense the word ters, and daughters of officials seeking to curry favor. He was used for the people of Khalkha, who after 1725 were won over powerful opponents or pushed them to the divided into four aimags: Setsen Khan (or Tsetsen Khan), sidelines, and a few obscure opponents he executed on Tüshiyetü Khan, Sain Noyan, and Zasagtu Khan. trumped-up charges. Despite claims that Ahmad’s corrup- The word bu or buluo, “tribe,” widely used in QING tion immediately caused government spending to soar, DYNASTY (1636–1912) administrative literature, was trans- emissions of paper currency began to skyrocket only in lated into Mongolian as aimag. Aimag, now seen as “tribe,” 1274 due to both increasing silver supplies and cam- became the designation for the Mongols’ traditional ethno- paigns against the Song. The key to Ahmad’s favor with graphic-political units: the Chakhar, the Dörböd, the Qubilai was the administrative acumen he showed in Üjümüchin, and so on, yet the main Qing administrative supplying the revenues needed for the conquest of South system was built on BANNERS (appanages, or khoshuu) and China. As a hated outsider, he naturally preferred to work LEAGUES (chuulgan), which rarely coincided with these through new offices staffed by his friends and allies. “tribes,” or aimags. Only among the Khalkha were the four Although Muslim opinion later viewed him as a victim of traditional aimags coterminous with the four leagues. Chinese envy, Ahmad was in no sense a leader of any After the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian indepen- Muslim clique; in fact, most of his top cronies were Han dence, the designation of “league” was abolished as a Chinese. Manchu imposition and only the name aimag retained. In 1282 Wang Zhu (1254–82) and Gao Heshang (Sain Noyan was renamed Sain Noyan Khan to give it (Monk Gao) formed a plot to kill Ahmad for reasons that equality with the others.) In 1924–25 the traditional remain obscure. With Qubilai and Jingim departed for names of the aimags were changed, and the aimag desig- Shangdu, on the night of April 26 the conspirators sent nation was extended to the Great Shabi (hitherto ecclesi- messages to the palace staff announcing that Jingim was astical serfs) and the western Khowd frontier. Finally, in returning for a secret Tantric Buddhist initiation and that 1931 Mongolia replaced the traditional aimags with 13 the officials should greet him. Pretending to be Jingim’s aimags, or provinces, roughly equal in size. Expanded in entourage, Wang and Gao gained access to the palace and number to 18 by 1940 and 21 in 1994, they form the cur- killed Ahmad, Zhang Hui, and several other of his rent local administrative framework. The traditional cronies. In the end other officials rallied the guards and ethnographic divisions of the Mongols are now termed captured the conspirators, who were executed shortly yastan, or subethnic groups (literally “bones”). thereafter. In Buriatia, the term aimag was used from 1921 to Only after Ahmad’s death did his accusers finally 1965 for the traditional Buriat ethnic-geographic units in turn Qubilai against him. The emperor abolished hun- place of Russian administrative terms. In Inner Mongolia dreds of offices created by Ahmad, executed his sons, after 1947, the traditional leagues (Mongolian, chuulgan; confiscated his property, and dismissed those who had Chinese, meng) were renamed aimag in Mongolian but presented women in their families to Ahmad and his sons left as meng (league) in Chinese. Since then, the as concubines. leagues/aimags have undergone frequent administrative Further reading: H. Francke, “Ahmad,” in In the Ser- changes. From 1983 on many were turned into vast vice of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol- municipalities, leaving only the least developed regions Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. as leagues/aimags. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 539–557. See also APPANAGE SYSTEM. 6 aimak aimak See AIMAG. commander and Aju his main field commander. By using portages and lakes, Aju avoided the heavy Song fortifica- ‘Ain Jalut, Battle of (‘Ayn-Jalut) At the Battle of ‘Ain tions on the Han River, and on January 11, 1275, he led Jalut on September 3, 1260, the Mamluks of Egypt deliv- his vanguard in person on a daring amphibious assault ered a sharp check to the Mongol advance in the Middle across the Yangtze. Aju also commanded the navies at the East. Dissension among the Mongol khans prevented great Mongol victory of Dingjia Isle (March 19). For the them from avenging the defeat. rest of the campaign Aju contained the Song forces on the As HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65) brought Aleppo and Damas- lower Yangtze, while Bayan led the advance on the capital. cus under Mongol rule, he sent envoys demanding the After burning the Song fleet with crack fire-arrow archers surrender of Egypt. Sultan Qutuz (r. 1259–60) of MAM- at the battle of Jiaoshan Mountain (July 26), Aju besieged LUK EGYPT had already welcomed a plethora of Muslim Yangzhou until its surrender on August 23, 1276. forces fleeing the Mongol advance, including his great Despite high honors from Qubilai and Bayan, Aju successor, Baybars Bunduqdari (“the arbalester,” r. was taciturn and unpopular among his colleagues. After 1260–77). On Baybars’s counsel, Qutuz sawed the Mon- participating in campaigns against rebels in Mongolia in gol envoys in half and advanced into Palestine on July 26 1286, he died on his way to the front at Turpan. with Baybars as vanguard. See also XIANGYANG, SIEGE OF. Hüle’ü had meantime received the news of the death of MÖNGKE KHAN and returned to Ahlât in Armenia on Alan Gho’a Legendary ancestress of the Mongols’ ruling June 6, 1260. KED-BUQA of the Naiman tribe remained in Borjigid lineage Syria with a single tümen (10,000) of Mongols, 500 In the genealogy of Chinggis Khan, Alan Gho’a is the Armenians, and Syrian auxiliaries. When the Mongol pivotal figure, whose impregnation by a heavenly light vanguard at Gaza was driven back into northern Pales- created the BORJIGID lineage destined to rule. Alan Gho’a tine, Ked-Buqa advanced to ‘Ain Jalut (“Goliath’s Spring,” (Alan the Fair) was the daughter of Qorilartai Mergen of near modern Bet She’an in Israel). the Tumad tribe and married Dobun Mergen (Dobun the When the Mamluks approached on September 3, the Sharp-Shooter) of the Borjigid lineage. After Alan Gho’a Mongols charged the Mamluks’ left wing twice, nearly bore two sons to Dobun Mergen, he died, leaving Alan putting them to flight. Qutuz rallied the lines until the Gho’a widowed. She then bore three other sons, which weight of his greater numbers showed, and the smaller her two older sons took to be children of a slave boy in Mongol force was surrounded on three sides. (Half of the the camp. Alan Gho’a told her sons, however, that a Syrians had quickly deserted.) Ked-Buqa refused to bright yellow man entered the YURT (or ger) through the retreat and was captured and beheaded, while other Mon- smoke hole and rubbed her belly, then went out in the gol units were surrounded and destroyed. After the battle form of a dog and up the beams of the sun or moon. She the Mamluks swept north into Syria, killing the Mongol then explained that the three sons were the sons of overseers (DARUGHACHI) and capturing Ked-Buqa’s base Heaven and destined to be sovereign khans over the camp and family. commoners. In the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS she See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. emphasized the brothers’ need for unity by quoting the widespread fable of separate arrows being easy to break, airag See KOUMISS. but those bound together being unbreakable. The youngest of the heavenly born sons, Bodonchar, became the ancestor of the Borjigid in the strict sense, including Aju (Azhu, A-chu) (1234–1287) Qubilai Khan’s toughest CHINGGIS KHAN, while the others were ancestors of less field commander in the conquest of South China distinguished lineages. Aju, grandson of the famous SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR of the Uriyangkhan clan, first went off to war with his father, Uriyangqadai (1199–1271), in 1253 against Dali (modern Alaqai Beki (fl. 1211–1230) Third daughter of Chinggis YUNNAN), VIETNAM, and the SONG DYNASTY. In 1254 Aju Khan, regent of the Önggüd tribe, and commander and offi- led the storming of Yachi (modern Kunming). When cial in North China Uriyangqadai fell ill, Aju took over his field command When the ruler of the ÖNGGÜD tribe of Inner Mongolia, until they rendezvoused with QUBILAI KHAN’s armies in Ala-Qush Digid-Quri, assisted CHINGGIS KHAN’s invasion 1259. Aju had experience in inland naval warfare, and in of the Jin in 1211, Chinggis bestowed his daughter Alaqai 1263 Qubilai Khan appointed him chief commander in Beki (Princess Alaqai) on Ala-Qush’s son Bai Sibu Henan, facing the largely waterborne Song armies. From (Buyan-Shiban) to cement the alliance. Other leaders of 1268 to 1273 Aju with Liu Zheng (1213–75) successfully the Önggüd objected and killed both Ala-Qush Digid- besieged Xiangyang (modern Xiangfan). In 1274 Aju pro- Quri and Bai Sibu. Alaqai Beki then seized her stepsons posed to Qubilai a final campaign of annihilation against Boyaoha and Zhenguo and fled by night to her father the Song. Qubilai made BAYAN CHINGSANG the supreme with his army at Datong. Dissuaded from massacring the Altaic language family 7 Önggüd, Chinggis Khan had Alaqai Beki marry Zhenguo, Kalmyk nobleman, Arabjur, went on pilgrimage to the and she ruled the Önggüd as regent for several decades. Dalai Lama with his family and 500 subjects. Unable to She and her famous staff of women played an important return home, Arabjur in 1704 agreed to become a Qing role in both military campaigns and civil administration. subject and was stationed as a grand duke (r. 1704–29) Zhenguo died early, and Alaqai thereupon married with his people at Serteng (modern Aksay) in western Boyaoha. Her son by Zhenguo, Negüdei, died in Ögedei Gansu. Under his son Danjüng (r. 1729–40) the KHAN’S reign while campaigning against the Song, and the TORGHUDS were moved to Ejene. line of Önggüd princes continued through Boyaoha’s sons In 1928 China’s Nationalist government assigned by a concubine. The seal of Alaqai Beki’s representative in Alashan and Ejene to the newly created Ningxia her appanage of North China has recently been discov- province. As the last area in Inner Mongolia outside ered in Inner Mongolia. Communist control, it was the scene of PRINCE DEMCHUG- DONGRUB’s final autonomy movement of 1949. In 1956 Alashan (Alxa) The only area in Inner Mongolia pre- the two banners were transferred to Inner Mongolia, and dominantly covered by dunes, far-western Alashan is in 1961 Alashan was split into Right and Left Banners. inhabited by Oirat Mongols who were stationed there in During the anti-Mongol policies of the Chinese Cultural the 17th and 18th centuries. (Generally written “Alashan” Revolution, from 1969–79, the three banners were tem- in Mongolian, the name is often pronounced Alshaa or porarily split off again from Inner Mongolia. Alagshaa.) See also BAYANNUUR LEAGUE; CLIMATE; INNER MONGO- Traditionally, Alashan and Ejene (or Ejene Gol) were LIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGOLIANS; MONGO- two independent banners not assigned to any of Inner LIAN LANGUAGE; WUHAI. Mongolia’s six leagues. Since 1979 Alashan Left and Right Further reading: Mary Ellen Alonso, ed., China’s (Alxa Zuoqi and Youqi) Banners and the Ejene (Ejin) Inner Asian Frontier: Photographs of the Wulsin Expedition Banner have formed a single Alashan league within Inner to Northeast China in 1923 (Cambridge, Mass.: The Mongolia. The league covers 270,244 square kilometers Museum, 1979); Nasan Bayar, “History and Its Televising: (104,342 square miles) with a population of 165,570, of Events and Narratives of the Hoshuud Mongols in Mod- which 41,974 (25.3 percent) are Mongol. Virtually all ern China,” Inner Asia 4 (2002): 241–276. Mongols in these banners speak Mongolian. Although the Alashan Mongols are by origin OIRATs, their dialect lost Ali-Haiya See ARIQ-QAYA. much of its Oirat features through KHALKHA and Inner Mongolian influence (see MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE and Altaic language family The Altaic language family KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT). includes the Mongolic, Turkic, and Manchu-Tungusic Situated at about 800 to 1,400 meters (2,600–4,600 families. Many relate Korean and Japanese to the Altaic feet) above sea level, average annual precipitation in family as well. Debate continues over whether the Altaic Alashan league varies from 120 millimeters (4.72 inches) language family is a real language family of branches in the east to only 37 millimeters (1.46 inches) in the developed from a common ancestor or a sprachbund west. The Badain Jiran and Tenggeri Deserts are the (areal family) of independent languages that have con- largest areas of dunes. Characteristic vegetation includes verged over time through intimate contact. A genetic link sagebrushes (Artemisia sphaerocephala and A. ordosica) to the Uralic family, including Hungarian, Finnish, and and Calligonum, with patches of xerophytic trees and Estonian, is now generally rejected, although Hungarian bushes such as saxaul. Rivers in Ejene Banner are flanked does have many Turkic and Mongolic loan words. by scattered poplar (Populus diversifolia) forests. Usable pasture totals 127,000 square kilometers (49,000 square THE ALTAIC LANGUAGES miles) and supports 1,425,000 head of livestock, of By far the most commonly spoken Altaic language sub- which 1,235,000 are sheep and goats. The league’s family is the Turkic family, which includes the national 145,000 camels make up a third of China’s total CAMEL languages Turkish (the largest Altaic language with 70 herd (1990 figures). Irrigation has brought 10,000 million speakers), Uzbek, Kazakh, Azerbaijani, Turk- hectares (24,710 acres) into cultivation. Extraction of men, and Kirghiz, as well as Uighur, spoken in China’s minerals, principally coal and salt, is also an important Xinjiang Autonomous Region, and Tatar, Bashkir part of the local economy. (Bashkort), Tuvan, Altay, Yakut (Sakha), and other lan- In the 11th to 13th centuries, the XIA DYNASTY ruled guages spoken in Russia. The total number of Turkic Alashan, leaving behind the Xia imperial tombs in the speakers approaches 150 million. The Turkic languages Helan Mountains and the beautifully preserved desert are divided into two groups, one called Common Turkic fortress of Khara-Khota (Heishui). In 1686 the KHOSHUD and including all the above-mentioned languages, and noble Khoroli of the Oirats defected with his people to the other including only Chuvash and the (now extinct) the QING DYNASTY and was enfeoffed as grand duke (r. Old Bulghar languages of the Volga region in Russia. 1697–1707) of Alashan banner. Later, in 1698, a Torghud (The first rulers of Bulgaria also spoke this type of 8 Altaic language family Turkish language, although they were later assimilated modern Mongolian, for example, gar, “hand,” takes the by their Slavic subjects. See BULGHARS). The earliest ablative (“from”) in -aas, while ger, “home, yurt,” takes Turkish inscriptions in an archaic form of Common Tur- the ablative in -ees. Vowel harmony is also found in the kic date to the second half of the seventh century. (See Uralic and, with quite different principles, in the RUNIC SCRIPT AND INSCRIPTIONS.) Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages. The next most widely spoken family is Mongolic. In Linguists have also reconstructed a fairly large Altaic this family only the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE, with per- common vocabulary, along with many morphemes (noun haps 5 million speakers, is a major language; it is the and verb suffixes), yet while Mongolian shares much national language of Mongolia and a regional language vocabulary and many morphemes with Manchu-Tungusic in China’s Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. All the to its east and with Turkic to its west, Turkic and other extant Mongolic languages, found in Russia, Manchu-Tungusic have very little common vocabulary. China, and Afghanistan, clearly derive from the well- Moreover, much basic vocabulary, such as numbers, has attested 13th-century Middle Mongolian, although one, no common elements. Many linguists thus argue that the Daur, preserves traces of the highly divergent Kitan, a common vocabulary is due to borrowing rather than now-extinct language attested in inscriptions from the genetic affinity. 11th century. Advocates of borrowing posit three distinct strata of In the Manchu-Tungusic family only Shibe in Xin- Turkic loanwords in Mongolia, one borrowed from a Tur- jiang (about 33,000 speakers in 1990) and the Solon kic language of the Bulghar-Chuvashic subfamily before Ewenki dialect in Inner Mongolia (about 25,000 speak- the second century C.E., a second from a Qipchaq-type ers) are not endangered. Manchu, the language of the Turkish language (such as ancestral to modern Tatar or Manchu conquerors of China who founded the QING Kazakh) from the sixth to 10th centuries, and finally DYNASTY (1636–1912), is now extinct. Inscriptions in the Buddhist and academic vocabulary from written Uighur Jurchen language date to the 12th century, when the Turkish in the 13th-14th centuries. (See BULGHARS; Jurchen people founded the JIN DYNASTY. QIPCHAQS; UIGHURS.) Heavy Mongolic influence on the Manchu-Tungusic languages began no later than the ALTAIC FEATURES Kitan Empire’s rise in the 10th century and continued The Altaic languages (along with Korean and Japanese) through the Manchu adoption of the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN share a common syntax characterized by a usually sub- SCRIPT in the 17th century. ject-object-verb (SOV) word order and adjunct-head (modifier-modified) order. Absent external influences, ALTAIC CULTURE Altaic languages form relative clauses not with relative Regardless of whether they are descended from a com- pronouns but by verbal noun phrases (thus, not “I saw mon ancestor or converged through long association, the the meat that you ate,” but “I the your-eaten meat saw”). medieval Altaic peoples shared many cultural traits. The verb “to have” is absent, with possession generally Organized into strong patrilineal and exogamous clans, being marked by case endings and the verb “to be” (thus, their peoples all had male or female shamans who beat not “They have a question,” but “To them a question is”). drums and went on spirit journeys to cure illness and Altaic languages are typically agglutinative, marking singers who chanted poetry in alliterative (not rhyming) grammatical relations by clearly demarcated morphemes, verses. Herding livestock and farming in varying propor- and use only suffixes, not prefixes. As is expected for tions, they all shared a fascination with the HORSE, which agglutinative languages, natural gender is weak or absent. was sacrificed at the death of their leaders. Since the Mid- The role of conjunctions tends to be replaced by a large dle Ages, migrations, lifestyle changes, and adoption of number of special verb endings or converbs. world religions have attenuated much of this common Despite these common features, linguistic typology culture. shows that many of them form a linked complex of fea- See also EWENKIS; KAZAKHS; MONGOLIC LANGUAGE tures all deriving from the SOV word order. Since SOV is FAMILY; ROURAN; TUVANS; UIGHURS; XIANBI; XIONGNU; the most common order among languages, more or less YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES. “Altaic”-type syntax is quite common, being found, for Further reading: Sir Gerard Clauson, Turkish and example, in the Dravidian languages of southern India Mongolian Studies (London: Royal Asiatic Society of Great and even Quechua in Peru. Britain and Ireland, 1962); Bernard Comrie, Languages of Altaic phonology also has certain distinctive features. the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Syllables are simple, with no initial consonants clusters Press, 1981): 39–91; Juha Janhunen, Manchuria: An Eth- and usually no final consonant clusters. Absent foreign nic History (Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society, 1996); Roy influences, initial “r” is not allowed. Most distinctive is Andrew Miller, Japanese and the Other Altaic Language vowel harmony, in which all a word’s vowels must come (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); Nicholas from a particular class, depending on the root’s initial Poppe, Introduction to Altaic Linguistics (Wiesbaden: Otto vowel. Thus, all case-endings have multiple forms. In Harrassowitz, 1965). Altan Khan 9 Altai Range Forming the traditional western border of Uriyangkhai, Tannu (Oyun), Kemchik, Salchak, and Mongolia, the Altai Range and associated ranges extend Tozhu (Toja) Uriyangkhai (all TUVANS), and the Altan- more than 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) from north- Nuur Uriyangkhai (Altayans). In the Altai Range, seven west to southeast. The name is of Turkish origin and Altai Uriyangkhai banners were organized into two wings means “golden.” attached directly to Qing AMBANs (assistant military gov- To the north in Russia’s Altai Republic, the Altai sys- ernors) of KHOWD CITY. Their territory included modern tem is about 350 kilometers (220 miles) wide, tapering to BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE and eastern KHOWD PROVINCE as the southeast to about 150 kilometers (90 miles). In the well as Xinjiang’s Altay district north of the Ulungur central Mongolian Altai, the ridges have an average alti- River. Their principal duties were to guard the 12 Altai tude of 3,000–3,500 meters (9,800–11,500 feet) above passes, man the postroads to Tarbagatai, and pay an sea level. High peaks include Belukha (4,506 meters; annual tribute of 800 sables. Most were Oirat Mongolian 14,783 feet), on the Russia-Kazakhstan frontier; Khüiten speakers with Oirat, Buriat, or Mongolian CLAN NAMES, (4,374 meters; 14,350 feet), at the meeting of Mongolia, but some were Tuvan speakers. China, Russia, and Kazakhstan; and Mönkh-Khairkhan In the aftermath of the great rebellion in Xinjiang (4,231 meters; 13,881 feet), south of KHOWD CITY. All (1864–77), KAZAKHS migrated into Altai Uriyangkhai ter- these peaks and many others are glaciated. In the arid ritory, leading to repeated lawsuits between the expand- Gobi-Altai Range, the peaks diminish toward the south- ing Kazakhs and the impoverished Uriyangkhais from east from around 3,500 to 1,700 meters (11,500–5,600 1822 on. In 1906 the Qing dynasty transferred western feet) above sea level. Mongolia’s Altai Uriyangkhai, New Torghud, and The Mongolian Altai presents relatively gentle slopes Khoshud banners from Khowd’s jurisdiction to the new to the northeast toward the GREAT LAKES BASIN and steep Altai district, with its capital at Chenghua (modern Altay slopes to the southwest toward Xinjiang’s Zünghar (Jung- in Xinjiang). In 1913 the Altai district was divided gar) Basin. The transverse Siilkhem/Sayluygem Range between newly independent Mongolia and the Chinese along the Russia-Mongolia frontier divides the Ob’ province of Xinjiang, leaving some Altai Uriyangkhais in drainage from the Great Lakes Basin inland basin. The far northern Xinjiang. The Altai Uriyangkhais on the Mongolian Altai divides the Irtysh drainage and the Mongolian side of the border were administratively Zünghar inland basin to the west from the Great Lakes attached to the DÖRBÖDs. In 1940, however, Kazakh and Basin to the east. Uriyangkhai areas were separated to form the Bayan-Ölgii See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; province. The Kazakhs dominated the new province, and BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE; BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE; CLI- both emigration and a growth rate slower than the MATE; FAUNA; FLORA; GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE; KHOWD national average have reduced the Altai Uriyangkhai per- PROVINCE; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU; SOUTH GOBI PROVINCE; centage there by 2.5 times from 1940 to 1989. UWS PROVINCE. Mongolia’s Uriyangkhai people numbered 15,800 in 1956 (1.9 percent of Mongolia’s population) and 21,300 in 1989 (only 1.0 percent of the population), inhabiting Altai Uriyangkhai (Uriankhai, Urianhai, Uryangkhai) Bayan-Ölgii, Khowd, and KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCEs. (In The term Uriyangkhai in modern Mongolia denotes a those census figures, the Altai Uriyangkhai were not sep- vaguely defined yastan (subethnic group) in western arated from the Tuvans or the Khöwsgöl Uriyangkhai, Mongolia. The Altai Uriyangkhai form a coherent group also of Tuvan ancestry.) The Uriyangkhai Mongols in Xin- within this artificial subethnic group. jiang number more than 5,000 (1999). In the 13th century RASHID-UD-DIN described the The Uriyangkhai are one of Mongolia’s most poorly “Forest” Uriyangkhai as an extremely isolated Siberian educated ethnic groups, with only 13.1 percent holding forest people living in birchbark tents and hunting with white-collar positions, compared with the national aver- skis (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). Despite the age of 21.4 percent (1989 figures). Most Altai similarity in name to the famous Uriyangkhan clan of the Uriyangkhais currently emphasize their Mongolian ori- MONGOL TRIBE, Rashid-ud-Din clearly states that the two gins, disclaiming connection with the Tuvans. had no ongoing connection. The language of the “Forest” Uriyangkhai is unclear. By the early 17th century, Uriyangkhai was a general Altan Khan (1508–1582) Successful warrior khan who Mongolian term for all the dispersed bands to the north- made peace with China and initiated the Mongols’ Second west, whether Samoyed, Turkish, or Mongolian in origin. Conversion to Buddhism The Uriyangkhai in this sense were subjugated first by Altan (Golden) and his twin sister, Mönggön (Silver), KHOTOGHOID Khalkha and then by the ZÜNGHARS. With were born on January 20, 1508, to Barsu-Bolod Sain-Alag the disintegration of the Zünghars, the QING DYNASTY in (d. 1519), the jinong (Chinggisid viceroy) of the Three 1757 organized the far northwestern frontier into a series Western Tümens (modern southwestern Inner Mongo- of Uriyangkhai BANNERS: the Khöwsgöl Nuur lia). Altan spent his first years in hiding when the ORDOS 10 Altan Khan, Code of people rose in rebellion against his grandfather, BATU- From 1571 Altan Khan and Noyanchu Jünggen MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?). Protected by locals, received Buddhist catechetical instruction from a Tibetan the boy was safely delivered to his grandfather’s court. monk, Ashing Lama, trained at the sacred Wutai Moun- On his father’s death, Altan, as a second son, inher- tain in northern China. With the new influence from ited the TÜMED tümen living around modern HÖHHOT in Tibetan lamas, Altan Khan built a new temple, Maidari Inner Mongolia. From 1524 he began regular campaigns Juu. In 1575 he and Noyanchu Jünggen, with the Three against Kökenuur, Ming China, and the northwestern Western Tümens, invited the Tibetan cleric bSod-nams Uriyangkhan. In 1538, under Bodi Alag Khan (1519?–47) rGya-mtsho (1543–1588) to instruct them personally. At of the Yuan, he participated in the all-Mongol attack on their meeting at Chabchiyal Temple in Kökenuur (near the Uriyangkhan. In 1550 Altan conducted a massive modern Gonghe) in summer 1578, bSod-nams rGya- raid on China’s MING DYNASTY, circling the walls of Bei- mtsho hailed Altan Khan as a Buddhist universal monarch jing, although he never seriously intended to besiege it. and incarnation of QUBILAI KHAN, while Altan Khan As Altan’s prestige grew, the Yuan Khan Daraisun granted the title Dalai Lama to bSod-nams rGya-mtsho. (1548–57) was forced to grant Altan and his brother Another Tibetan INCARNATE LAMA, Manjushri Khutugtu, Baiskhal of the KHARACHIN the title of KHAN. Daraisun accompanied Altan Khan back to Kökekhota. In 1580 Khan himself moved east of the GREATER KHINGGAN Altan Khan became sick with gout and planned to apply RANGE. the old traditional remedy of having his feet washed By 1551 Buddhist White Lotus sectarians from China within the chest of a slave. Manjushri Khutugtu strongly were hailing Altan as their deliverer from oppressive Ming objected and healed the khan, thus inspiring the nobility rule. They and other Chinese refugees came to Altan to rededicate themselves to Buddhism. Shamanizing and Khan’s realm to settle, serving as guides for Mongol raiding the keeping of the native ongghons, or spirit dolls, was parties and smuggling goods over the frontier. By 1563 banned. Altan Khan died on January 13, 1582. Noyanchu there were 12 large and 32 small sectarian settlements, or Jünggen kept the seal of the prince of Shunyi, which gave baishing (buildings), with a total of 16,000 inhabitants. rights to the tribute-gift payments. The Tümed nobility Altan Khan encouraged agriculture, although his Tümed demanded that the Ming court pass the seal to Sengge- Mongol subjects remained mostly pastoral. There were Düüreng, and in November Sengge-Düüreng married his perhaps 50,000 Chinese under Altan’s rule. The largest set- stepmother and became prince of Shunyi in April 1583. tlement was renamed Guihua (modern HÖHHOT) in 1571. Although often seen as attempting to reunify the After 1558 Altan Khan campaigned against the Mongols, Altan Khan’s true ambition was to build his OIRATS, and the two sides established QUDA (marriage Tümed into an independent power center. As Barsu ally) relations, with the Oirat chiefs recognizing Altan as Bolod’s second son, he could be neither great khan of the khan and he granting them the traditional title of TAISHI. Yuan nor even jinong (viceroy) of the Three Western He also established relations with the Chaghatayid rulers Tümens. Instead, through military campaigns, peace with of MOGHULISTAN in Turpan and Hami on the basis of their China, and Buddhist conversion, he received new high common Chinggisid ancestry. titles thrice over and became the acknowledged, if unoffi- Altan Khan had two senior wives, but nothing is cial, leader of the Western Mongols. His peace with China known of them. By 1568 Altan had married his own and his patronage of the Dalai Lama, far from being a sub- daughter’s teenage daughter, Noyanchu Jünggen (Sanni- mission, made him in his own eyes the unifier of China, angzi, 1551–1612). Since Noyanchu Jünggen had origi- Tibet, and Mongolia under his own sway. This influence nally been promised to another, Altan sent her betrothed was, however, purely personal, and his sons and grandson another granddaughter instead, one originally promised were simply Tümed rulers without larger ambitions. to his foster son Daiching-Ejei. Disgusted, Daiching-Ejei See also ALTAN KHAN, CODE OF; NORTHERN YUAN defected in 1570 to the Ming. The Ming official Wang DYNASTY; SECOND CONVERSION. Chonggu used Daiching-Ejei as bait to make peace suc- Further reading: Carl Johan Elverskog, Jewel cessfully between China and Altan Khan. Speaking for all Translucent Sutra: Altan Khan and the Mongols in the Six- the Three Western Tümens (Tümed, ORDOS, and Yüng- teenth Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003). shiyebü/Kharachin), Altan Khan received the title prince of Shunyi and annual “gifts” from the Chinese court, and the Ming opened border horse fairs. In return the Mon- Altan Khan, Code of The Code of ALTAN KHAN gols ceased their raids and joined the TRIBUTE SYSTEM. (1508–82) is the earliest extant body of Mongolian law. Defectors from both sides were sent back; Daiching-Ejei Despite its religious preface extolling the TWO CUSTOMS, again became a favorite, and the White Lotus sectarians through which “the laws of religion are like knotted sil- were executed by the Ming. Noyanchu Jünggen con- ribbons” and the “laws of the emperor are like a golden trolled much of the tribute-gift and horse-fair revenues, yoke,” the code makes no provision for the prohibition of causing violent rivalry with Altan’s eldest son, Sengge- blood sacrifices or other native religious practices or the Düüreng (d. 1586). imposition of Buddhist norms. amban 11 The code covers ordinary legal cases: homicide in that belong together, assigning events to wrong khans, various forms, injuries, theft, breaking of marriage and so on. Despite these defects, Lubsang-Danzin’s Altan engagements and marital assaults, cases involving infec- tobchi preserves very valuable material, including the tious diseases and contact with dead bodies, game laws, Secret History text, otherwise lost biligs, and KHORCHIN rewards for rescue of livestock and persons, assault of traditions on the benefits the Khorchin ongs (princes) had government envoys, and return of fugitives. The sections shown the Chinggisid khans. Roughly contemporary with on theft, which details military supplies in particular, and Lubsang-Danzin’s Altan tobchi is an anonymous abridged on envoys, which specifies both punishments for resist- Altan tobchi, which eliminated most of the Secret History ing envoys and also the number of horses, officials, and and the Tibetan materials and all the biligs and genealogies. servants an envoy may take, show the attention paid to Further reading: C. R. Bawden, trans., Mongol enforcing government prerogatives. Most offenses receive Chronicle Altan Tobci (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, livestock fines grouped in Nines and Fives, with serious 1955); Hidehiro Okada, “Chinggis Khan’s Instructions to offenses also meriting a flogging. Most cases are His Kin in Blo-bzang-bstan-’dzin’s Altan Tobci,” in Meng- addressed to free men, but when mentioned, servants, ku wen hua kuo chi hsueh shu yen tao hui lun wen chi, ed. particularly Chinese, are treated as of lower value. The Chün-i Chang (Taipei: Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs only capital crime is theft by a servant. The provisions of Committee, 1993), 228–236; Hans-Peter Vietze, “Blo- the law are similar to those found in 17th-century codes bzan bsTan-’jin Güüsi’s Rhymes,” in Proceedings of the such as the MONGOL-OIRAT CODE (Mongghol-Oirad Tsaaji) 35th Permanent International Altaistics Conference, ed. of 1640. Chieh-hsien Ch’en (Taipei: Center for Chinese Studies Further reading: Sh. Bira, “A Sixteenth-Century Materials, 1993), 469–476. Mongol Code.” In Studies in the Mongolian History, Cul- ture, and Historiography (Tokyo: Institute for Languages Altyn Khans See KHOTOGHOID. and Cultures of Asia and Africa, 1994), 277–309. Alxa See ALASHAN. Altan tobchi (Golden Summary) Altan tobchi denotes two Mongolian chronicles both composed in the mid- Amar, Agdanbuugiin See AMUR. 17th century. The more important was composed by the “state preceptor” (güüshi, a Buddhist title) Lubsang- Amar, Anandyn See AMUR. Danzin (Tibetan, Blo-bzang bsTan-’dzin). Nothing is known of his life, although he may have been a Buddhist translator from ÜJÜMÜCHIN banner. His history was com- Amarsanaa See AMURSANAA. piled shortly after 1651. In producing what was probably the first of the 17th- amban The Manchu word amban, or “high official” century chronicles, he used six types of written materials: (Mongolian said), was used unofficially for the imperial 1) traditional, undated Mongolian accounts of CHINGGIS residents supervising Inner Asia (including Mongolia) KHAN, the fall of the YUAN DYNASTY, and the Mongol-Oirat under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). conflicts; 2) various biligs (wise sayings) and testaments Direct Qing administration in Outer Mongolia began attributed to Chinggis Khan; 3) the SECRET HISTORY OF THE with the jiangjun (Chinese for “general in chief”) of MONGOLS; 4) various Tibetan historical works, which as a ULIASTAI, created in 1733. Another jiangjun was appointed lama he could read; 5) dated king lists of the Mongolian to KHOWD CITY in 1734. In the narrow sense, Mongolian great khans and Chinese Ming emperors; and 6) genealo- amban or said refers, however, to the office of dachen gies of the Mongolian nobility. Putting these materials (imperial resident), first instituted in Kökenuur for the together, Lubsang-Danzin put completeness above coher- UPPER MONGOLS (1725) and in Lhasa for Tibet (1728). In ence, including, for example, most of the Secret History 1754 the general in Khowd was redesignated as, in side by side with contradictory Mongolian traditions. Manchu, the hebei amban (Mongolian khoobiyin said; Sometimes he noticed the contradiction, as when he put Chinese canzan dachen), and shortly after two ambans “it is said” before the Secret History’s statement that were appointed to administer Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR) Chinggis was born with a clot of blood in his hand; the and its monasteries. The senior of the two positions, traditional account, which Lubsang-Danzin preferred, was established in 1758, was entitled in Mongolian khereg-i that he was born with a precious jade seal in his hand. In shidkhegchi said (minister handling affairs; Manchu, baita harmonizing discrete episodes of the 15th-century Mongol- ichihiyara amban; Chinese, banshi dachen), while the Oirat conflict with one another and with the king lists junior position, established in 1761, was entitled the (themselves frequently in error on the dates, although not hebei amban/khoobi-yin said, as at Khowd. Since the on the order and names of the khans), Lubsang-Danzin senior position was restricted to Khalkha Mongolian often became completely confused, breaking up episodes princes and the junior to officials from the Qing’s EIGHT 12 Amur BANNERS system, the two positions were known as the gan). Amur’s original name was Gonggor. As a child he “Mongol amban” and the “Manchu amban,” respectively. was tutored in Mongolian before studying in the school Despite their theoretical subordination, the Manchu attached to the banner temple for three or four years and ambans actually had greater influence. becoming a banner clerk. He clerked for his banner’s In 1758 the jiangjun of Uliastai, then a Khalkha PRINCE KHANGDADORJI in the AIMAG/league office, the ban- prince, Tsenggünjab (d. 1771), received civil authority ner office, and in the office dealing with gold-mining over Outer Mongolia (including Tuva) in addition to his leases (see MINING). He married the daughter of Danjin supreme military authority. Under the jiangjun at Uliastai Gabju (doctor of Buddhist philosophy), the lama who were two ambans, or imperial residents (Manchu hebei had cast his horoscope at birth. From 1913 he worked in amban; Mongolian khoobi-yin said), again an Eight-Ban- Mongolia’s foreign ministry, receiving the title of beise ners official and a Khalkha prince. In 1786, however, (grand duke). With the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY, he Outer Mongolia’s eastern provinces, Setsen Khan and returned to his home banner. He changed his name to Tüshiyetü, were put under the ambans in Khüriye. Amur after suffering a serious illness. In the 18th century the Uliastai jiangjun and the In 1923 he returned to Khüriye (modern ULAAN- Khowd amban were generally Khalkha Mongol princes, BAATAR) and joined the party. He served as foreign min- often serving a decade or more in office. After 1796 ister (October 1923–November 1924), party presidium jiangjuns and ambans were all, except for those positions member (August 1924 on), economy minister (Decem- reserved to Khalkhas, officials from the Eight Banners. ber 1924–26), deputy prime minister and concurrent The ambans, two-thirds of whom were ethnically Manchu head of the planning commission, and after Tserindorji’s and one-third Mongol, were career officials specializing death, prime minister (February 1928–March 1930). In in military-police functions or border affairs and rarely these positions Amur showed an unsentimental under- held office in Mongolia more than three years. standing of Mongolia’s precarious international position. Outside Outer Mongolia the autonomous Mongol Reliably pro-Russian in a geopolitical sense, he had no BANNERS (appanages) were, as military auxiliaries for the interest in Soviet ideology and strongly opposed all pan- dynasty, all placed under the supervision of Eight-Banners Mongolist adventures. In 1937 a Soviet security opera- garrisons. These garrisons were headed by commanders tive described him as “a quiet, secretive person, a true variously titled in Chinese jiangjun (general in chief; Oriental; he is well respected by the people, especially Manchu amba janggin), dutong (military lieutenant-gover- the clergy.” nor; Manchu gûsa-be kadalara amban), or fudutongs Ironically, Amur’s competence and well-known con- (deputy military lieutenant-governors; Manchu meiren-i servative patriotism made him, indispensable to janggin). The jiangjun of Ili (Yining) supervised the Mon- Moscow’s Communist International (Comintern) during gols of Xinjiang; those of Ningxia (Yinchuan) and Suiyuan the early LEFTIST PERIOD (1929 on). At the Eighth Party (modern HÖHHOT) supervised southwest Inner Mongolia; Congress (March–April 1930), however, the Comintern and those of Mukden (Shenyang), Jilin, and Qiqihar felt confident enough to demote him to head the Institute supervised eastern Inner Mongolia and the Butha Daurs. of Sciences. With the New Turn Policies in June 1932, he The dutongs in Zhangjiakou and Chengde supervised the was made chairman of the Little State Khural (i.e., titular central and southeastern Inner Mongols, and the fudutong head of state) and from October 1934 was again a party of HULUN BUIR supervised the BARGA, Solons, and Daurs of presidium member. In 1934 he published the first volume Hulun Buir. Dutongs and fudutongs were often loosely of Monggol-un tobchi teükhe (A Short History of Mongo- referred to as ambans. lia), which was the first connected account of the Mongo- The 1911 RESTORATION of Outer Mongolia’s indepen- lian world empire written by a Mongolian that took into dence abolished the amban system there. Republican account European research. China retained the dutongs of Suiyuan, Zhangjiakou, and Promoted to replace GENDÜN as prime minister on Chengde as governors of Inner Mongolia’s regions. March 22, 1936, Amur was again a token. Real power lay See also DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; EWENKIS. with the interior minister Choibalsang and his hatchet- Further reading: Veronika Veit, “The Qalqa Mongo- man Lubsangsharab (D. Luwsansharaw, 1900–40), as lian Military Governors of Uliyasutai in the 18th Cen- Joseph Stalin’s Great Purge swept the country. In 1936, tury,” in Proceedings of International Conference on China Amur and Dogsum (D. Dogsom, 1884–1941) attempted Border Area Studies, ed. Lin En-shean (Taipei: National to release the victims still imprisoned in the bogus Chengchi University, 1984), 629–646. LHÜMBE CASE. In 1937 he pleaded with the state prosecu- tor to be skeptical of Choibalsang’s manufactured con- Amur (Agdanbuugiin Amar, Anandyn Amar) spiracies. Finally, on March 7, 1939, Lubsangsharab (1886–1941) A career official who served twice as prime arrested Amur in a presidium meeting. In July he was minister deported to the Soviet Union. Interrogated with torture, Amur was the son of a poor TAIJI or petty nobleman, he confessed to various imaginary crimes and was exe- Agdanbuu, of Daiching Zasag banner (Bugat Sum, Bul- cuted on February 10, 1941. Aniga 13 See also CHOIBALSANG, MARSHAL; REVOLUTIONARY destroyed the Qing garrisons. Faced with another mas- PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. sive Qing expedition under Zhaohui, Amursanaa fought on with a dwindling force until he fled with 4,000 follow- ers (largely women and children) to Semipalatinsk (mod- Amursana See AMURSANAA. ern Semey) on July 28. Forwarded by the Russian authorities to Tobolsk, he died of smallpox on September Amursanaa (Amursana, Amarsanaa) (1722?–1757) 21. His followers were eventually merged with the Volga Khoid leader who first rebelled against the Zünghars and KALMYKS. then attempted to revive the Zünghar principality Further reading: Fang Chao-ying, “Amursana,” in Amursanaa’s mother, Botolog, was the daughter of TSE- Arthur W. Hummel, Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period WANG-RABTAN KHUNG-TAIJI (1694–1727), or prince of the (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, ZÜNGHARS. Tsewang-Rabtan had first married her to Gal- 1943), 9–11; Junko Miyawaki, “The Khoyid Chief Amur- dan-Danzin, son of Lhazang Khan (1698–1717) of the sanaa in the Fall of the Dzungars: The Importance of the UPPER MONGOLS in Tibet. After executing her first husband, Family Trees Discovered in Kazan,” in Historical and Lin- Tsewang-Rabtan gave her in marriage to Üizeng-Khoshu- guistic Interaction between Inner-Asia and Europe, ed. uchi of the Khoid. While Amursanaa was thus legally Árpád Berta and Edina Horváth (Szeged, Hungary: Uni- accounted Üizeng-Khoshuuchi’s son, rumor had it that he versity of Szeged, 1997), 195–205. was actually the posthumous son of Galdan-Danzin and thus the grandson of a ruler on both sides of his family. anda The anda relationship was a blood brotherhood After the death of Galdan-Tseren, the ruler of the formed by unrelated men. As such it formed an important Zünghars, in 1745 the deceased ruler’s eldest son by a complement to the patrilineal kin-based Mongol society. lowborn wife, Lamdarja, seized the throne in 1749. He In the Mongol clan society before the rise of CHING- met the widespread opposition with violent repression. GIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27), patrilineal kinship formed Amursanaa, together with Dawaachi of the ruling lineage, the chief language of alliance and hostility. In general, fled to the Kazakh sultan Abilay, whose daughter Amur- those who were kin were allies; those who were not were sanaa married. In 1752 with Kazakh help, Amursanaa enemies. The relationship of anda, or blood brotherhood and Dawaachi overthrew Lamdarja. Dawaachi belonged (modern Mongolian and), introduced a vital flexibility to the sovereign lineage and became khung-taiji into this system. Found in many Turco-Mongol nomadic (“prince,” the ruling Zünghar title), but Amursanaa was societies, the ritual of blood brotherhood involved drink- unsatisfied. In summer 1754 he and his half brother Ban- ing from a cup into which blood from both parties had juur (Botolog and Galdan-Danzin’s first son) surrendered been poured. The “brothers” would then exchange gifts to the QING DYNASTY’s Qianlong emperor (1736–96) with and usually spend some time living in the same YURT, or 4,000 men. In spring 1755 the Qing general Bandi and ger. Blood brotherhood formed an important way of Amursanaa marched on Züngharia. Resistance disinte- cementing political alliances. Thus, a chief of the MON- grated, and Dawaachi was captured near Kashgar and GOL TRIBE, YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, made an alliance of anda with deported to China. Qianlong now decreed that each of Toghril Khan (later named ONG KHAN) of the KEREYID the OIRATS’ four tribes would receive a khan: Banjuur tribe. Toghril’s assistance later proved essential to the rise would be khan of the Khoshuds and Amursanaa khan of of Yisügei’s son Chinggis Khan. Chinggis, as a child and the Khoid. a teenager, made himself blood brother of JAMUGHA, a Again dissatisfied with his reward, Amursanaa and Mongol from the Jajirad clan. In the end, however, the Banjuur conspired with Mongol noblemen in Bandi’s anda tie could not prevent war between Chinggis and army (see CHINGGÜNJAB’S REBELLION). Bandi got wind of both Ong Khan and Jamugha. After the rise of the MON- the plots, executed Banjuur, and dispatched Amursanaa GOL EMPIRE, the significance of the anda tie declined to Beijing. Due to the laxity of his escort, Amursanaa and somewhat, although together with QUDA, or the marriage 300 men escaped and returned to Ili, where he captured ally concept, it continued to link khans to their favored the local Qing garrison commander. In November Qian- commanders (NOYAN). In the 20th century the idea of long remobilized his army, and Amursanaa proclaimed blood brotherhood has undergone a revival in nationalist himself khan of all the Zünghars (February 17, 1756) movements. before rallying his men and killing Bandi and his garri- son. Sultan Abilay supported Amursanaa, but the Sultan’s KAZAKHS plundered their Zünghar allies mercilessly. Aniga (Anige, A-ni-ko) (1244–1278) Nepalese-Newari Although a vast Qing expedition defeated Sultan Abilay’s artist who under Mongol patronage defined a long-lasting Kazakhs twice in July–August 1756, and forced Sultan Inner Asian imperial style of Buddhist art Abilay to abandon his son-in-law, the Qing armies did not Aniga early showed an aptitude for Buddhist art, memo- stay in the field and withdrew to Barköl. Amursanaa rizing the scriptures on the canonical proportions of returned to the Ili valley in late 1756, where he again icons after hearing them only once. In 1260 QUBILAI 14 A-ni-ko KHAN’s state preceptor, ’PHAGS-PA LAMA (1235–80), split by age or sex. They spend the night near the camp applied to Nepal for artists to complete a gold stupa in or at a fixed winter corral and are led out each day. Cattle Amdo (Qinghai). Aniga, only 16 at the time, volunteered also spend the night near the camp but can go out to pas- to lead the 80 artists and was appointed by the astonished ture and come back to the camp in the evening by them- ’Phags-pa as their supervisor. selves. While one or two riding horses are always kept Upon completing the stupa in 1261, Aniga was pre- near the camp, large horse herds spend the night three sented at court to Qubilai Khan, who commissioned him kilometers (two miles) or more from the camp under the to improve a defective bronze diagram of acupuncture guard of a stallion. The horses are supervised by mounted and moxibustion points presented by SONG DYNASTY male herders, day and night, during foaling, and the herd envoys. After Aniga successfully completed the project in is brought to camp for special events: switching the rid- 1265, he was commissioned to produce a variety of Bud- ing horses, gelding, milking mares, and so on. Sheep dhas and stupas in SHANGDU and DAIDU, steel Dharma- flocks and especially horse herds require heavy labor, wheels used as imperial standards, and portraits for the while cattle are much less labor intensive. imperial temple in brocade appliqué. In 1273 he was The quality of pasture for animals on the MONGOLIAN appointed overseer of artisans; his sons Asanga and PLATEAU varies with rainfall and evaporation, generally Ashura inherited his position. Extant works produced being better in the north and east and poorer in the south under Aniga’s supervision include the White Pagoda in and west. In recent decades the khangai (mountain for- Beijing and an icon of the fierce deity Mahakala. Aniga’s est-steppe) areas support more than 75 sheep stocking Nepalese style continued to have a strong influence on units per 100 hectares, the steppe support about 50 to 75, Tibetan art produced for the Yuan and Ming dynasties the desert-steppe about 25 to 50, and the gobi (habitable (1368–1644) as well as on the Mongolian master of desert) fewer than 25 (see FLORA; in sheep stocking units, sculpture Zanabazar (1635–1732). sheep are counted as 1, goats as 0.9, cattle as 5, horses as See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BUDDHIST 6, and camels as 7). Within any given region sheep, FINE ARTS; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST; TIBET AND THE goats, cattle, and horses all use roughly similar pasture, MONGOL EMPIRE. although cattle and horses generally need more lush pas- ture, while goats do fine on the poorer pasture of the A-ni-ko See ANIGA. desert-steppe and gobi. Sheep are found everywhere, although they are relatively less common in the gobi habi- animal husbandry and nomadism Animal hus- tat. Yaks (considered by the Mongols to be cattle) prefer bandry has long been and still is the principal economic to graze in high elevations over 2,750 meters (9,000 feet), pursuit of the Mongols. Today about 35 percent of Mon- while camels prefer dry gobi-type or soda-impregnated golia’s families are nomadic herders, and about 45 percent pasture. of the working population make a living in the animal To survive, every herding family needs at least one husbandry sector. riding horse and access to at least 20 or so sheep, whether by owning them or herding them for others (see LIVESTOCK COLLECTIVIZATION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; DECOLLEC- Mongolian pastoralism is based on what is called the TIVIZATION; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD). Cattle or “five snouts of livestock” (tawan khoshuu mal): HORSES, a second riding horse is not usually considered necessary CATTLE, CAMELS, SHEEP, and GOATS, in order according to until a herder has 50 or so sheep. Only when the sheep their traditional prestige. All of these livestock are herd reaches 200 or so is a third horse considered neces- milked. In the Middle Ages sheep and goats, and on cere- sary. More successful herders sometimes keep a horse monial occasions horses, were slaughtered for food, but herd with milking mares. today among most Mongols sheep, goats, and cattle are The Mongols do not traditionally practice selective the main meat animals. Horses are, of course, used for breeding. The vast majority of males of all species are cas- riding, while cattle and camels are used as beasts of bur- trated before reaching sexual maturity. The yields of den. Hides of all five animals are used. Horsehair is used meat, milk, wool, and so on of all Mongolian breeds are for certain speciality purposes, but sheep’s wool and thus far below those of European purebred types, yet the camel’s hair are the main fibers. Mongolian breeds are all adapted for feeding on open The five animals differ according to their pasturing range, sometimes on extremely scanty pasture and in properties. Sheep and goats are best kept together in very cold weather in the winter, and with low water herds of about 1,000, controlled throughout the day by a needs. Improved breeds usually need far more water and herder (who can be a child or adult, and of either sex), shelter than do Mongolian livestock. usually on foot. Big dogs help keep wolves away but are Mongolian livestock also supply the Mongols with not used for herding. Herders often pool their herds to fuel. The most common type of fuel is argal, or dried cat- reach this optimal size and minimize their labor. During tle dung, similar to the “buffalo chips” used by pioneers breeding season, sheep and goat herds are also sometimes on the American plains. This is collected by using a animal husbandry and nomadism 15 wooden fork to flip the dung into a basket slung over the shoulders, although the 14th-century Arab traveler Ibn Battuta was shocked to see even high-ranking Mongols pick up and put in the chest of their robes especially fine bits of argal for later use. Sheep and goat dung (khorgol), naturally found in small pellets, is generally collected in crushed form from the animals’ winter corrals. Horse dung (khumuul) is bad fuel and is not used if other dung is available. NOMADISM Mongolian pastoral nomadism must not be confused with the large-scale migrations that nomadic peoples sometimes undertook to escape enemies, seize fine new pastures, or deal with climatic pressures. Instead of such one-time movements, pastoral nomadism is the cyclical use of differ- ing pastures through the year. The primary driving force is the insufficiency of the pastures in a single campsite to provide enough fodder for the animals through the year. Other factors that influence the type of migration are sea- sonality of the grass (in Mongolia grass grows from May to September), availability of water (well water is often needed in the birthing seasons, while in the winter, snow will serve), protection from winter winds, north-south and high-altitude–low-altitude temperature differences, terrain Collecting argal (dried dung) for fuel. Shiliin Gol, Inner Mongolia, 1987 (Courtesy of Christopher Atwood) (animals are weak in the spring and cannot handle steep slopes), and protection from biting insects in the summer (windy areas have fewer mosquitos). The combination of these factors has created four mal-poor families (see SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING basic nomadization regimes in modern Mongolia: 1) in PERIOD). Even during collectivization, however, it satis- western and southwestern Mongolia around the high and fied social needs. Among the OIRATS of western Mongolia, dry ALTAI RANGE, herders make their summer camps in khot ails were generally formed at least partly along the the mountains and winter in the lowlands; 2) in the lines of patrilineal kinship with a father and his married steppe zone in eastern and central Mongolia, herders sons. Among the KHALKHA, for whom the clan organiza- summer in the north and winter in the south; 3) in rela- tion had disintegrated, khot ails were often formed by tively lush north-central Mongolia around the lower unrelated friends or along the lines of matrilineal kinship KHANGAI RANGE and KHENTII RANGE, herders summer in (see MATRILINEAL CLANS). Within the khot ail the YURTs the valleys and winter in the mountains; and 4) in the are generally lined up in an east–west line, with the eastern Gobi and desert steppe, herders summer in senior household to the west (or right in the Mongols’ exposed areas and winter in hollows. During the 13th southward orientation). With decollectivization, tradi- century the khans and princes in the Khangai Range fol- tional forms of labor-sharing in the khot-ail are reviving. lowed the first pattern, not the third, a difference that Nomadism depends on the mobile yurt, or felt tent may be due to climatic, vegetational, or density changes. (Mongolian ger), the forms of which have varied over the Traditional animal husbandry made use of hay mow- centuries. Today nomads in the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU gen- ing along rivers, springs, and marshy low-lying ground. erally move about four or five times a year, although In the 19th century wet meadows were divided up by the some move up to 12 times. Poor families, whose herds banner (local administration) authorities and auctioned are usually just sheep with a riding horse, tend to be less in the summer for a tax to be paid by the mowers. mobile since they have to borrow or rent the necessary While herds are owned by separate families, single pack animals (cattle or camels). Also, the denser the pop- families of Mongol herders rarely nomadize alone by ulation of people and animals, the shorter and fewer the choice. Instead, families camp together to form khot ails, nomadic movements. Nomads both in premodern and or “camp families.” The khot ail system allows the pool- modern times have built sedentary structures (corrals, ing of animals, especially sheep, to achieve the optimum wells, etc.), which then become permanent pivot points number of about 1,000. Before collectivization it also in the yearly nomadic cycle. Mongolian traditional codes allowed labor-poor but animal-rich families to put their recognized a right of usufruct for those improving the animals out under close supervision to labor-rich but ani- pasture in this manner. 16 animal husbandry and nomadism PASTORALISM IN PREMODERN MONGOLIA sheep (see CHINESE TRADE AND MONEYLENDING). Under Pastoralism in Inner Asia dates back to the Neolithic era, these conditions the composition of the Mongolian live- beginning about 4000 B.C.E. Fully nomadic pastoralism stock herd became roughly similar to that of today. In did not appear until the saddling of the horse and mobile representative figures for animal numbers in eastern dwelling carts after 800 B.C.E. gave sufficient mobility. Khalkha from 1764 to 1841, horses show a decline from Such innovations appeared first among the Cimmerians 15 percent of all livestock in 1800 to 13 percent in 1841, and Scythians in Eastern Europe and then in Mongolia while sheep and goats are 68–76 percent, cattle about among the XIONGNU of the third century B.C.E. (see ANI- 8–17 percent, and camels about 2 percent. Figures for all MAL STYLE; PETROGLYPHS; PREHISTORY). Khalkha in 1918 show just less than 12 percent of live- Among the imperial nomads military needs made stock as horses, 74 percent as sheep and goats, 11 percent horses far more common than they are today. In 1188 the as cattle, and a little more than 2 percent as camels. As KITANS in eastern Inner Mongolia were herding a flock indebtedness transferred increasing numbers of animals that was 32 percent horses, 59 percent sheep and goats, into the hands of Chinese merchants and their export and 9 percent oxen. While quantitative data are absent, increased livestock numbers steadily declined. For exam- the universal impression of observers that the Mongols of ple, the recorded livestock totals for the eastern Setsen the 13th-century MONGOL EMPIRE relied heavily on Khan province dropped from 1,817,508 in 1828 to KOUMISS (fermented mare’s milk, or airag) in the summer 1,224,690 in 1841 and 1,037,501 in 1907. and mutton in the winter indicates a similar composition. During the 20th century animal husbandry was Sheep and horses were also the main marketable influenced by the demands of both markets and the com- commodities for nomads. During eras when the nomads mand economy. At first during the 1920s, the decrease in faced unified Chinese dynasties, horse markets were the prestige of the nobility, who were the principal horse often opened at the borders, where horses for the Chinese herders, the repudiation of the Chinese debt, and the armies could be exchanged on a massive scale for house- strong foreign market for sheep’s wool resulted in a rapid hold goods. In the Mongol Empire Uighur, Turkestani, expansion of both livestock as a whole and sheep as a and Chinese traders and peddlers entered the Mongolian percentage. In 1929 Mongolia’s 21.95 million head was plateau to buy sheep and sheepskins. Camels were also of more than 82 percent sheep and goats with 7 percent interest as beasts of burden and for their hair, but by con- horses, 8.5 percent cattle, and 2 percent camels. In Inner trast Mongolian cattle had no comparative advantage Mongolia’s BARGA, where commercialization remained over the abundant oxen of China and other sedentary high, a sample in 1945 showed a similar composition: 82 societies and hence were useless for trade. percent sheep and goats, 11 percent cattle, and 6 percent Up to the 18th century the Mongols nomadized in horses. (Camels were a negligible 0.02 percent.) much larger groups than did those observed by travelers The closing of Mongolia’s border with countries out- and ethnographers in recent centuries. During times of side the Soviet bloc, the relaxation of pressure on rich war or tension the Mongols nomadized in küriyen, or herders after the failed attempt at collectivization in yurts arranged in a circle for defense, with the leader’s 1930–32, and the military needs of WORLD WAR II boosted yurt or palace-tent (ORDO) in the middle. A similar somewhat the numbers of horses and other large stock arrangement was used in the 17th and 18th centuries by compared with sheep and goats. By 1960 the total num- the great monastery Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye of the great ber of livestock had stabilized at about 22–24 million, of lamas, the Jibzundamba Khutugtus, which became the which horses were 11 percent, sheep 52 percent, goats 25 nucleus of Mongolia’s capital, ULAANBAATAR. During the percent, cattle 8 percent, and camels 4 percent. period of the empire, when the khans had no fear of sur- From the 1930s in Russian Buriatia and Kalmykia prise attack, they arranged their main palace tents, or and in Japanese-occupied Inner Mongolia and from the ordos, in an east–west line, with the senior wife’s ordo in 1950s in Mongolia and in China’s Inner Mongolia, ambi- the west and with servant yurts trailing behind their mis- tious modernizers have attempted to revolutionize the tress’s ordo in a line. This tremendous concentration of productivity of animal husbandry by reducing winter die- people was not matched by a similar concentration of off. Late winter and early spring are the bottleneck period herds. Instead, the herds were kept dispersed at far-off for livestock, and the usual strategy to increase pastoral locations under the care of attached herders, with daily productivity is to use hay, fodder crops, and shelters to supplies of koumiss and sheep for slaughter being deliv- reduce this die-off and thus allow much higher growth in ered to the main camp. livestock numbers. Moreover, by introducing vastly more productive, improved breeds of sheep and cattle, produc- MODERN PASTORALISM tivity per head can be improved, but only at the price of By the early 19th century Mongolia had been at peace for supplying the many wells, shelters, hay, and fodder these almost half a century; the massive küriyen of the past had more delicate breeds require. This intensive management either become sedentary towns or broken up; and com- reduces mobility and increases the intensity of grazing on mercial ties with China created a strong demand for selected spots, a change accelerated by politically moti- anthem 17 vated sedentarization in Russia and in some parts of animal style This term, introduced by the Russian Inner Mongolia. Fodder cropping also increases the dam- archaeologist Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952) to age to topsoil, leading to erosion. This model of intensive describe Scythian art in the Ukraine and southern Russia, rangeland management in Russian and Chinese steppe has been applied to similar art in the period of the early lands produced vast increases in animal numbers at the nomads (ninth century B.C.E. to second century C.E.) price of pervasive pasture degradation and growing deser- from the Ukraine to Inner Mongolia. While the style does tification. While independent Mongolia aimed to follow not exclude the human figure and is by no means uni- this model under collectivization, investment in the pas- form, the term does highlight a common artistic heritage toral sector was never sufficient to allow it much success. in the steppe of the first millennium B.C.E. Livestock and offtake numbers increased, but with only The animal style’s most characteristic motifs are the incremental changes in pastoral nomadic techniques. Pas- recumbent elk with antlers laid along the back, the coiled tures were thus left mostly intact. or crouching feline, and the raptor beak, either alone or Under the collectivized herding regime of 1959–93, attached to an eagle or a griffon. The bodies are typically the Mongol herders remained nomadic, but the previous formed of planes, with sharply differentiated anatomical organization by generalist households linked in khot ail units, and with one animal or body part frequently trans- was changed. Instead, herders specialized in one stock, forming into another. ELK STONES and PETROGLYPHS of the and khot ails served purely social needs. During this Altai and Mongolia contain clear precursors of the period sheep and cattle were the preferred animals, sup- recumbent elk motif. Representations of raptors and plying wool for the textile industry and milk and beef for crouching felines appeared in the east in roughly the the city folk. With DECOLLECTIVIZATION in 1992–95 and eighth century B.C.E. and quickly moved west. From the the reopening of relations with China, another boom in fifth century the theme of animal combat swept the pastoral cash-cropping like that of the 1920s occurred, steppe. The grave art of the Scythian kurgans (Ukraine, this time in CASHMERE goats. At the same time, the fodder fifth–fourth centuries B.C.E.), Ysyk (southeast Kaza- farming, well maintenance, and other infrastructural khstan, fifth–fourth centuries B.C.E.), Pazyryk (Russian investments essential to Mongolia’s attempted intensive Altai, fourth century B.C.E.), and the Siberian hoard of grazing strategy disintegrated. A collapse in cashmere’s Peter the Great exemplify the “classic” animal style in world price in 1996 and a massive ZUD, or winter die-off, many media: openwork bronze belt plaques, hammered in the year 2000 have put the future of this cashmere gold quiver covers, wood, felt hangings, saddle cloths, boom in question. and even tattoos. See also COLLECTIVIZATION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; The shared bronze cauldrons for boiling funerary DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION; FARMING; meals, poletops capped by totemic animals, and figures of HUNTING AND FISHING; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE MONGOL a mounted man approaching a seated goddess indicate EMPIRE. common religious practices and beliefs, yet the wide vari- Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “The ety of burial customs, languages, and races affiliated with Mutual-Aid Co-operatives and the Animal Products Trade in Mongolia, 1913–1928,” Inner Asia 5 (2003): 65–91; the animal style shows it was based not on common eth- Jerker Erdstöm, “The Reform of Livestock Marketing in nicity but on a charismatic style associated with pastoral Post-Communist Mongolia: Problems for a Food Secure nomadism and shared beliefs of the hereafter. The early XIONGNU graves of NOYON UUL (Mongolia, first century and Equitable Market Development,” Nomadic Peoples 33 B.C.E.–first century C.E.) contain fine examples of the (1993): 137–153; Caroline Humphrey and David Sneath, End of Nomadism? Society, State, and the Environment in style, yet its popularity slowly declined throughout the Inner Asia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999); steppe from 200 B.C.E. on. Tomasz Potkanski and Slavoj Szynkiewicz, The Social See also PREHISTORY. Context of Liberalisation of the Mongolian Pastoral Econ- Further reading: Emma Bunker, ed., Ancient Bronzes omy (Brighton, U.K. and Ulaanbaatar: Institute of Devel- of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes from the Arthur W. Sackler opments Studies at the University of Sussex and the Collections (New York: Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, Research Institute of Animal Husbandry, 1993); Dennis P. 1997). Sheehy, “Grazing and Management Strategies as Factors Influencing Ecological Stability of Mongolian Grass- anthem With the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian lands,” Nomadic Peoples 33 (1993): 17–30; John Masson independence, the new theocratic government adopted a Smith, “Mongol Nomadism and Middle Eastern Geogra- new national flag, seal, and anthem. In 1914, as a military phy: Qishlaqs and Tümens,” in The Mongol Empire and Its band was being formed under Russian guidance, a Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan national anthem was composed by the Russian composer (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), 39–56; Sevyan Vainshtein, A. V. Kadlets, based on a KHORCHIN Mongol folk tune. Nomads of South Siberia, trans. Michael Colenso (Cam- The lyrics, entitled “Ambling Mules Worth a Hundred bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). Taels,” were a coronation poem in the traditional Buddhist 18 appanage system shabdan genre (see DANSHUG), expressing devotion to the Chinggis Khan distributed Han (ethnic Chinese) dis- theocratic Bogda Khan (Holy Emperor; see JIBZUNDAMBA tricts in Manchuria to his brothers, and in 1236 Ögedei KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH). After the 1921 REVOLUTION the poet Khan (1229–41) distributed “shares,” or appanages, in BUYANNEMEKHÜ composed another song, “Mongolian North China, KHORAZM, and Transoxiana on a large scale Internationale,” whose lyrics, also sung to a Mongolian to princes, empresses, princesses, imperial sons-in-law, folk tune, praised the Communist International as the and distinguished generals. In 1256, with the pacification leader of the world’s poor and oppressed people against of Iran, MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) divided up appanages capitalists and reactionaries. After the Bogda Khan’s death there as well. Thus, Cha’adai and his descendants, for in 1924, this became the de facto national anthem of example, held not only their nomadic grounds around Mongolia. In 1950 a new anthem was composed, with Almaligh, but also Kat and Khiva towns in Khorazm, lyrics by the scholar and author TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN, Taiyuan prefecture in Shanxi, and certain cities and music by the composer B. Damdinsüren (no relation), towns in Iran. As a result the empire was interlaced with and an arrangement by L. Mördorj (1919–97). In 1961 a network of interlocking appanages that kept every Ts. Gaitaw and Ch. Chimed were commissioned to prince directly interested in every region. remove the names of Stalin and MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG YELÜ CHUCAI, speaking for the Chinese officials and from the second stanza, while leaving in Lenin and GEN- generals, protested to Ögedei that this distribution could ERAL SÜKHEBAATUR. After democratization in 1990, the lead to a disintegration of the state. Ögedei thus decreed whole stanza about the leaders was dropped from the that the appanage holders could appoint overseers official version, which is otherwise unchanged from (DARUGHACHI) and judges (JARGHUCHI) in the appanages, Damdinsüren’s text. but the court would appoint other officials and collect Further reading: G. Kara, “A Forgotten Anthem,” taxes. While every two regular households paid one catty Mongolian Studies 14 (1991): 145–154. of silk in tax to the central government, in the appanages every five households paid one catty, the lighter burden appanage system The Mongol Empire was from the compensating for what they paid to the appanage holders. beginning a family venture under which the imperial Appanage households thus became known in Chinese as family and its meritorious servants shared a collective “five-households-silk households” (wuhusi hu). Despite Ögedei’s regulations, appanage holders continued to rule over all their subjects, Mongol and non-Mongol demand excessive revenues, driving the inhabitants into alike. Members of the family thus deserved a “share” flight. In one appanage, originally counted as 10,000 (qubi) in all the benefits of empire. The appanages of the households, the population had fallen by 1251 to 500 to Mongol nobility in sedentary areas were notorious for 700. QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) enforced Ögedei’s regula- misrule, yet their presence established a web of tions but otherwise respected appanage rights. From 1311 empirewide exchanges that both held the empire together to 1318 Grand Councillor TEMÜDER sought to increase rev- and facilitated intercultural exchange. enues by restricting both the number and autonomy of the CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) gave almost a appanages, but fierce opposition defeated his measures. fourth of the Mongol population as shares to his immedi- During the civil strife in the MONGOL EMPIRE from ate family: his mother, Ö’elün, his four brothers, and his 1260 to 1305, hostility among the territorial khanates three eldest sons, JOCHI, CHA’ADAI, and ÖGEDEI KHAN. strained the network of appanages. The CHAGHATAY Along with people, he gave them grazing grounds. The KHANATE in Central Asia had few resources, and its first lands of his mother and brothers stretched from eastern independent khan, Alghu (1260–65/6), confiscated the Mongolia to Manchuria, while his sons’ pastures were in appanages and personnel of Berke (1256–66), khan of the west: Jochi’s along the Irtysh, Ögedei’s on the Emil the Jochid GOLDEN HORDE, in Transoxiana. In 1266–67 and Qobaq (Emin and Hobok) Rivers, and Cha’adai’s Alghu’s successor, Baraq (1266–71), sent his vizier to the around Almaligh (near Yining or Gulja). TOLUI, as the Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE, ostensibly to inspect his youngest son and the odchigin (guardian of the hearth), appanages there but in reality to spy on Abagha Khan inherited the remaining people in the center. Ögedei (1265–82). Despite incidents like these, appanage rev- occupied the center when he became khan, however, and enues crossed the Mongol lands until the middle of the Tolui’s later appanage, inherited by his own odchigin Ariq- 14th century. As allies, the Il-Khans in Iran and the YUAN Böke, was along the ALTAI RANGE. DYNASTY in China sent administrators to and received Shares of booty were distributed much more widely. revenues from appanages in each other’s territories as reg- Empresses, princesses, and meritorious servitors all ularly as communications allowed, ceasing only with the received full shares. This booty included prisoners of war, breakup of the Il-Khanate in 1335. The Yuan emperors especially craftsmen, who were sometimes kept as “house- actually expanded Jochid appanages in China and from boys” (ger-ün kö’üd) at the beneficiary’s ORDO (palace-tent 1339 sent revenues annually to ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) and its camp) and sometimes resettled elsewhere but in and his sons until rebellion in both realms disrupted any case remained the property of the recipient. communication. archaeology 19 After the fall of the Mongol Empire, appanage sys- and none of these expeditions trained local Mongolian tems continued to divide the Mongols into districts ruled archaeologists. by hereditary noblemen. The units in such systems were Soviet scholars began systematic research on Mongo- called tümen and OTOG under the NORTHERN YUAN lian sites in the postwar period. In 1948–49 S. V. Kiselev DYNASTY (1368–1634), ulus or anggi under the OIRATS and (1905–62) led a team investigating the cities of Mongolia ZÜNGHARS, and BANNERS (khoshuu) under the QING and Tuva, including QARA-QORUM and Ordu-Baligh. In DYNASTY (1636–1912). While the systems varied, they all 1949 A. P. Okladnikov (1908–81) led the Mongolian- combined the idea of patrimonial rule and the union of Soviet Joint Historical and Ethnographic Research Expe- pasture and people. dition, which investigated, among other things, Stone See also AIMAG; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; Age sites and XIONGNU barrows. Although the material CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; FAMILY; HISTORY; excavated was again removed to the Soviet Union, the PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SIX TÜMENS. expedition did train Mongolia’s first archaeologists. When Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, “Sharing Out the further Soviet expeditions to Mongolia were canceled in Empire: Apportioned Lands under the Mongols,” in 1950, Kh. Perlee (1911–82), a graduate of the Kiselev Nomads in the Sedentary World, ed. Anatoly M. Khuzanov expedition, excavated Züün Kherem and other Kitan and André Wink (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, cities and the empire-period AWARGA site in 1952–55, 2001): 172–190; Peter Jackson, “From Ulus to Khanate: while Ts. Dorjsüren conducted excavations at Noyon Uul The Making of the Mongol States, c. 1220–c. 1290,” in in 1954–55. In 1961 Soviet archaeological expeditions to The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai- Mongolia began again, but now with Mongolian archaeol- Preiss and David O. Morgan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), ogists as colleagues. 12–38. Postwar archaeology focused on developing a basic classification of Mongolian historical eras. The interpre- tive schema was that of Friedrich Engels’s Origin of the Ara Khangai See NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. Family, Private Property, and the State (1884; published in Mongolian in 1928), which made putative social develop- archaeology Despite its nomadic tradition, Mongolia ments such as the transition from matriarchy to patri- contains important and visible remains of ancient cul- archy almost automatic consequences of technical tures. Archaeological monuments in Mongolia may be discoveries: pottery, pastoralism, and so on. At the same divided into seven types: 1) Stone Age sites; 2) petro- time the Mongolian government’s ambitious plans of glyphs; 3) ELK STONES; 4) “STONE MEN”; 5) graves; 6) urbanization and agricultural self-sufficiency promoted ancient settlements and walls; and 7) inscriptions. (Mon- interest in documenting native cities and farming. uments of an eighth type, temples and stupas, were in use Publications resulting from these early researches constantly up to the 20th century and will not be consid- included studies of Qara-Qorum (Kiselev, 1966), the ered here.) Except for the first, all of these categories KITANS and Mongolian urbanism (Perlee, 1959, 1961), contain visible monuments that have been recognized as Northern Xiongnu (Dorjsüren, 1961), and the TÜRK remains of the past by the local people. While “stone EMPIRES (Ser-Odjaw, 1970). In the 1970s and 1980s a new men” suffered from iconoclasm probably in the Buddhist generation of Mongolian archaeologists synthesized exist- conversion, they and other rock monuments have more ing data on the Neolithic (D. Dorj, 1971), the Bronze Age frequently been reverenced as sacred objects. Many trav- (D. Nawaan, 1975), the Chandmani Iron Age culture (D. elers recorded legends about city ruins. Tseweendorj, 1978, 1980), and petroglyphs (D. Dorj and The scholarly study of Mongolian archaeological E. A. Novgorodova, 1975). Discoveries in the 1980s remains began in 1889–90 with the investigation of Mon- opened up the field of the Mongolian Paleolithic as first golia’s seventh-to-ninth-century Runic inscriptions by the summarized by Okladnikov in 1986. Russian explorers and scholars N. M. Iadrintsev (1842–94), After 1986 political changes created new possibilities D. A. Klements (1848–1914), and V. V. Radlov (W. Radloff, for Mongolian archaeology. With the normalization of 1837–1918). In the 1920s true excavations began with Sino-Russo-Mongolian relations, new chances arose to the 1922–28 Central Asian expedition of the American overcome the nationalist tendency to compartmentalize Roy Chapman Andrews (1884–1960) and the 1923–26 South Siberian, Mongolian, and Inner Mongolian data. Mongolian-Tibetan Expedition under P. K. Kozlov The dethroning of Marxism opened the possibility to (1863–1935). Kozlov’s finds at NOYON UUL and Andrews’s question the traditional interpretations based on Engels’s Neolithic excavations at Bayanzag (Bulgan, South Gobi), evolutionary schema. International cooperation has incidental to his more famous dinosaur finds, showed widened greatly. The 1989 Mongolian-Hungarian-Soviet the possibilities of Mongolian archaeology. In 1933–34 expedition was followed by various projects involving D. Bukenich made small digs at the city ruins of Khar American, German, Japanese, South Korean, and Turkish Balgas (medieval ORDU-BALIGH) and the temples of archaeologists. Although some expeditions, using new TSOGTU TAIJI. All finds were removed from Mongolia, technology and research methodologies, have made 20 Archangaj important discoveries, others have pursued sensationalist Under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) training in research agendas, as exemplified by the “searches for archery was required of all bannermen. The military com- CHINGGIS KHAN’s tomb,” funded first by the Japanese pound bow used was only about 1 1/4 meters (four feet) newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun (1990–93) and then by the long, although ones more than two meters (six feet) long American futures trader Maury Kravitz (2001–02). were also used for hunting. Bows were composed of a See also DINOSAURS; FOREIGN RELATIONS; FUNERARY goat horn or deer antler core covered by wood (larch, CUSTOMS; PREHISTORY; RUNIC SCRIPT AND INSCRIPTIONS. elm, or bamboo) and wrapped in animal tendons. The bow’s powerful tension made it spring back when Archangaj See NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. unstrung, and Mongolian EPICS frequently cite the difficult task of stringing a powerful bow as the distinguishing test of the hero. The bowstrings were made of silk threads or archery Originally the basis of the Mongols’ military leather wrapped in tendons, the arrows of pine, birch, or power and later almost driven to extinction by the advent willow fletched with feathers of a lammergeier, eagle, or of firearms, archery has been revived in Mongolia as a falcon, and fitted with heads of deer antler, bone, or iron. purely recreational sport. Well-constructed compound bows and arrows were highly Mongolian archery in the Middle Ages had great mil- prized and fetched high prices. Hunters used this power- itary significance. The earliest surviving piece of Mongo- ful war bow for large game, but small game was also taken lian writing is a stone inscription set up in 1226, which with a simpler bow made of strips of fir or larch cut from records a 335-fathom (about 575 yards) bow shot made the stems and wrapped with tendon. The bowstring was a by CHINGGIS KHAN’s nephew Yisüngge. The Franciscan length of hide, preferably horsehide. friar JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI observed that Mongols Mongolian traditional bow technique involved began shooting from their second year and that from putting the arrow on the right, or outer, side of the bow. child to adult they were all excellent marksmen. Mongo- The arrow was held with the thumb and forefinger and lian men spent most of their time making their own the bowstring drawn with the thumb, which was pro- arrows, which had a number of different heads made with tected by heavy leather or a polished stone ring. The bone or iron. string was released by rolling it off the ring. Under the Qing the ability to handle a pull weight of about 37 kilo- grams (80 pounds) was considered the minimum for a grown man, and one of about 60 kilograms (133 pounds) was necessary for men who wished to participate in the imperial hunt. Training encompassed not only shooting from a standing position but also shooting while galloping on horseback, when the reins were taken up in the left hand or mouth while the right hand pulled back the bow. The targets for these military competitions were made of sheepskin stretched over wooden frames or wooden balls placed on poles about 1.7 meters (5.5 feet) high. Since the Mongols found it disturbing for target shooters to target a person or animal, even in their imagination, the target was sometimes called a mangas, or monster. In the NAADAM “games” that accompanied religious rit- uals, archery was practiced with large, blunt ivory heads. The most common target was a pyramid or line of sur, made of leather straps rolled into a cylinder and filled with oak bark or leather, which was to be knocked over. At the beginning of the competition, the umpires (uukhaichin, or “uukhai sayers”) gave a cry of uukhai, accompanied by a circular motion of their arms with the hands pointed up to the sky to summon good fortune. The same cry accompa- nied each striking of the target and the final tallying of the score. The victorious archer received the title mergen (sharpshooter, but also wise man). Mongol soldier with a bow and arrow, bow case and quiver, By the late 19th century, however, firearms were and flintlock, around 1870 (From N.V. Prschewalski, Reisen clearly more useful in hunting and warfare, and the in der Mongolei, im Gebiet der Tanguten und der Wüsten archery competitions became desultory. Among the lamas Nordtibets [1877]) of Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR), who were forbidden Ariq-Böke 21 by the letter of the vinaya (monastic discipline) from in-kind qubchiri (contributions) to a regular silver tax, even being in the presence of weapons of war, shooting payable on a scale from 1 to 10 dinars. astragali (shagai) became a widespread sport. In it lamas Losing his supreme governorship to Saif-ud-Din Bit- shot lined-up astragali (shagai) at a distance of 3 meters igchi (d. 1262) and then Shams-ud-Din Juvaini (d. 1284) (9 feet) with horn or ivory bullets flicked by the middle under Möngke’s brother HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65), Arghun finger from a wooden plank. worked in the Caucasus, raising the maximum qubchiri to In 1922 the army Naadam in Mongolia (later the 500 dinars and extorting money from local Christian National Holiday Nadaam) and in 1924 the Sur-Khar- lords. After 1262 he returned to Khorasan. Arghun baan (Archery) games in the BURIAT REPUBLIC became fought under Abagha Khan (1265–81) in the battle of annual events, beginning the revival of archery as a Qara-Su (1270) against the invading Chaghatay khan, sport. In the National Holiday Naadam rules, each man Baraq. By this time he was known as Arghun Aqa (Elder fires 40 arrows at a distance of 75 meters (246 feet). In Brother Arghun), a sign of his seniority and respect. His the 1960s women began to compete in the event, shoot- son NAWROZ inherited his position in Khorasan. ing 20 arrows at a distance of 60 meters (197 feet). This See also PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. innovation had been adopted first among the BURIATS and in the 1950s in Inner Mongolia. While traditional Arhangai See NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. bows are still used in Mongolia with the traditional fin- gering, Buriat and Inner Mongolian archers use Euro- Arik Buka See ARIQ-BÖKE. pean-style professional model bows and have adopted the Western shooting style. See also HUNTING AND FISHING; MILITARY OF THE MON- Ariq Bögä See ARIQ-BÖKE. GOL EMPIRE. Ariq-Böke (Ariq-Bögä, Arik Buka) (d. 1266) The younger brother and rival of Qubilai Khan architecture See AWARGA; CHOIJUNG LAMA TEMPLE; Ariq-Böke was the youngest son of CHINGGIS KHAN’s son DAIDU; ERDENI ZUU; HÖHHOT; IL-KHANATE; ORDU-BALIGH; TOLUI and of his main wife, SORQAQTANI BEKI, born a PALACES OF THE BOGDA KHAN; QARA-QORUM; SARAY AND decade or more after his brothers QUBILAI KHAN and NEW SARAY; SHANGDU; THEOCRATIC PERIOD; TIMUR; ULAAN- HÜLE’Ü. Sorqaqtani Beki was a Christian, and in 1254 BAATAR; YURT. WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK observed Ariq-Böke making the sign of the cross and claiming, “We know that the Messiah Arghun Aqa (d. 1275) Reformer of the administration of [Jesus] is God.” Sometime after 1248 Ariq-Böke’s older Iran under Güyüg, Möngke, and the early Il-Khans brother, Qubilai, recommended to Sorqaqtani Beki a Con- Originally of the Oirat tribe, Arghun’s father sold him to fucian tutor for Ariq-Böke, yet, unlike Qubilai, Ariq-Böke Qada’an for a side of beef during a famine. Qada’an gave formed no close bond with Chinese scholars. Ariq-Böke’s Arghun as a page to his son Ilügei, then serving as a night oldest brother, MÖNGKE KHAN, was elected great khan in guard in the KESHIG (imperial guard) of ÖGEDEI KHAN. 1251. With the death of Sorqaqtani Beki the next year, Arghun knew the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, and when Ariq-Böke inherited his mother’s ORDO (palace-tent), disputes arose over the governorship of Iran, Arghun was which nomadized from the ALTAI RANGE in the summer to appointed one of the judges. the banks of the Ürüngü River in the winter. After Ögedei died in 1241 Empress TÖREGENE exe- When Möngke Khan died on a campaign in Sichuan cuted Governor KÖRGÜZ and appointed Arghun in his in August 1259, Ariq-Böke was in Mongolia. Möngke’s place as part of her wholesale rearrangement of the chief scribe, Bulghai, and his governor in North China, offices. Arghun continued Körgüz’s policies in Khorasan ‘Alam-Dar hoped to forestall the coronation of their (eastern Iran) and in 1243–44 extended civilian adminis- enemy, Qubilai. With the support of Möngke’s son Asudai tration to Tabriz, formerly under Chormaqan’s army, while and his general Qundughai, they delivered Möngke’s his assistant Sharaf-ud-Din collected extortionate taxes great seal to Ariq-Böke, who used it to issue documents there. In the years after Sharaf-ud-Din died (c. 1245), mobilizing soldiers in Mongolia and North China. After Arghun developed intimate ties with the Khorasanian elite Qubilai proclaimed himself khan in April 1260, Ariq- and converted to Islam. When GÜYÜG was elected khan in Böke did the same in a general assembly, or QURILTAI, near 1246, he reversed his mother Töregene’s policies, but QARA-QORUM city. The CHAGHATAY KHANATE and the Arghun stayed in favor by gifts and his proven efficiency. GOLDEN HORDE supported him over Qubilai. ‘Alam-Dar After Güyüg died Arghun went to the court in 1249, was dispatched to Gansu as DARUGHACHI (overseer) with and, again by adroitly cultivating SORQAQTANI BEKI, he the commander Qundughai. kept his position when her son, MÖNGKE KHAN, was Qubilai’s main weapon against his brother was block- elected in 1251. Arghun’s reports to the new khan formed ing the shipment of Chinese grain to Mongolia. In the basis for Möngke’s reforms, commuting the irregular response, Ariq-Böke and his court made their base in the 22 Ariq-Qaya South Siberian agricultural colony of Kem-Kemchik Oiradai (1415?–25?), became puppet khans with Oirat (Tuva) and the Yenisey Kyrgyz lands (modern Khakassia; support. see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). In August Qubilai occupied Mongolia, seizing Ariq-Böke’s four ordos and Ariq-Qaya (Ali-Haiya) (1227–1287) Uighur peasant’s son detaching an army to the Gansu corridor. On October 27, who under Qubilai Khan became one of the conquerors of 1260, ‘Alam-Dar and Qundughai were defeated and killed South China at Guzang. Ariq-Böke sent messengers surrendering, and Born a peasant, Ariq-Qaya studied the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN Qubilai returned to his capital. The next summer Ariq- script for a month and went to Mongolia to seek his for- Böke routed Qubilai’s commanders in Mongolia. During a tune, joining the prince Qubilai’s entourage. After Qubilai second invasion Qubilai defeated Ariq-Böke at was elected great khan in 1260, Ariq-Qaya rose through Shimu’ultu Na’ur (Mosquito Lake) on November 27, the ranks of the secretariat. From 1268 he assisted AJU 1261, but Ariq-Böke’s rearguard, under Asudai, bloodied and Liu Zheng (1213–75) in their siege of Xiangyang Qubilai’s overconfident troops shortly afterward. Battles, (modern Xiangfan). Ariq-Qaya’s request in 1272 to the cold, and the continuing blockade had, however, deci- court to put into action two Iraqi artillery technicians mated Ariq-Böke’s forces, reducing him at one point to marked a turning point in the siege. The fall of drafting the clergy of Qara-Qorum into his army. Xiangyang led to an all-out invasion of the SONG In summer 1260 Qubilai had sent two Chaghatayid DYNASTY in South China. The supreme commander princes in his entourage west to challenge Ariq-Böke’s BAYAN CHINGSANG dispatched Ariq-Qaya with 40,000 control there, but Ariq-Böke’s envoys intercepted and men to advance up the Chang (Yangtze). The Song gen- killed them. Ariq-Böke then sent his own Chaghatayid eral Gao Shijie’s 1,000-boat flotilla and Yuezhou (modern prince Alghu, who raised an army of 150,000, while mes- Yueyang) city surrendered with little fight on April 18, sengers sent by Ariq-Böke began collecting requisitions 1275, and Jiangling (modern Shashi) surrendered on throughout the Chaghatay lands. Alghu, jealous of the May 2. Tanzhou (modern Changsha) and Jingjiang lost wealth, killed Ariq-Böke’s messengers and threw his (modern Guilin), however, were defended by desperate support to Qubilai. Song loyalists and fell only after costly sieges and mass As Qubilai was now occupied with rebellion in North suicides (January 1276 and April 1277). Ariq-Qaya China, Ariq-Böke’s entourage moved west, where Asudai fought in Guangxi and Hainan Island, blockading crushed Alghu’s army and captured his ordos. Alghu fled seaborne Song loyalists and pacifying tribal chiefs until to the Tarim Basin, and Ariq-Böke camped outside Alma- 1281. QUBILAI KHAN made Ariq-Qaya senior grand coun- ligh (near modern Yining). By winter 1263–64 vengeful cillor of the Huguang Branch Secretariat (modern purges of Alghu’s army had cost Ariq-Böke valuable sup- Hunan, Guangxi, and parts of Hubei and Guangdong), port. In Iran Hüle’ü ordered his son Jumqur to leave Ariq- but the area’s notorious lawlessness, tribal disaffection, Böke’s army, while one of Möngke’s sons, Ürüng-Tash, and oppressive taxation continued. deserted to Qubilai with Möngke’s seal. Meanwhile, Alghu prepared to attack Ariq-Böke. In increasing diffi- culties, Ariq-Böke and Asudai surrendered to the court of armed forces of Mongolia Despite the many constant Qubilai on August 21, 1264, where Qubilai received his features of Mongolia’s geopolitical position, the size and younger brother with tears. mission of the modern Mongolian military has undergone Qubilai appointed a board of Chinggisid princes and major changes, depending primarily on relations between commanders (NOYAN) to try Ariq-Böke’s case. Bulghai and Russia/the Soviet Union and China and/or Japan. nine other of Ariq-Böke’s noyans were executed, but Ariq- See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. On later Böke, Asudai, and the other princes were pardoned as Mongolian armies, see NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY; OIRATS; descendants of Chinggis Khan. Ariq-Böke died in autumn TUMU INCIDENT; ZÜNGHARS. 1266. Ariq-Böke’s young sons had remained in his ordo in STRATEGY AND MISSION the Altai when he surrendered. In 1269 Qubilai sum- Mongolia’s strategic situation up to 1990 was governed by moned them to court, and they entered the emperor’s ser- three constants: 1) Mongolia’s primary strategy was vice. In 1277–78 Yomuqur and Mingliq-Temür alliance with Russia/the Soviet Union against China (or (erroneously written Melik-Temür) joined a rebellion led Japan from 1931 to 1945); 2) Mongolia’s population is by Möngke Khan’s son Shiregi, eventually fleeing to very small and has no defense industry whatsoever; 3) QAIDU (1236–1301). Yomuqur returned in 1296 and was The Mongolian government has been civilian in nature pardoned, but in 1300 Mingliq-Temür was still with and has, except for the LEFTIST PERIOD in 1929–32, com- Qaidu. After the fall of the Mongols’ YUAN DYNASTY in manded enough popular support, or at least acquies- China, Yisüder, a descendant of Ariq-Böke, allied with the cence, to dispense with extensive internal garrisons. OIRATS and murdered the Qubilaid khan in 1388. Other Given these realities, the Mongolian army has suf- Ariq-Bökids, including Dalbag (1412–14) and probably fered from a difficult institutional dilemma: In times of armed forces of Mongolia 23 security paramilitary border guards seem to be all that is planned to establish a regular European-style army, required, but in times of tension self-defense seems unlike the traditional soldiers of the theocratic period or wholly impossible. There is thus a cycle of virtual the ragged partisans of the revolution. With Soviet Red demilitarization alternating with military buildups con- Army troops holding Khüriye until 1925, the Russians current with Soviet occupation. Given Russian/Soviet felt no urgency to supply a local Mongolian military, and material and psychological dominance over its southern growth was slow. Cavalry was the principal branch, with rivals and superior supply facilities, Soviet and Mongo- an artillery and a machine-gun regiment and a communi- lian troops have always garrisoned the frontier, while cations company. The supreme command was exercised Chinese/Japanese troops have as a rule been kept far by a commander in chief, supervised for the government back for defense in depth. by the army minister and for the Mongolian People’s Rev- With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Mon- olutionary Party by a military council with its chairman. golia has become in theory and in fact neutral between In 1921 GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR held all three position, China and Russia, maintaining normal relations with but in 1922 he lost the army ministry and chairmanship both. The Mongolian military is now supplementing its of the military council. Up to 1932 the chiefs of staff were overwhelmingly Soviet/Russian equipment and traditions always Soviet advisers. with defense ties with China and the United States. Bud- In 1924–25 the Mongolian People’s Red (or Revolu- get troubles have added to the armed forces’ difficulty in tionary) Army was thoroughly reorganized. In late 1925 defining their mission. the government finally discharged the 1921 soldiers and moved to a conscription system with a two-year tour of THEOCRATIC PERIOD duty. This turned the military into a mechanism for educat- The military inherited from the QING DYNASTY was essen- ing the young male population. Of those serving in 1925, tially a militia system, trained and armed to fight 18th- 19 percent were fully literate, 38 percent were semiliterate, century wars. The new independent government mobilized and 42 percent were learning the alphabet. By 1927 the militiamen first during the expulsion of the Qing AMBANs army numbered 8,300, of which 46 percent were members from Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR, November–December of the People’s Revolutionary Party or Youth League. Sepa- 1911), next during the siege of KHOWD CITY (May–August rate border troops were organized under the Office of Inter- 1912), and finally during the Inner Mongolian campaign nal Security, and armored cars, transport planes, and (1913). The government also recruited a number of ban- biplane bombers were received from the Soviet Union. dit or volunteer forces, particularly among Inner Mongo- In 1932 the importance of the People’s Revolutionary lian refugees and exiles. In 1914 the theocratic Army increased dramatically. The Japanese conquest of government had approximately 10,000 men under arms. Manchuria (1931–33) and the massive insurrection against Soldiers mobilized in these three waves served perma- the leftist policies in 1932 made military expenditures nently. Pay and supply still came from their original jump from 5.4 million (1931) to 12 million tögrögs (1932). LEAGUES and BANNERS and was very inadequate, leading By 1936 military expenditures had doubled again, to 24 to sickness, mutinies, and high desertion rates. million tögrögs, and were eating up half the budget, a situ- Originally armed with Russian Berdans (single-shot ation that would last through WORLD WAR II. Modernization rifles) and even more obsolete weapons, in February 1913 of the army was rapid, especially in motorized transport the Mongols received 10,000 Russian Mosin magazine and armored cars, and involved a rise in the number of rifles, 32 artillery pieces, and 65 machine guns. From early Soviet trainers from 14 in 1924 to 110 in 1936. Even so, 1912 Russia maintained a mission in Khüriye to train sol- from 1930 to 1937 the Soviet-educated commander in diers in cavalry, infantry, machine-gun, and artillery skills. chief MARSHAL DEMID dominated the army as no one had Around 3,200 soldiers completed some training. since the time of Sükhebaatur, building up a Mongolian REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD officer corps, keeping the number of Soviet advisers within bounds, and appointing the first Mongolian chief of staff. Against the occupation of Khüriye first by about 8,000 Chinese soldiers and then by BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH WORLD WAR II AND AFTER VON UNGERN-STERNBERG’s 11,400 soldiers of mixed origin, Border incidents with Japanese troops along the unde- the 1921 revolutionaries, armed and trained by Soviet marcated frontier began in January 1935 and increased in Russia, originally planned to fight a partisan or guerrilla 1936. In March 1936 MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG became de war. In June 1921, however, the Russian Red Army inter- facto leader, and in June 1936 Soviet armored and aircraft vened in force, sending 13,100 troops into Khüriye under units entered Mongolia again. In August 1937 Marshal K. A. Neiman. Demid died in mysterious circumstances, and the Soviet The partisan forces that made up the “People’s” or Seventeenth Army entered Mongolia, bringing the total of “Democratic Army” (Arad-un jirumtu tserig/Ardyn juramt Soviet troops up to 30,000 men stationed almost entirely tsereg) numbered around 700 before the revolutionary in the east. Within the Mongolian military, the GREAT victory. After seizing Khüriye in July 1921, the partisans PURGE of 1937–39 devastated the officer corps. In all, 187 24 Armenia high-ranking commanders were executed, and the medi- air force personnel reached 75,000 (120,000 in some cal corps and air squadrons were rendered almost com- reports) deployed in KHOWD, SOUTH GOBI, EAST GOBI, and pletely ineffectual. By 1939 the number of Soviet EASTERN PROVINCE as well as around ULAANBAATAR. instructors had shot up to 681. In 1936 tours of duty were extended to three years, CONTEMPORARY and no officers were retired or demobilized during World The resolution of Sino-Soviet tensions and the with- War II. From February 1942 “People’s Self-Defense Vol- drawal of Soviet troops from 1987 to 1990 led to a return unteer Cavalry Detachments” were organized. The Mon- to the situation of the 1950s, in which the military faced golian military increased from 18,000 in 1939 to 43,000 no clear threat. Defense spending declined to 6–7 percent in 1945, in addition to 10,500 border troops, its largest of the budget after 1990. In 1997 the armed forces recorded size. The Mongolian army received BT-7 and T- totalled fewer than 20,000, distributed as follows: army 34 tanks, and 76-, 106-, and 122-mm guns and how- 8,500; air force, 500; construction troops, 1,500; border itzers, but was still primarily a cavalry force. After the guards, 5,000; internal troops, 1,400. While national August 8 Soviet declaration of war, which Mongolia security is still a major concern for Mongolia, it is now as joined, Japan surrendered on September 2, 1945, and by likely to be seen in economic, demographic, and cultural December 1945 the Mongolian army had demobilized terms as in military terms. In close cooperation with the almost to its projected 18,000-man peacetime level. U.S. military, however, Mongolia’s armed forces have With the SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE of 1950, the Mongo- developed a new task of peace-keeping. In September lian military seemed almost redundant. The last cavalry 2003, Mongolia contributed 180 soldiers to carry on units were retired in 1954, and the army’s World War reconstruction with the U.S.-led force in Iraq. II–era tanks, artillery, and airplanes were all decommis- sioned in 1956. Combat soldiers dropped from 90.3 per- Armenia See GEORGIA; LESSER ARMENIA. cent of all personnel in 1945 to only 24.5 percent in 1955. That same year command and service personnel reached 28.3 percent, and construction troops reached artisans in the Mongol Empire The Mongol emper- 39.0 percent; the army ministry was combined with the ors paid special attention to artisans, exempting them as security ministry, marking the Mongolian military’s low a rule from the massacres of the conquest and from all point. Soviet troops remained in Mongolia to 1956, but axes in return for lifelong service. The MONGOL EMPIRE only as construction workers working on the Trans- was unique in its appreciation of craftsmanship from a Siberian Railway. wide variety of civilizations, perhaps due to its own lack of a distinctive luxury craft tradition. SINO-SOVIET TENSIONS Artisans entered Mongol service both as booty of war With the beginning of the SINO-SOVIET SPLIT, in 1959 a and by periodic requisitions. Both sorts were divided defense ministry was restored. By 1964 the core of the among the Mongolian aristocracy, and their conditions of renamed Armed Forces of Mongolia was a special motor life varied widely. As slaves they were known by the Mon- rifle brigade with a motor rifle regiment, one special golian title ger-ün kö’üd, or “houseboys.” Many such arti- artillery division, and a special tank battalion. Indepen- sans lived in separate households, handing over their dent antiaircraft, radio engineering, and tank repair units finished products to their masters and receiving necessi- were also re-created. Communications, chemical, engi- ties, including cash, in return. Others, however, lived by neering-sapper, and special intelligence units were added the palace-tents (ORDO) of their masters, sharing the in 1965. From 1961 to 1965 463 Mongolians trained in nomadic life and being counted as Mongols. Such slaves Soviet military institutions, and in 1964 the Soviet Union often suffered severely from hunger and cold. All crafts- agreed to donate 700,000 rubles of military equipment men held the status of darqan and thus were immune to annually, including MiG 17 jet fighters. Mongolian troop the qubchiri, or occasional requisitions levied incessantly numbers remained around 17,500, although now combat by passing imperial envoys. troops predominated. The Mongols held in service an extraordinary variety From 1966 Soviet troops again entered Mongolia. In of captives, who became part of the intimate workings of 1978 the Soviet defense minister, D.A. Ustinov, asked the the princely households. In 1252–53 WILLIAM OF Mongolian leader YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL to double Mon- RUBRUCK found Saxon miners from Transylvania, Hungar- golia’s military, which reached 33,000 army troops, 3,500 ians, Russians, Germans, and even a Parisian goldsmith air force personnel, and 15,000 police and border troops. serving the Mongol lords. Foreign artisans soon mastered Equipment included 650 main battle tanks, 650 artillery, the making of the Mongol tents, or yurts, and a captive 200 air defense guns, 300 SAM-7 surface-to-air missiles, woman from Lorraine prospered by crafting YURTS. In and 17 MiG 21 fighter jets. Defense spending regularly 1253 MÖNGKE KHAN deported 500 households, probably exceeded 10 percent of the budget from 1975 on, hitting from China, to repair and maintain the imperial ordos. almost 15 percent in 1980. Meanwhile, Soviet troops and The palaces in the Mongol capital of QARA-QORUM, built astrology 25 by ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), were constructed by separate CLAN NAMES found among the 16th-century Mongols, North Chinese and Muslim colonies of craftsmen. such as Urad, “craftsmen,” and Ke’üd “boys,” mark the The Mongols showed particular interest in weapons descendants of deported artisans among the nomads. makers, Middle Eastern weavers of silk and gold brocade Among the 18th-century ZÜNGHARS such new craft camp (Arabic nasij, Persian nakh, Mongol nashishi, called bal- districts (OTOG) were still being organized, probably from dachin or “cloth of Tartary” in Europe), Chinese ceram- captured Turkestani artisans. ics, architecture, and Buddhist statuary. The Mongols See also CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CLOTHING established many colonies of weavers and artisans in AND DRESS; MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL CONQUEST. North China, often centered around deported Middle Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Commodity and Eastern craftsmen. CHINQAI, the Uighur minister in Mon- Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of gol service, administered a North Chinese artisan colony Islamic Textiles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in Hongzhou (modern Yangyuan), to which were later 1997). added 300 households of Muslim nasij weavers and 300 weavers of serge and wool from the Jin capital of Kaifeng. assassins See ISMA‘ILIS. Hasan, an early Muslim adherent of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27), administered a Muslim craftsmen colony at Simmalum, near modern Zhangjiakou, that astrology Astrology was an area of great interest for practiced military and civil crafts. The Kitan Xiao Baiju the khans in the Mongol Empire and today is still widely administered a colony at Tanzhou (modern Miyun) that practiced. Most astrologers today are lamas, trained and produced arrows, long bows, and crossbows and kept the employed in the monasteries. Manuals of astrology and imperial mews. Even craftsmen who were not deported, divination form a large part, sometimes the majority, of such as the arms makers in Tabriz and Bukhara, were all comprehensive collections of Mongolian manuscripts placed in factories under the rule of a DARUGHACHI, or from the 19th and early 20th centuries. Astrology forms overseer, where they received instructions in how to one method of seeking guidance and averting ills; others make Mongol-style weapons. practiced among the Mongols include the observation of Under the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY (1271–1368) in omens and the seeking of auspices, especially through China, the administration of artisans was rationalized and SCAPULIMANCY. expanded but underwent no fundamental change. In his first year of rule QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) conscripted an ASTROLOGY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE additional 1,100 households as apprentice artisans and The Mongols, like the Turkish steppe empires before moved part of the Hongzhou colony closer to the capitals them, certainly had a native calendrical system, probably of SHANGDU and DAIDU (modern Beijing). In 1264 and kept by the shamans, and drew astrological predictions 1272 additional conscriptions of apprentices drew in dis- from them. A Qongqotan stargazer (presumably the placed households, freed slaves, mendicant Buddhist famous shaman TEB TENGGERI) was said to be active in monks, Taoist priests, and other unaffiliated persons. At 1209, and certainly by the 1250s the shamans were pre- the same time, new offices were set up to supervise the dicting eclipses, casting horoscopes, and declaring auspi- colonies now found all over North China. These offices cious and inauspicious days. The new or full moons were were headed by darughachis who were by law either Mon- considered auspicious for beginnings. gols or SEMUREN (various sorts, or non-Chinese) and gen- As they built their empire, the Mongols exempted erally attached to the palaces or ordos of the imperial astrologers, like artisans, physicians, and clergymen, from family. Due to manpower shortages in 1260–64, a num- killing during war and from paying taxes in peace. Suc- ber of craftsmen were also conscripted as soldiers, con- cessful astrologers and diviners often became trusted trary to their customary immunity. advisers, such as the Kitan scholar YELÜ CHUCAI with In the IL-KHANATE in Iran HÜLE’Ü (1256–65) added to CHINGGIS KHAN, Nasir-ud-Din Tusi (1201–74) with existing Chinese colonies at Merv (Mary) and Tabriz a HÜLE’Ü, AND LIU BINGZHONG with QUBILAI KHAN. The IL- Chinese artisan colony at Khvoy around his Buddhist tem- KHANATE, the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China, and the ple. Government weapons factories, such as at Tabriz, pro- non-Chinggisid JALAYIR and Timurid successor dynasties duced about 2,000 suits of armor a year. Purchases of raw (see TIMUR) all funded the construction of observatories materials and payment to the artisans were often disorga- and the compilation of celestial almanacs and star charts. nized, however, and GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) eventually The Mongol conquest resulted in the exchange of obser- decided to purchase most weapons on the open market, vational methods and data between China and the Middle keeping only a small number of weapons makers to pro- East, while Qubilai’s chief Buddhist chaplain, ’Phags-pa duce less commonly used items. This reform marked a Lama (1235–80) used Chinese observations in compos- movement away from requisitioning services and toward ing a revised Tibetan calendar. purchasing them, which eventually replaced the traditional The baqshis, or Buddhist clergy, whether from Tibet, Mongol policy on craftsmen in the Il-Khanate. KASHMIR, Uighuristan, or China, soon became the most 26 A’uruq numerous astrologers among the Mongols. In Buddhism astrologers were often consulted about where to look for astrology and divination are seen as the science of the a lost horse or other animal. If the astrological indications bodhisattva Manjushri, which, while dealing with merely for a given event were unfavorable, the usual remedy was conventional reality, is useful for living beings within that to have certain indicated scriptures read. sphere. Uighur astrological works were translated into In the 20th century Communist regimes among the Mongolian in this period and became the basis for Mon- Mongols in Russia, Mongolia, and China first criticized golian astrological terminology. astrology as charlatanism, then persecuted it, but finally tolerated it as a remnant of superstition fit only for the BUDDHIST ASTROLOGY most backward elements of society. Nevertheless, In recent centuries Mongolian astrological manuals have astrologers were always trained in the few remaining included Chinese, Uighur, and Tibetan elements, all of monasteries and surreptitiously consulted in Mongolia which draw in varying degrees on Indian astrology. even by high officials. Today among Russia’s BURIATS and Within the Tibetan Buddhist tradition the Kalachakra KALMYKS and in Mongolia proper, astrological considera- (Wheel of Time) Tantra includes a separate calendar for tions are observed at all levels of society. In ULAANBAATAR astrological calculations. Tibetan methods of calculation the astrological consultation booth to the west of GAN- were taught in the monasteries. The Buddhist Uighur DAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY is very busy, and the astro- astrological tradition was transmitted among the Mongols logical tables prepared by L. Terbish are bestsellers. during the empire period, while Chinese methods were See also CALENDARS AND DATING SYSTEMS. popularized by official almanacs with auspices for each Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- day, issued in Chinese, Manchu, and Mongolian by the quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) court. sity Press, 2001). Mongolian astrology thus uses several calendars (although all of the East Asian lunar–solar type, with the A’uruq See AWARGA. new year around January–March) and a vast array of astronomical categories: the sun, moon, and planets; the Indian 28 nakshatras, or lunar mansions, and the Chinese Autonomous Period See THEOCRATIC PERIOD. 12-ANIMAL CYCLE, both of which are used to number months, days, and hours; the 12 Chinese “lords of the Awarga (A’uruq, Aurug) Located in Delgerkhaan Sum, day;” the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, water); Khentii province, the Awarga ruins have been identified and the Chinese Eight Trigrams. Astrological calculations with the a’uruq, or “base camp,” of CHINGGIS KHAN men- not only determined the time when an activity should tioned in the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS. (The cur- take place, but also frequently its cardinal direction and rent name Awarga, “huge,” may be a distortion of the sometimes the color of clothes worn or of the horse rid- Middle Mongolian a’uruq.) den. Given the presence of several different systems and The site, on a hill overlooking the Awarga River, vast numbers of ramifications in each one, any given occupies 4.5 square kilometers (1.7 square miles) and event could always yield many different, often contradic- included an artisans’ quarter in the east with three streets tory, indications, the resolution of which was the job of and many small dwellings, a series of 13 walled platforms the astrologer. Ordinary people, however, often followed ranged east to west, each with traces of three or four on their own much simpler “folk” versions of these com- buildings, a palace covering 180 square meters (1,938 plex nets of prognostications. square feet), and a double-walled temple covering 81 Modern astrologers, or zurkhaich (Uighur-Mongo- square meters (872 square feet) just to the north of the lian, jirukhaichi), have mostly been lamas trained in settlement center. The palace was built with hexagonal monasteries, although there were and are occasional lay polished columns, of which 40 bases have been uncov- astrologers as well. Virtually no ritual in the monastery ered. Remains uncovered in the area include a forge for can be held without first determining the proper time casting iron with associated slag and cast-iron pieces, astrologically. Among the laity a visit to a zurkhaich was plowshares, grains, numerous pottery, iron, bone goods, (and to a large degree still is) an inevitable part of prepar- and Chinese bronze coins, particularly of the JIN DYNASTY ing a wedding (both to determine the compatibility of the (1115–1234). bride and groom and to determine the time and mode of Although Chinggis Khan’s palace-tents (ORDO) cer- the bride’s arrival) and a funeral. Astrological predictions tainly remained nomadic, Awarga may mark one of the are also sought for new children (about their general for- points, probably the winter camp, of the nomadic route, tune, dangerous times or directions, personalities, and so and the 13 raised platforms may be where the ordos were on), and for major birthdays (particularly every ninth placed. The temple, built later in Chinese style, may be and 12th year). The more scrupulous avoided unlucky that erected by QUBILAI KHAN’s grandson Gammala (d. days for going on a trip, making and first wearing new 1302) near the site of Chinggis Khan’s shrine. clothes, and many other activities. In old Mongolia See also ARCHAEOLOGY. Azhu 27 ayimaq See AIMAG. married his daughter to the Zünghar ruler TSEWANG-RAB- TAN KHUNG-TAIJI (r. 1694–27) and received Tsewang-Rab- tan’s cousin Darma-Bala in return. In 1699, angered by Ayuka See AYUUKI KHAN. Ayuuki’s lack of respect for them, his older sons revolted. One fled to the Zünghars with 15,000 households, but Ayuki See AYUUKI KHAN. the eldest, Chagdarjab, was reconciled with his father by Russian ambassadors in 1701. Ayuuki made Chagdarjab Ayuuki Khan (Ayouki, Ayuki, Ayuka) (b. 1641, his heir apparent in 1714, but with the heir’s death in r. 1669–1724) Powerful Torghud khan who raised the 1722 a bitter succession struggle broke out. The rebellion Kalmyks to the height of their influence and prestige of Dasang, Chagdarjab’s eldest son, was defeated in Ayuuki Khan was the son of the Kalmyk ruler Puntsog (r. November 1723, but the succession remained uncertain 1661–69) but spent his childhood with his mother’s kin at Ayuuki’s death on February 19, 1724. among the ZÜNGHARS of eastern Turkestan, returning to Further reading: Junko Miyawaki, “Background of his Torghud tribe on the Volga in 1654. After forcing the Volga-Kalmyk Khanship: The Case of Ayouki Khan of newly arrived Khoshud people into submission and uni- the Torguts,” in Altaic Religious Beliefs and Practices, ed. fying the KALMYKS, Ayuuki swore allegiance in 1673 to Géza Bethlenfalvy et al. (Budapest: Research Group for the Russian czar, yet from 1680 on he repeatedly turned Altaic Studies, 1992), 239–244; Johann Christian to the CRIMEA and Ottoman Turkey when disappointed Schnitscher, An Account of the Kalmyk Land under Ayuki with Russian treatment. In 1690 he received a seal as Khan, trans. John R. Krueger (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongo- KHAN from the regent of the Fifth Dalai Lama, and by lia Society, 1996). 1708 the czar recognized him as khan and began supply- ing him with cannons and firearms. In 1697–98, Ayuuki Azhu See AJU. B baba See “STONE MEN.” Baghdad, siege of The siege of Baghdad, while lasting only from January 29 to February 10, 1258, destroyed Badmadorji (Badamdorj) (d. 1920) This lama official what had once been the world center of Islamic culture was both the confidante of the nationalist Jibzundamba and political authority. Khutugtu and a notoriously pro-Chinese intriguer. From 1257 the Mongol prince HÜLE’Ü (1256–65), Badmadorji’s origin is unknown, but his elder sister kept founder of the Mongols’ Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE, had an inn. From at least 1900 to 1911 Badmadorji was one demanded that the caliph submit. When the ‘Abbasid of the chief lama officials in the estate of the high lama, caliph in Baghdad, al-Musta‘sim b‘illah (r. 1242–58), the Eighth Jibzundamba Khutugtu (1870–1924, called rejected submission, Hüle’ü led the Mongol army’s center the Bogda [Holy One] by the Mongols), first as da lama through KURDISTAN to the Tigris River at Ctesiphon and and then as ERDENI SHANGDZODBA. He also taught the ordered the right wing to cross the river on a pontoon Bogda the Mongolian script. bridge near Ad-Dujayl. The right wing proceeded to Despite being dismissed and detained by QING about 25 miles from Baghdad. The caliph’s dawatdar DYNASTY officials, once for corruption and once for fol- (inkpot holder), or secretary, Mujahid-ad-Din Aybeg, lowing the Bogda’s orders to protect lamas who had led leading an infantry levy from the suburb of Karkh, an anti-Chinese riot, he opposed secession from China. defeated the Mongols, but that night as the caliph’s sol- In September 1911 he revealed to the AMBAN Sandô the diers celebrated, the Mongol commander BAIJU cut the Bogda’s entire conspiracy to seek Russian aid. Even so, dykes and flooded the enemy’s camp. The next day (Jan- after the 1911 RESTORATION of independence, Badmadorji uary 18) the Mongols attacked, and the dawatdar barely became “minister to assist religion and state,” a new cabi- got back alive to Baghdad. The right wing then occupied net-level office of the Shangdzodba. the suburbs west of the Tigris, while the left wing covered In October 1915 he became minister of the interior. Baghdad’s southern walls, and Hüle’ü camped opposite For bribes, Badmadorji and his underlings sold the right the wall’s Ajami tower on January 22. The Mongol army, to join the GREAT SHABI and allowed the falsification of said to have been 200,000 strong, prepared missiles and census figures. Neglected by Chen Yi’s “soft” approach to siege towers. The Tigris was bridged above and below the the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY that respected traditional city, and patrols watched the banks for escape attempts. Mongolian rights, Badmadorji in revenge became an When the assault began on January 29, the caliph eager tool of Xu Shuzheng’s “hard” approach that pro- tried to mollify Hüle’ü by sending out his Shi‘ite vizier, moted Chinese assimilation of the Mongols. In May Mu’ayyid-ad-Din Ibn ‘Alqami, and Mar Makika, the 1920, realizing his unpopularity, he retired to the coun- catholicos of the Church of the East (Nestorians), both tryside, where he died suddenly. considered sympathetic to the Mongols. Hüle’ü sent them See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH; THEO- back and demanded that the dawatdar and other advo- CRATIC PERIOD. cates of resistance be sent out. Meanwhile, the catapults 28 Baikal, Lake 29 breached Ajami tower on Friday, February 1, but stiff in Hüle’ü’s campaign against Baghdad and Aleppo. resistance drove back the Mongols. By Sunday, however, RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH reports, however, that Hüle’ü the Mongols held the walls. The dawatdar tried to escape later executed Baiju and put Chormaqan’s son, down the Tigris, but Mongol patrols sank three boats and Shiremün, in his place. forced him back. From that time the caliph despaired and See also ‘ABBASID CALIPHATE; BAGHDAD, SIEGE OF; KÖSE sent envoys to arrange surrender. Hüle’ü promised the DAG˘ ı, BATTLE OF. caliph’s son favorable treatment, and on Sunday, February 10, the caliph and his sons came out with a party of Baikal, Lake (Baykal) Lake Baikal, the world’s oldest 3,000 dignitaries. and deepest lake, lies in southern Siberia between Rus- On February 13 the Mongol army entered the city sia’s BURIAT REPUBLIC and Irkutsk province. Its drainage with a warrant to kill everyone while the treasures were basin of 557,000 square kilometers (215,060 square gathered in mountainous heaps outside the Mongol com- miles) covers most of the Buriat Republic and north-cen- mand’s kirü’ese, or hitching post. Only the Christians tral Mongolia, including LAKE KHÖWSGÖL. Lake Baikal under the catholicos’s protection were spared. After one extends 636 kilometers (395 miles) southwest to north- week Hüle’ü declared an amnesty for the survivors and east and is 79 kilometers (49 miles) wide at its maxi- left the putrid air of Baghdad. On February 20 the caliph mum; total surface area is 31,500 square kilometers with his entire family and court were executed. That (12,162 square miles). The lake bottom is everywhere same day the vizier Ibn ‘Alqami and other reliable offi- more than 800 meters (2,625 feet) deep and is 1,637 cials were restored to their posts under the eye of a Kho- meters (5,371 feet) deep in the center. Baikal’s 23,000 razmian DARUGHACHI (overseer), Ali Ba’atur. The walls cubic kilometers (5,520 cubic miles) of water hold one- and moats were leveled, and 3,000 Mongol soldiers were fifth of the world’s unfrozen freshwater reserves. Tectonic deputed to dispose of the dead bodies and clear the mar- processes formed the rift valley of Lake Baikal more than ketplaces. 25 million years ago, and it contains more endemic See also ‘ABBASID CALIPHATE; MASSACRES AND THE species than any other lake. The nerpa, or Baikal seal, is MONGOL CONQUEST; MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. the world’s only freshwater pinniped. Lake Baikal is closely rimmed by mountain ridges, Baiju (fl. 1243–1260) Mongol commander who conquered particularly on its western shore. All major affluents—the Seljük Turkey SELENGE RIVER, the Barguzin River, and Upper Angara A relative of JEBE of the Besüd clan and a quiver bearer River—enter the lake from the eastern side, while the in the imperial guard (KESHIG), Baiju commanded 1,000 only effluent, the Angara, flows northwest from the lake’s troops in the army sent with CHORMAQAN to conquer southern end. western Iran. In 1243 Empress TÖREGENE appointed The waters of Lake Baikal are exceptionally clear and Baiju to succeed Chormaqan, now an invalid. That sum- are fully oxygenated to the bottom by currents. The vast mer Baiju invaded the sultanate of Rum in TURKEY. At volume of water delays and moderates seasonal climate Köse Da˘gı (June 26, 1243) Baiju’s army totally defeated changes throughout the lake basin; neighboring air tem- Sultan Ghiyas-ad-Din Kay-Khusrau, and the Mongols peratures range from an average of 11°C (52°F) in August took Erzincan, Kayseri, and Sivas. By releasing David, to –19°C (–2°F) in February. The lake’s surface water the illegitimate son of the Georgian royal family, from does not exceed 12°C (54°F) even in the summer, except prison in Kayseri, he also obtained an effective tool of near the shore. Ice around 0.7–1.15 meters (2.3–3.75 Mongol policy there. Meanwhile, King Het’um I feet) thick covers Baikal from January to May. (1226–69) of LESSER ARMENIA and Sultan Badr-ad-Din The tenggis, or ocean, crossed by the Mongols’ myth- Lu’lu’ (1233–59) of Mosul surrendered voluntarily. The ical ancestors in the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS is caliph of Baghdad, however, defeated Mongol raids in generally identified with Lake Baikal, and BARGA, Khori, 1238 and 1245. Baiju prided himself on the conquest of and Buriat Mongols have inhabited the lake shores since Rum, but GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48) found Baghdad’s resis- at least the 12th century (see BURIATS). The lake’s largest tance irritating and blamed it on Baiju. Güyüg island, Ol’khon (Buriat Oikhon) occupies about 730 appointed new rulers in Rum and GEORGIA and in 1247 square kilometers (282 square miles) and has around demoted Baiju, appointing his own partisan Eljigidei in 1,500 inhabitants. The Ekhired branch of the western his place. When MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) ascended the Buriats settled the island in the 17th century, and it has throne, he had Eljigidei executed and ordered Baiju been a stronghold of SHAMANISM ever since. The island is again into Rum, where the sultan ‘Izz-ad-Din was still held to be the source and location of powerful shaman resisting Mongol control. After Baiju defeated ‘Izz-ad- spirits, particularly at Shaman’s Rock, which juts into Din at Aksaray (October 1256), Möngke ordered Baiju Lake Baikal. The Ol’khon district, including adjacent to put his troops at the service of his brother HÜLE’Ü. mainland areas, has 8,711 inhabitants, of whom 4,237 Baiju mobilized an army of 80,000 and participated ably (49 percent) are Buriat (1989 figures). 30 Bait Despite a pulp and paper mill in Baykal’sk, the lake’s NERS system that formed the Qing dynasty’s garrison sol- water is still clean by international standards. In April diers. Although the Eight Banners system also included 1987 Moscow established a coastal protection zone Mongolian banners, those Mongols lived in garrisons in around Baikal, banning logging and planning less envi- China and Manchuria under a different legal and admin- ronmentally damaging development. In 1996 Baikal was istrative system. made Russia’s only UNESCO World Heritage site and in May 1999 this was reinforced by a special federal law. The ORIGINS paper and pulp mill remains in operation, however. The autonomous banners were first organized in Inner Recently environmental concerns have led to develop- Mongolia in 1634 by the Manchu emperor Hong Taiji (r. ment plans for Lake Baikal that envision phasing out 1627–43), after the defeat of the last independent Mongol commercial fisheries and developing tourism based on emperor LIGDAN KHAN (1604–34). Commissioners trav- amateur sport fishing. eled Inner Mongolia to 1) fix the territory of each Mon- See also HUNTING AND FISHING. golian ruler, or ZASAG (Inner Mongolian jasag); 2) assign each zasag his subjects; and 3) divide the population into Bait See BAYAD. sumus (modern Mongolian SUM, arrow), each to supply 50 soldiers. These demands in themselves did not change Bajan-Ölgij See BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE. traditional Mongolian social structure. Mongol common- ers had long been subject to TAIJI (BORJIGID, or Chinggisid nobles) and had occupied designated pastures. No balish See YASTUQ. attempt was made to break up traditional clan affiliations among the commoners. What was new was that these Baljuna Covenant At Baljuna Lake in summer 1203, new appanages, called “banners” (khoshuu), were defined CHINGGIS KHAN swore an oath that if he became ruler, he and controlled by non-Mongols. would reward those who had suffered with him in his rise to power. The Baljuna covenanters formed a group of STRUCTURE hereditary servants of the dynasty. By 1670 the banner system in Inner Mongolia had After Chinggis was defeated by ONG KHAN of the achieved its final form with 49 banners. The banner con- KEREYID khanate at the battle of Qalaqaljid Sands (spring sisted of a certain body of people on a territory, defined in 1203), he fled east to the area of modern Hulun Buir. triennial censuses and detailed maps. Copies of both were Many of the MONGOL TRIBE had deserted Chinggis, and forwarded to the LIFAN YUAN (Court of Dependencies), his following fell to only 2,600. That summer Chinggis the organization responsible for supervising the Mongol moved to Lake Baljuna in northeast Mongolia. There he banners. The Lifan Yuan issued to the zasag his seal, was joined both by Mongol tribes, such as the QONGGI- which granted the right to rule. RAD, and also by outsiders: Muslims such as Hasan, a In Inner Mongolia each banner office had five officials: trader resident in Mongolia, and JABAR KHOJA, a descen- two administrators (tusalagchi), one adjutant (zakhirugchi; dant of Muhammad, UIGHURS such as the scribe CHINQAI, Inner Mongolian, jakhirugchi), and two deputy adjutants and KITANS such as Yelü Ahai, a renegade envoy from the (meiren). The administrator was required to be a taiji JIN DYNASTY court in North China (see YELÜ AHAI AND (nobleman), and the senior tusalagchi held the seal as TUHUA). Short of food, Chinggis and 19 companions were regent if the zasag was underage. The adjutant and deputy reduced to eating a wild ass, and drinking the muddy adjutants were by custom commoners. water of the shallow lake. Chinggis then swore an oath to The banner population was divided into sums, each share his future goods with those who had shared his pre- of which had 150 households and supplied 50 on-duty sent poverty. These men received the title of “Baljuna fighting men. The sumus were further divided into 50s, men” (Baljunatu). The oath takers were mostly not Mon- 20s, and 10s. In larger banners every six sumus were gols, and it marked their incorporation into Chinggis’s organized into a “regiment” (khariya; Manchu, jalan), inner circle. Sources suspicious of these non-Mongol headed by a “colonel,” or zalan-u zanggi (Inner Mongo- interlopers, such as the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, lian, jalan-u janggi). thus ignore the Baljuna Covenant. The banner office kept extensive records, all in Mon- Further reading: Francis Woodman Cleaves, “The golian, which was the administrative language of all Historicity of the Baljuna Covenant,” Harvard Journal of autonomous banners. All literate commoners were Asiatic Studies 18 (1955): 357–421. required to put in two-month terms as banner clerks. Runners (boshokho or khöögchi) functioned as bailiffs, banners The system of autonomous banners was the transmitting banner orders, collecting requisitions, and basic sociopolitical unit of the Mongols under the QING arresting criminals. DYNASTY (1636–1912). The autonomous Mongolian ban- Banner operations were set up to operate without ners must be clearly distinguished from the EIGHT BAN- extensive taxation. Only the zasag received a large salary. banners 31 Map of Ongni’ud Left Banner, Inner Mongolia. Such illustrated maps of each banner were regularly produced and forwarded to the Lifan Yuan, which kept them on file. (Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientalabteilung) Qing regulations capped taxes at two sheep per 40, six exclusively serving their taiji. Thus, most commoners woks full of grain per two head of horned cattle, and a performed both public service for the banner and the horse, an ox, and cart per 10 households. Since the offi- Qing empire and personal service for their lords. cials and runners were unpaid, overcollection and embez- The Oirat banners of Xinjiang, Kökenuur, and west- zlement were routine. ern Mongolia were similar to the Khalkha banners in size. In western Mongolia the taiji role was played by zaisangs, THE KHALKHA AND OIRAT BANNERS who had no khamjilgas. In 1691 the newly submitted Khalkhas were organized into 34 banners, which the Qing authorities multiplied to DIFFERING BANNER TYPES 86 by 1759. Since the Khalkha population was consider- In several areas banners straddled the divide between ably smaller than Inner Mongolia’s, the multiplication of the Eight Banners and the autonomous banners. Among banners meant that each banner had on average two the Höhhot TÜMED after 1636 and the CHAKHAR after sumus, while the Inner Mongolian banners had on aver- 1675 the Qing abolished the zasags (jasags) and the taiji age 28. As a result, the official hierarchy in Khalkha was class. The areas were organized into banners in the simplified, with only one administrator, an adjutant, and Eight Banners system with (among the Chakhar) auxil- a regimental colonel. iary “pastures” (sürüg) providing pastoral products for The Khalkha and Inner Mongolian banners differed the emperor’s table. Banner heads were appointed offi- in the relation between the taiji’s personal subjects and cials, although an oligarchy of a few non-Borjigid fami- the banner commoners. In each Mongolian banner the lies dominated their ranks. Borjigid clansmen still numerous noble taiji class (usually Borjigid) was origi- existed but had no special status. Mongolian and nally assigned a body of commoners to provide domestic Manchu languages were used together. The New and and pastoral services. In Khalkha the commoners were Old Bargas in HULUN BUIR and the Daurs in Butha were separated into “sumu commoners,” or albatu (taxpayers), treated as “New Manchus” and settled under a similar who performed only public services, and khamjilga, who Eight Banners system, with Manchu as the dominant performed only private duties for their taiji lords. In administrative language. All of these banners, however, Inner Mongolia all banner commoners were assigned to were subject to the LIFAN YUAN’s Mongol law code, the the taijis, with a smaller number reserved as khamjilga, LIFAN YUAN ZELI. 32 Banzarov, Dorzhi Banzarovich In western Mongolia after the collapse of the ZÜNG- 1921 revolutionary regime eliminated the zasag system HARS in 1755, new autonomous banners for the DÖRBÖDS and the taijis’ privileges in 1922–24, and in 1931 a com- and TORGHUDS were created, but alongside them were sev- prehensive administrative reform eliminated the banner eral banners without zasags: ZAKHACHIN, ÖÖLÖD, MING- (khoshuu) as a unit, replacing it with completely new GHAD, and ALTAI URIANGKHAI. These banners’ chiefs were AIMAGs (provinces) and sumus (districts). In Inner Mon- appointed by the AMBAN (imperial resident) of Khowd. golia under the Republic of China (1911–49), the banner The remaining Zünghars in Xinjiang were also organized (khoshuu) remained the unit for Mongol administration into Öölöd banners, which lacked the autonomy of zasag even where Chinese counties (xian) shared the land. The banners. zasag (jasag) system finally collapsed in 1945, but the banner remained the basis for local administrative units THE BANNERS AS COMMUNITIES despite colonization and administrative amalgamation. Each of the Mongolian autonomous banners formed a Among the OIRATS of Xinjiang and Qinghai (Kökenuur), more-or-less closed community. Rituals organized and the banner system was completely replaced by Chinese- financed by the banner included the “seal assembly” of style counties after 1949. the lunar new year in which the banner seal was wor- See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; DUGUILANGS; EDUCATION, shiped and the coming budget discussed by the top offi- TRADITIONAL; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. cials, OBOO (cairn) worship, summer KOUMISS (fermented Further reading: Henry Serruys, “Five Documents mare’s milk) festivals, and NAADAM (games). Each banner Regarding Salt Production in Ordos,” Bulletin of the School also supported a common banner monastery. Banner of Oriental and African Studies 40 (1977): 338–353; ———, membership was hereditary and virtually impossible to “A Question of Land and Landmarks between the Banners change. Banner members could nomadize freely any- Otog and Üüsin (Ordos),” Zentralasiatische Studien 13 where within the banner, open land for hay mowing or (1979): 213–23; ———, “A Socio-Political Document farming, or exploit natural resources (salt lakes, timber, from Ordos: The Dürim of Otog from 1923,” Monumenta etc.) with at most nominal fees. Outsiders, however, Serica 30 (1972–73): 526–621. whether Mongol or Chinese, paid substantial fees for such rights. For all but a few high-ranking noblemen, Banzarov, Dorzhi Banzarovich (1822–1855) The first career mobility outside the banner was impossible. person of Mongol ancestry to obtain a doctorate from a In Inner Mongolia the banners were usually explic- European university itly associated with a particular subethnic identity within Born into the family of a Buriat Cossack petty officer in the Mongols (Khorchin, Baarin, Üjümüchin, etc.). Lower Ichetui (near modern Petropavlovka), Dorzhi Ban- Among the Khalkha, however, all but two of the 86 ban- zarov was of the Tabunanguud clan of Selenge Buriats. ners belonged to the Khalkha subethnic group. For this After completing primary school at age nine, Dorzhi reason banner identity was considerably stronger in Inner attended the Russo-Mongolian Military Academy. In 1835, Mongolia than among the Khalkha. At the same time, the recognizing his brilliance, the Buriat chief or taisha (see members of all the autonomous Mongol banners were a TAISHI) N. Wampilov arranged for him to be exempted recognized and distinct ethnolegal caste within the Qing from the Cossacks’ regular 25-year tour of duty to attend Empire. In this sense membership in the autonomous the gymnasium (classical high school) in Kazan’ on the Mongol banners was one of the major foundations of the Volga, where Dorzhi mastered the main languages of Inner modern sense of Mongolian nationhood. Asia and Europe. Graduating with high honors, he went on to study at the University of Kazan’. His dissertation on MODERN CHANGES The Black Faith, or Shamanism among the Mongols (1846), In the late 19th century the banner system began to show drew scholarly attention to SHAMANISM as the pre-Buddhist significant strains. The irresponsibility of the zasags, who religion of the Mongols. His methodology of trying to had no incentive to frugality, and embezzlement by the identify remnants of shamanism within contemporary unpaid officials led most banners into a permanent fiscal Buddhist practice was immensely influential. In 1850 he crisis. The usual response of renting out banner natural returned to Buriatia on the staff of East Siberia’s governor- resources was itself pervaded by corruption. In Inner general, N. N. Murav’ev. Although he published articles on Mongolia this led to heavy Chinese colonization that paizas, the “Stone of Chinggis Khan” of 1226, and other turned the banner residents into rentiers living off mea- monuments of ancient Mongolian philology, the difficul- ger annuities. In remoter banners auslander Mongols dis- ties of pursuing scholarship in Siberia often depressed him. placed by colonization became a large percentage of the His premature death in 1855 was greeted with dismay by residents, yet without rights or duties beyond paying a Russia’s scholarly world. special tax. In Outer Mongolia many banners became vir- See also BURIATS; NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS. tual wards of Chinese moneylending firms. Further reading: Dorji Banzarov, trans. Jan Nattier Outer Mongolia’s post-1911 independent theocratic and John R. Krueger, “The Black Faith, or Shamanism government did not alter the banner system. The post- among the Mongols,” Mongolian Studies 7 (1982): 53–91. Bao’an language and people 33 Bao’an language and people (Bonan, Pao-an) The Paradoxically, 2,000–3,000 people registered as Tu in Bao’an are a small (12,212 in 1990) nationality in China’s Tongren county speak Bao’an, albeit with small lexical Gansu province who speak a Mongolic language. Muslim differences. These are probably remnants of the original in religion, they live in close contact with the Mongolic- Bao’an population who were forcibly converted (or recon- speaking Dongxiang, the Turkic-speaking Salar, and the verted) to Buddhism. Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslims) in Jishishan county. HISTORY AND SOCIETY ORIGINS In 1862 long-standing quarrels over water rights and The name Bao’an (pronounced Baonang in their own lan- increasing communal tensions led a body of Tibetans and guage) comes from the Bao’an fort built just north of the Tu, mobilized by Rong-bo (Longwu) Monastery, to attack modern Tongren county seat in the early MING DYNASTY the Muslim Bao’an villagers, demanding that they become (1368–1644) and settled by military farmers of various Buddhists. When Tibetans and Tu sacked the fort, the origins. By the mid-Qing dynasty (1636–1912) the Bao’an surviving Muslims, assisted by a friendly Tibetan tribe, fort itself and the outlying Xiazhuang and Gashari (or fled to Xunhua, briefly settling among the Salars, a Turkic Gasiri) hamlets were settled by Muslim speakers of a Muslim people. Not welcomed by the Salars, the Bao’an Mongolic language, living among the Chinese, Hui, were mobilized by Ma Zhan’ao, a leader of the great Hui Tibetans, and Mongolic-speaking Buddhist Tu. rebellion of 1862, and settled after Ma’s surrender to the With no further information available about the ori- Qing dynasty at Dahejia village in Jishishan. Bao’an Mus- gin of these Mongolian-speaking Bao’an Muslims, some lims from Gashari and Xiazhuang later settled in neigh- see them basically as Tu who converted from Buddhism boring villages. to Islam during the time of Ma Laichi (fl. 1698–1747), a The Ma family under the military commander Ma miracle-working Sufi master who is known to have con- Zhan’ao and his son Ma Anliang owned two-thirds of the verted a nearby Tibetan community and probably the land in Dahejia, and the akhunds (Chinese ahong, an small Tuomao group of UPPER MONGOLS. Bao’ans them- Islamic religious leader) of the 42-local monasteries were selves in the 1980s, however, argued that their nationality appointed by the Ma family. In 1896 Ma Anliang exe- originates among SEMUREN, the Turkestani immigrant cuted about 30 Bao’ans for joining an 1895–96 sectarian class in the MONGOL EMPIRE who later came to speak a rebellion among the Salars. Mongolic tongue. In the early 20th century Bao’an merchants became active in the Tibetan trade. Those with larger capital were LANGUAGE called “Tibetan guests” and conducted a trade in luxury The Bao’an language belongs to the Gansu-Qinghai sub- goods as far away as India. The “Songpan guests” had less family of the Mongolic family. Bao’an resembles Tu in the capital and conducted local trade in Songpan and other use of many initial consonant clusters formed by drop- areas along the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau, bar- ping first-syllable vowels (njige, “donkey,” from Middle tering consumer goods for wool. The Bao’an also have a Mongolian eljige; mba-, “to swim,” from Middle Mongo- strong artisan tradition, exemplified by the knives of lian umba-; ft¹~fu 8t¹, “long,” from Middle Mongolian Gaozhaojia village. dialect form *hutu), the presence of word-initial r- (re, After 1930 conflicts became frequent between the “come,” from Middle Mongolian ire-), the relatively loose Bao’an farmers and the wealthy “Eight Families” over constraints on final consonants, and the presence of water rights and usury. Taxes and conscription under the many Tibetan loanwords. These features reflect mostly Hui warlord Ma Bufang also became onerous. the Tibetan sound and lexical environment and appar- Most of the Bao’ans honor the Yatou or Gaozhaojia ently developed largely independently. menhuans (lodges of hereditary Sufi, or Islamic mystic In fact, a number of elements connect Bao’an more masters). The Yatou menhuan was founded by Ma Wen- closely to Dongxiang, which, due to massive Chinese quan (1840–82) of the Qadiriya Sufi lineage, and the influence, superficially seems quite different. Words like Gaozhaojia menhuan, founded by Ma Yiheiya, split off “two” (Bao’an guar, Dongxiang gua versus Tu goor), from that in 1926. Both lineages have maintained their “big” (Bao’an fguo, Dongxiang fugi¹ versus Tu shge), continuity despite persecutions in the Maoist period. “bladder” (Bao’an dol¹kh, Dongxiang dawala versus Tu With the revival of religion after the Cultural Revolution, dabsag), the plural marker -la, and the instrumental the Yatou menhuan had about 5,000 followers, and the case guala show forms shared with Dongxiang and dif- Gaozhaojia menhuan had about 3,000. ferent from Tu. One Bao’an innovation is the change of word-final -n to -ng. DISTRIBUTION AND CURRENT CONDITIONS It was estimated in the mid-1980s that Bao’an speak- In 1952 the new People’s Republic of China fixed the ers totaled about 9,000, the same number as the national- Bao’an as a separate nationality. According to the 1982 ity, although the majority of Bao’ans in Dahejia and other census there were 9,027 Bao’an people in China, of whom major Bao’an villages in Jishishan by then used Chinese. only 170 lived in the old home of Tongren county. Ethnic 34 Baotou affiliation was apparently determined on the basis of reli- Barag See BARGA. gion rather than language, so that the 2,000–3,000 Bud- dhist Bao’an speakers of Tongren were made Tu rather Barga (Barghu, Barag, Bargut) The Barga Mongols are than Bao’an. Of the registered Bao’an, 93 percent lived in Mongols who speak a Buriat-type dialect that came under Jishishan county (1982 population 169,483), concen- the rule of the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) and were trated in a few villages. Jishishan was made a Bao’an, resettled in Inner Mongolia. They were frequently active Dongxiang, and Salar Autonomous County in September in pan-Mongolist movements; the failure of these move- 1981. Jishishan is one of China’s poorest counties, and in ments has led small groups of Barga Mongols to emigrate 1982 more than 93 percent of the Bao’an were employed to Mongolia. primarily in agriculture. About 77 percent of those over Inner Mongolia’s Old Barga (Chen Barag) banner and six were illiterate, and fewer than 15 percent of school- two New Barga (Xin Barag) banners together have a total age children attended primary school. area of 66,376 square kilometers (25,628 square miles). See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; DONGXIANG LAN- The combined 1990 population was 125,200, of whom GUAGE AND PEOPLE; ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MON- 73,600 were Mongol, mostly Barga with some auslanders. GOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; Of these, 72 percent live in the New Barga banners. Most YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES. of the 20,700 Mongols of nearby Hailar and Manzhouli Further reading: Henry Schwarz, Minorities of North- cities are also Barga. Barga in Mongolia numbered 2,100 ern China: A Survey (Bellingham: Western Washington in 1989. Inner Mongolia’s Barga banners have a total of University Press, 1984), 137–143. 1,318,000 head of livestock, of which 1,017,000 are sheep and goats (all figures from 1990). While the Barga Baotou (Pao-tou) Inner Mongolia’s largest city and are sometimes called BURIATS, this is incorrect. Their main industrial center, Baotou accounts for one-third of dialect is similar to the Buriats, but historically they have the region’s total industrial output. never borne that name, and history has made their cul- Baotou municipality covers 9,991 square kilometers ture distinct from the Buriats of Russia, even those of the (3,858 square miles) and has a population of 1,779,314 same clan and lineage. people, of whom only 35,098 are Mongol (1990 figures). Administratively, this municipality is divided into Baotou ORIGINS proper, a suburban district, two mining districts, TÜMED The name Barga has been linked to the Bayirqu, who Right Banner (Tumd Youqi), and Guyang county. The appeared in the early seventh to ninth centuries as one of three widely separated urban districts comprising Baotou the components of the predominantly Turkish Uighur proper—Kundulun, Qingshan, and Donghe—cover 205 confederation living in the Selenge valley. While plausi- square kilometers (79 square miles) and together have a ble, such a connection is unproved. population of 950,000 (1990 figures), of which Mongols In the 12th–13th centuries the Barga appear as a tribe are only 20,000. The Shiguai mining district supplies or clan inhabiting the Barghujin Hollow (modern Bar- Baotou’s coal, while the noncontiguous Bayan Oboo dis- guzin in Buriatia) and were linked to the MONGOL TRIBE trict to the north supplies iron, niobium, and rare-earth by marriage ties. (CHINGGIS KHAN’s legendary ancestress ores. Bayan Oboo has the world’s leading reserve of rare- ALAN GHO’A was of Barga ancestry.) In the MONGOL EMPIRE earths oxides, totaling 103 million metric tons (113 mil- Ambaghai of the Barga (fl. 1211–56) commanded a tümen lion short tons). (10,000) of catapult operators. The Barga share the same Baotou’s current territory was originally the grazing 11 clans into which the Khori Buriats were traditionally ground of the Tümed and Urad Mongols (see divided, and Barga dialect is a type of Buriat Mongolian. ULAANCHAB). The suburban area still includes the Aga- SETTLEMENT IN HULUN BUIR rautai sumu (SUM, or pastoral district) of Urad Mongols, whose 751 inhabitants in 1982 were 66 percent Mongol. While incorporated into the Mongol Empire, the Barga Badgar Juu (Wudang Zhao), a Tibetan-style monastery were never directly ruled by the descendants of Chinggis which housed 1,200 lamas at its height, lies in the Khan. Early in the Northern Yuan (1368–1634) the Barga Shiguai district. CHINESE COLONIZATION established Bao- joined the OIRATs’ coalition against the Northern Yuan tou town (today’s Donghe district) in 1806, and the emperors, and some were scattered widely among the Shiguai coal mines were opened in the 1860s. Railroads Mongols and Oirats. The main body of the Barga-Khori reached Baotou in 1923. In 1925 Chinese geologists dis- tribe moved east to the area between the Ergüne (Argun’) covered the ores of Bayan Oboo. In 1952 the new Chi- River and the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE, where they nese government, with Soviet assistance, began planning became subject to the Solon (Daurs and Solon Ewenki) a massive steel metropolis. Baotou’s industrial output confederation. Around 1594 a large body of Barga-Khoris reached 3.77 billion yuan in 1990 and is roughly one- fled back east to the Onon-Uda-Nercha area, where they third metals and one-third machine tools. faced harassment from the Horse EWENKIS (Khamnigans) See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION. and demands for tribute from the KHALKHA Mongols. bariach 35 While some sought Russian protection and become histories of both the Mongols and his own New Barga ancestors of the Khori Buriats, others remained tributary people as well as advice for the young. This tradition of to the Khalkhas’ Setsen Khan. Meanwhile, when China’s Manchu-language didactic and historical writing contin- QING DYNASTY counterattacked against the Cossacks in ued into the 20th century. the Ergüne and Shilka Rivers in 1685–89, those Barga Under the Japanese occupation of 1932–45, Mongo- remaining east of the Ergüne were deported with the lian became the Barga’s official language. After 1952, Solons to Manchuria. when the new Chinese Communist government desig- The Qing authorities dispersed some of these Barga nated the Daurs as a separate, non-Mongolian, national- among the CHAKHAR banners but in 1732 moved a body ity, the Old Barga were freed from Daur tutelage. Since of 275 Barga soldiers in Manchuria with their households then Barga culture has been more closely integrated into west over the Greater Khinggan Range to the HULUN BUIR that of Inner Mongolia. steppe as part of a 3,000-man-strong “Solon” (again Daur Despite heavy Chinese immigration into Hulun Buir, and Ewenki) banner force. These Barga, called the Old the Barga banners’ Chinese population is found mostly in Bargas, or Chibchins (a somewhat derogatory term), were small administrative centers or in mining districts. The enrolled as Bordered White and Plain Blue banners rural population is mostly Mongols who completely dom- within the Solon Left-Flank banners. As part of the EIGHT inate rural police and administration. Most rural Barga BANNERS system, each Old Barga banner was organized are today seminomadic, often living in houses for part of into three “arrows” (Manchu niru, Mongolian sumu; see the year. Traditional religious and clan life have also SUM). revived since 1979. In 1734 the Barga who had been left in Khalkha’s Set- BARGA OF MONGOLIA sen Khan province complained to the Qing authorities of mistreatment from the Khalkha aristocracy. The Qing Mongolia’s Barga population originated as political refugees. authorities thus selected 2,400 Barga men in Khalkha and After the failed pan-Mongolist insurrection of summer stationed them and the families, too, in Hulun Buir, east 1928 (see MERSE), hundreds of New Barga refugees fled to of the Solon-Old Barga banners. These New Barga Mon- Mongolia and were resettled in Eastern province’s Gurwan- gols formed eight banners in two wings, again each with zagal Sum, which is now about two-thirds Barga. In three “arrows.” autumn 1945 a New Barga militia official, Ya. Shaariibuu (b. 1909), led 1,103 people from Barga to emigrate to Mongo- CULTURE AND LIFESTYLE lia. His people were resettled in Eastern province’s Khölön The traditional lifestyle of both Barga peoples was based Buir Sum, which is now overwhelmingly Barga. In 1989, on fully nomadic pastoralism. As part of the Eight Ban- Mongolia’s Barga numbered about 2,100. ners system, both Old and New Barga used Manchu as See also DAMDINSÜRÜNG, GRAND DUKE; INNER MONGO- their administrative language, and some Manchu loan- LIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGOLIANS. words, such as khala, “clan,” entered their language. Administration, while theoretically meritocratic, was Bargu See BARGA. based on an oligarchy of leading clans holding banner offices hereditarily. In Old Barga the top banner officials were almost all Daurs from Hulun Buir’s capital, Hailar, Bargut See BARGA. but in New Barga they were Barga. The Old and New Bargas differed substantially in bariach Bariach, or bone setters, practice a distinct folkways, with the New Barga showing greater Khalkha form of traditional healing among the Mongols, separate influence. The two dialects differ slightly from each other from either shamanist treatment or Tibeto-Mongolian but preserve distinctive Buriat features, although today medicine, although some bariach are also simultaneously influence from the standard Inner Mongolian taught in shamans or lama-physicians. They are found in Mongo- schools and from recent KHORCHIN immigrants is strong. lia, Inner Mongolia, Buriatia, and among other peoples of The Old Barga lived among Ewenkis and Daurs, neither Siberia. The name is spelled bariyachi in the UIGHUR- of whom had accepted Buddhism, and they, too, pre- MONGOLIAN SCRIPT and baryaashan in Buriat. served their pre-Buddhist native religion. The New Barga, Bariach practice by means of massages, using, as they however, were Buddhists, building many local monaster- say, no equipment but their 10 fingers. By this method ies. The annual fair at New Barga’s Ganjuur Temple they treat broken bones, sprained and dislocated joints, brought traders from Khalkha, Manchuria, and even Bei- and pulled muscles as well as various intestinal condi- jing. tions seen as caused by cold wind penetrating the stom- Qing loyalism strongly colored the active New Barga ach. The most common problem they treat today is mild literary culture, which was carried on almost entirely in concussion (or “brain shaking”), a condition to which is the Manchu language, although Classical Mongolian was attributed a wide variety of illnesses, particularly in chil- also taught. Küberi (1831–90) wrote Manchu-language dren, throughout the former Soviet bloc. While some 36 basqaq bariach do have medical training, they are mostly non- In August 1984 the Soviet leadership engineered professional healers. Tsedenbal’s dismissal, and Batmönkh replaced him as the While bariach do not treat illnesses caused by spirits, party’s general secretary and head of state. After 1986 Bat- their healing power is linked to a force believed to flow mönkh mechanically imitated the Soviet leader Mikhail through the fingers, variously identified with a bariach Gorbachëv’s “openness” and “restructuring” campaigns ancestor, the WHITE OLD MAN, or Manal (the Buddhist until December 1989, when antigovernment demonstra- medicine Buddha Manla or Bhaishajyaguru), or even tions broke out in Mongolia. Lacking Soviet support for a Allah (by a Kazakh bariach) or “bioelectricity” (by a non- crackdown, the party leadership collapsed, and Bat- religious bariach). Bariach can be either male or female, mönkh resigned all positions in March 1990. He has and, like shamans, they usually begin to practice due to played no public role in the new democratic Mongolia. an accident or inexplicable malady, which is interpreted See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; SOVIET UNION as a demand by the bariach ancestors to begin practicing. AND MONGOLIA. In an initiation ceremony, called chandruu, the afflicted person “takes the lineage” and becomes a bariach. Batu (Baty) (d. 1255) Chinggis Khan’s grandson, founder The practice of bone setting is attested to among of the Golden Horde and kingmaker in the 1251 election famous Mongolian and Manchu physicians in Beijing in Batu was the second son of JOCHI, CHINGGIS KHAN’s eldest the 18th century. The Manchu bone setter Aishin Gioro son. His mother, Öki, of the QONGGIRAD, was the daugh- Isangga of the Qianlong period (1735–96) trained his ter of Chinggis’s brother-in-law Alchi Noyan. Despite pupils by heaping tangled reeds and having his students having an elder brother, Hordu (Hordu), Batu succeeded massage them into order. During the early Communist his father by Chinggis’s order and helped enthrone his era some were persecuted as charlatans, but by the 1960s uncle ÖGEDEI KHAN as great khan at the election QURILTAI and 1970s arrests were rare and brief. From 1985 on (assembly) in 1229. famous bariach in ULAANBAATAR and the countryside In 1235 Ögedei proposed to complete the conquest of rapidly developed a public clientele, although medical the western steppe originally entrusted to Batu’s father. In opinion in Mongolia remains divided on the value of spring 1236 Batu and princes from all the Chinggisid lines their services. set out for the conquest of the QIPCHAQS, Russians, and See also MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL. neighboring peoples. According to the will of Chinggis, Further reading: Daniel J. Hruschka, “Baria Healers Jochi’s sons inherited all the lands won in this massive among the Buriats in Eastern Mongolia,” Mongolian Stud- campaign, from the Volga to Hungary, thus making Batu ies 21 (1998): 21–41. the greatest Mongol lord next to the great khan himself. Yet Batu had to live down both his irresolution at the battle basqaq See DARUGHACHI. of Muhi (April 11, 1241) and an embarrassing incident at Kozel’sk (spring 1238), where he struggled for two months against a town his cousins Qadan (son of Ögedei) and Büri Batmönkh See DAYAN KHAN, BATU-MÖNGKE. (grandson of CHA’ADAI) stormed in three days. Büri com- plained of the unfairness of Batu receiving such a vast and Batmönkh, Jambyn (Batmönh) (1926–1997) Last Com- fertile steppe, and, along with Ögedei Khan’s son GÜYÜG munist leader of Mongolia and the non-Chinggisid commander (NOYAN) Harghasun, Born on March 10, 1926, in Bayan Mandal Uula banner ridiculed Batu as an “old woman with a beard.” (modern Khyargas Sum, UWS), Batmönkh belonged to the The death of Ögedei (December 11, 1241) brought a first generation to come of age after the GREAT PURGE. close to Batu’s brief military career. Withdrawing from After attending Mongolian State University, from 1951 Hungary, he made his camps along the banks of the Batmönkh lectured at Mongolian State University and Volga. By this time he was afflicted, like many Mongol then at the Higher Party School. After studying at the princes, with gout and announced his inability to attend Soviet Communist Party’s Academy of Social Sciences in any immediate quriltai, thus delaying the succession for Moscow (1958–61), he headed the Institute of Eco- several years. Eventually, Güyüg was elected great khan nomics and then Mongolian State University. on August 24, 1246, with Batu’s older brother, Hordu, In 1973 he entered the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLU- representing the Jochid lineage. TIONARY PARTY’s Central Committee as chairman of its sci- After Ögedei’s death Batu became a kind of viceroy ence and educational department. In June 1974, when over all the western parts of the empire, controlling rou- the Mongolian ruler YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL chose to tine affairs among the Russian princes, nominating resign his post as premier (head of the government) and Jochid retainers as governors of Iran, and receiving in become head of state (previously a figurehead position), audience grandees from the Caucasus. At no point, how- Batmönkh was chosen to be the new premier as an ever, did he openly challenge the authority of the great unthreatening newcomer outside the ruling circle. Both khan. Suspicions between Batu and Güyüg increased, Tsedenbal and Batmönkh were of the Dörböd tribe. however, when Güyüg replaced the officials in Iran and Bayan Chingsang 37 the Caucasus with his own men, including Eljigidei, the sion to the QING DYNASTY. Like all the Oirat tribes, the father of Harghasun Noyan. When Güyüg began moving Bayads were (and are) not a consanguineal unit but a westward, ostensibly to campaign in the Middle East, political-ethnographic one, formed of at least 40 different SORQAQTANI BEKI, widow of Chinggis Khan’s youngest yasu, or patrilineages, of the most diverse origins. Of the son, Tolui, secretly warned Batu that he was actually 14 BANNERs ruled by the Dörböds’ Choros lineage Güyüg’s intended target. Only Güyüg’s sudden death in princes, 10 were mostly Bayad in composition, giving rise April 1248 averted a possible civil war. to the phrase “the Ten Bayad.” During the succeeding regency Batu called a special Today the Bayad are found in six sums of UWS quriltai in his own territory, attended mostly only by PROVINCE between Lakes Uws and Khyargas and the Tes minor representatives of the great families. When Batu River. They numbered 11,600 in 1929, 15,900 in 1956, proposed elevating Möngke, Tolui’s eldest son and one of and 39,200 in 1989. the few high-ranking princes present, as KHAN, he began a revolution that pitched the Jochid and Toluid families Bayan (1281?–1340) The last powerful Yuan dynasty against his old Chaghatayid and Ögedeid rivals. Möngke minister to oppose Confucianism and cooperation with the had also served in the western campaign of 1235–41 but Chinese had not joined in the ridicule of Batu. Deputing his A MERKID Mongol, Bayan served Prince Haishan in Mon- brother Berke to represent the Jochids, Batu secured golia from 1299 on, winning the title ba’atur (hero) for Möngke’s election at the general quriltai in Mongolia exploits against Chabar’s troops (see QAIDU KHAN). With (July 1251). When Möngke purged the opponents of the Haishan’s enthronement in 1307, Bayan served in the new election, Batu demanded and received custody of department of state affairs and as overseer (DARUGHACHI) Büri and Eljigidei, who were both executed. of the Ossetian (Asud) Right Guards. Under Haishan’s During MÖNGKE KHAN’s reign Batu’s prestige as king- successors Bayan held a variety of provincial posts. maker and the great khan’s viceroy in the west reached its In September 1328, as manager (pingzhang) in height. Even so, Batu allowed Möngke’s census takers to Henan, Bayan backed EL-TEMÜR’s coup d’état that brought operate freely in his realm and scrupulously forwarded Haishan’s son Tuq-Temür (r. 1328, 1329–32) to the foreign representatives, such as WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK, to throne; Bayan headed Tuq-Temür’s KESHIG (imperial Möngke. Batu dispatched a large Jochid delegation to par- guard). After the successive deaths of Tuq-Temür and El- ticipate in HÜLE’Ü’s expedition to the Middle East, little Temür, Bayan helped Budashiri, Tuq-Temür’s QONGGIRAD suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid widow, enthrone the late emperor’s nephew Toghan- predominance there. He received the posthumous title Temür (r. 1333–70). Bayan became supreme grand coun- Sayin Khan (The Good, i.e., Late, Khan). Möngke cillor (da chengxiang) and tutor for El-Tegüs, Tuq-Temür’s appointed first Batu’s son Sartaq (r. 1255–56) and then son and the heir apparent. Sartaq’s son Ula’achi (Ulaghchi, 1256–57) as Batu’s suc- From November 1335 Bayan tried to revive the old cessors, but both soon died, perhaps by poison, leaving ethnic hierarchy, abolishing the Confucian examination the throne to Batu’s brother Berke. system and reemphasizing restrictions against Chinese See also GOLDEN HORDE; KIEV, SIEGE OF; MUHI, BATTLE holding certain offices, bearing arms, or learning Mongol OF; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SARAY AND NEW or SEMUREN (West and Central Asian) languages. At the SARAY. same time he encouraged agriculture and reduced the Further reading: W. Barthold, trans. John Andrew oppressively high salt monopoly fees. All Confucians, Boyle, “Batu,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2d ed., Vol. 1 Mongol and semuren as well as Chinese, opposed his anti- (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960– ), 1,105–1,106. Confucian policies and blamed popular unrest on his dis- couragement of Confucian learning. Bayan’s persecution Baty See BATU. of distinguished Mongol and semu opponents added to the opposition. Several incidents led Bayan to fear assassi- nation from disgruntled Chinese, while wild rumors Bayad (Bait) The ethnonym Bayad (rich ones, from spread that he intended to execute all Chinese of the sur- bayan, rich) appears early in Inner Asian history among names Zhang, Wang, Liu, Li, and Zhao. While Bayan was various Mongolian and Turkish peoples in related forms. outside the capital hunting, his nephew TOQTO’A In the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, the clan name (1314–56) on March 14, 1340, convinced the emperor to Baya’ud appears among the Mongols, while the ethnonym exile him. Bayan died a month later. Bayid appears in Central Siberia. Only the latter appears to be connected to the modern Bayad people of western Mongolia (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). Bayan Chingsang (1236–1295) The conqueror of South The Bayad appear to be Siberian peoples subjugated China under Qubilai Khan by the DÖRBÖD tribe of the OIRATS. In 1753 they followed Bayan’s Nichügün Baarin clan, one of CHINGGIS KHAN’s old the Dörböd prince Tseren-Möngke (d. 1757) into submis- NÖKÖR families, had followed the Mongol army west to 38 Bayan Khongor Iran. In 1264 HÜLE’Ü, the Mongol ruler there, sent Bayan In 1277–78 Bayan had been briefly sent to Mongolia as his envoy to the court of QUBILAI KHAN in China. to deal with a sudden crisis caused by the rebellion of Bayan’s appearance immediately impressed the emperor, several frontier princes. Afterward the situation steadily who detained Bayan for his own service. Within a year deteriorated under pressure from Qubilai’s rival QAIDU Qubilai had married him to his empress CHABUI’s niece (1236–1301) and the growing disloyalty of the frontier and briefly appointed him junior grand councillor Mongols, aristocrats and commoners alike. Returning to (chengxiang or chingsang). Mongolia in 1285, Bayan faced serious supply problems, In 1274, with the Song weakening, Qubilai reap- and he set his troops to supplementing their diet with pointed him junior grand councillor and assigned him an steppe roots and their clothing with marmot skins. In army of 100,000 to conquer South China. Bayan 1287 he advised Qubilai to use Chinese troops against Chingsang, with his hard-fighting junior colleague AJU, NAYAN’S REBELLION. Bayan’s defensive strategy against personally led the advance down the Han River. Using Qaidu caused enemies at court to denounce him as sym- portage through lakes and canals to avoid the Song pathetic to the enemy. In 1292 Qubilai ordered him fortresses of Yingzhou (modern Zhongxiang) and Ezhou- replaced by Öz-Temür (1242–95). Hanyang (modern Wuhan), Bayan and Aju’s combined Bayan remained in Datong (modern Datong) in land–sea force, numbering 10,000 ships, defeated the semidisgrace until January 1294, when Qubilai fell ill. 10,000 ships of the Song general Xia Gui at Yangluobao Bayan was summoned to the emperor’s side at DAIDU Fort (January 12, 1275) and the 130,000 men and 2,500 (modern Beijing), and when Qubilai died in February boats of the Song’s supreme commander, Jia Sidao, at 1294 Bayan served as regent in the capital until May, Dingjia Isle (March 19). By April the Yuan armies held when Qubilai’s grandson Temür was elected great khan. Jiankang (modern Nanjing), and Qubilai, fearful of soldier Bayan died on January 11, 1295, covered with honors. deaths from the southern heat, called off all operations Further reading: Francis Woodman Cleaves, “The and summoned his generals to an imperial audience in Biography of Bayan of the B¯arin in the Yüan shih,” Har- SHANGDU in August 1275. Less worried about Song resis- vard Journal of Asiatic Studies 19 (1956): 185–303; C. C. tance than about minimizing destruction in the rich lower Hsiao, “Bayan,” in In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Per- Chang (Yangtze), Qubilai diverted the aggressive Aju to sonalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), besiege Yangzhou while Bayan moved on the Song capital ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras- at Lin’an (modern Hangzhou). Bayan was promoted to sowitz, 1993), 584–607. senior grand councillor, with Aju as his junior colleague. The final assault on the Song began in late Novem- Bayan Khongor See BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE. ber, as Bayan Chingsang’s army launched a three-pronged advance south from Zhenjiang. Stiffened by loyalist Bayan Ülegei See BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE. scholars and volunteers such as Wen Tianxiang (Wen T’ien-hsiang, 1236–83), the Song armies took their last stand in Changzhou city, which the Mongols first Bayanchongor See BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE. stormed and then massacred on December 6 after a two- day siege. Bayan’s armies met no resistance as they Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Prefecture (Bayin- camped before the Song capital on February 5, 1276, and golin, Bayinguoleng) The Mongol autonomous prefec- he escorted the Song empresses north and was received in ture (subprovincial unit) of Bayangol lies in central the victory celebrations at Shangdu on June 14, 1276. Xinjiang, the Uighur autonomous region of China. The During and after the conquest of the Song, Bayan Mongol inhabitants are OIRATS or western Mongols, Chingsang (Grand Councillor Bayan) achieved legendary related to Russia’s KALMYKS. status. Chinese songs and folklore spoke of him as “Hun- On July 14, 1954, four counties in the north of the dred Eyes” (bai yan in Chinese), and his red banner could traditional Karashahr district were made the Bayangol incite panic in Song troops by its sudden appearance. Mongol Autonomous Prefecture with its capital at Yanqi Even so, Qubilai’s chief mandate to Bayan was to kill no (the new name for Karashahr city). At that time Mongols more than necessary, and Changzhou was the only city were about 35 percent of the prefecture’s population. This where he ordered wholesale massacre. In 1311 a temple original or northern Bayangol territory stretches from the was dedicated to him in Lin’an by imperial decree. alpine pastures of Bayanbulag (Zultus), set 2,500 meters During his stay in the south, the development of (8,200 feet) above sea level amid the snow-capped Tian- water transport, both inland and overseas, had impressed shan Mountains, east long the Kaidu River to Bosten him, and in 1282 he advocated both the construction of Lake, 1,048 meters (3,438 feet) above sea level. Hejing canals in the north and the overseas transportation of county occupies the uplands in the west, while Khoshud southern grain to the capital. These proposals bore fruit, (Hoxud), Bohu (Bagrash), and Yanqi counties surround however, only after he had been dispatched to the Mon- Bosten Lake. These four counties together occupy 55,600 golian frontier. square kilometers (21,470 square miles) and in 1999 had Bayingolin 39 403,618 inhabitants, who were 10 percent Mongol, 56 miles) and has 1,562,560 inhabitants, of whom 65,592, percent Chinese, 22 percent Uighur, and 11 percent Hui or 4 percent were Mongols (1990). The capital is Linhe. (Chinese-speaking Muslim). The Mongols of Bayangol Bayannuur league was originally the name given in were settled from Kalmykia in 1771: TORGHUDS in Hejing, 1956 to what is now ALASHAN league. In 1958 the three and KHOSHUDS in the other three counties. Mongols Urad banners, previously part of ULAANCHAB league, and totaled about 36,700 in 1982 and 40,623 in 1999; seven the Hetao district, previously a non-Mongol district out of 10 are Torghud. within the INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION, were In 1960, as part of the administrative gerrymander- added to it. In 1969 the Alashan banners were stripped ing in minority regions during Mao Zedong’s Great Leap from Inner Mongolia, and the Bayannuur league was left Forward, Bayangol’s capital was moved to Korla city, and in its present form. the vast Korla district added to Bayangol’s territory, thus See also INNER MONGOLIANS; ORDOS. re-creating the pre-1954 Karashahr district. The newly added Korla district, covering almost 425,000 square Bayan-Ölgii province (Bayan-Ölgiy, Bajan-Ölgij, Bayan kilometers (164,100 square miles) of the arid Tarim Ülegei) Mongolia’s only majority non-Mongol province, Basin, was originally almost purely Uighur in ethnic com- Bayan-Ölgii was carved out of KHOWD and UWS provinces position; in 1999 its 608,641 people were 56 percent Chi- in 1940 in the far west of Mongolia to be a province for the nese, 42 percent Uighur, and 2 percent Hui. The 3,918 Turkic-speaking KAZAKHS and the Mongolian-speaking Mongols in Korla in 1999 are white-collar employees and ALTAI URIYANGKHAI. It has a long frontier with Xinjiang in their families, who moved there after 1954 to work in the China and the Altay Republic in Russia. The area was part prefectural administration and cultural organs. of the Khowd frontier until 1906, when it became part of In northern Bayangol 54,019 hectares (133,481 the Altai district. It was occupied by the Mongols in the acres) were cultivated in 1999, and total livestock 1911 RESTORATION of independence. Frequent border dis- (including pigs) was about 1,460,000 head, of which putes with China and the continued moving back and 949,800 were in Hejing county. About half of the Bayan- forth of the Kazakh population over the frontier disturbed bulag alpine pasture suffers from overgrazing. China’s conditions until the final border demarcation in 1964. The railroad system reached Korla in 1979. province, covering 45,700 square kilometers (17,645 See also FLIGHT OF THE KALMYKS; XINJIANG MONGOLS. square miles), occupies the ALTAI RANGE and contains Mongolia’s highest peak, Khüiten Uul (4,374 meters, Bayanhongor See BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE. 14,350 feet high). The population was 38,300 in 1956 and 94,600 in 2000, making it one of Mongolia’s most densely Bayankhongor province (Bayanhongor, Bayanchon- inhabited rural provinces. The total herd of livestock is gor, Bayan Khongor) Created in 1942 out of South 1,310,400 head and has a typical dry-region composition, Khangai and Altai provinces, Bayankhongor lies in south- with relatively fewer horses and horned cattle and rela- western Mongolia. Its territory includes parts of KHALKHA tively more goats and sheep. The provincial capital of Ölgii Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Zasagtu Khan and Sain has 28,100 inhabitants (2000 figures). Although the 1992 Noyan provinces and ranges from the southern slopes of constitution recognizes only Mongolian as the official lan- the KHANGAI RANGE, the easternmost spur of the ALTAI guage, education and many social activities take place in RANGE, and into the GOBI DESERT. The province has a Kazakh. The Kazakh percentage of the population steadily short frontier with western Inner Mongolia in China. It increased from 1940. In 1989 it reached 91.3 percent of the has an area of 116,000 square kilometers (44,776 square total population of 89,862, while the Altai Uriyangkhais miles) and is relatively dry. The population has grown were 5.7 percent, TUVANS 0.8 percent, and DÖRBÖD 1.5 per- from 42,100 in 1956 to 85,300 in 2000. The province is cent. From 1992 to 2001 an estimated net 15,000 Kazakhs one of Mongolia’s most purely pastoral, with the largest emigrated to newly independent Kazakhstan. The total herd (2,3375,700 head in 2000) and the most goats, province’s percentage of Kazakhs declined to 80 percent, raised particularly for CASHMERE (1,190,000 head). As a while Altai Uriyangkhais increased to 17 percent. Unem- mostly gobi-type region, the number of camels is also rel- ployment, which was at Mongolia’s worst in 1992 at 18.9 atively large (37,100 head). There is no significant agri- percent, has declined to 4.3 percent in 2000, slightly below culture. The center of the province is Bayankhongor the national average. town, with 22,100 people (2000). Further reading: Louisa Waugh, Hearing Birds Fly: A Nomadic Year in Mongolia (London: Little, Brown, 2003). Bayannuur league (Bayannur, Bayannao’r) Bayan- nuur league today includes the sparsely inhabited Urad Bayan-Ölgiy See BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE. BANNERS in Inner Mongolia’s GOBI DESERT and the densely farmed Hetao region along the Huang (Yellow) River. The Bayingolin See BAYANGOL MONGOL AUTONOMOUS league covers 64,400 square kilometers (24,865 square PREFECTURE. 40 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur (Kanjur or Kangyur and Only a very small number of individual chapters from Tanjur or Tengyur) The translation of the Tibetan Bud- this edition have survived. dhist canon, formed by bKa’-’gyur (translated scriptures) In 1717–20 the Qing dynasty’s Kangxi emperor and the bsTan-’gyur (translated canonical treatises), was a (1662–1722) sponsored the block printing of the com- major achievement of Mongolian Buddhism. plete Mongolian bKa’-’gyur in Beijing, based on Ligdan In Indian Buddhism, scriptures, or the “word of the Khan’s manuscript edition. A Tu (Monguor) INCARNATE Buddha” (buddhavacana), were classified into “three bas- LAMA from western Gansu, the Tuguan Khutugtu, kets” (Sanskrit, Tripitaka): sutras (Mongolian, sudur), or Agwang-Choiji-Jamsu (Tibetan, Ngag-dbang Chos-kyi discourses on liberation; vinaya (Mongolian, winai), or rGya-mtsho, 1680–1735), headed an editorial committee the code of discipline; and abhidharma (Mongolian, iledte composed of mostly Inner Mongolian lamas resident in nom, or abidarma) or systematic expositions of doctrine. Beijing. The Chinese Buddhist canon preserved this threefold In 1742–49 the Qianlong emperor (1736–96) spon- structure. sored the translation of the bsTan-’gyur. The chief of the The Tibetans did not organize their extensive transla- editorial committee, the Second JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU Rol- tions of the scriptures and Indian Buddhist scholarship bidorji (1716–86), had a very low opinion of the existing until the reign of the Mongol Yuan emperor Ayurbarwada translations. As a prolegomena to his work, he and his (titled Buyantu, 1311–20). With the support of Ayurbar- large team, including Inner Mongolian translators such as wada’s Tibetan chaplain ’Jam-dbyangs Bagshi, sNar-thang DUKE GOMBOJAB and Tibetan specialists in particular fields Monastery (near modern Xigazê) produced the first edi- such as sculpture, medicine, and linguistics, first created tion of the canon. The first and subsequent Tibetan edi- a terminological dictionary, the Merged garkhu-yin oron tors combined all the “word of the Buddha” into the (Font of Scholars; Tibetan, Dag-yig mkhas-pa’i ’byung- bKa’-’gyur (translated word; Mongolian, Ganjuur), gnas). Copies of the printed Mongolian bsTan-’gyur are divided into vinaya, sutra, and tantra (Mongolian, ündüsü today very rare. or dandra/dandris). The treatises (shastra; Mongolian, Despite the translations, the vast majority of monas- shastir) and commentaries of Indian Buddhist writers teries performed services in Tibetan, and the coveted such as Nagarjuna, Shantideva, and Ashvaghosha were bKa’-’gyur remained much easier to obtain in the Tibetan organized into the bsTan-’gyur (translated treatises; Mon- language than in Mongolian. When the Eighth Jibzun- golian, Danjuur). The bKa’-’gyur contains 108 volumes damba Khutugtu sponsored a new printing of the bKa’- and the bsTan-’gyur 225; together they include roughly ’gyur in Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR) in 1908–10, it was in 4,567 separate works. The first printing of the bKa’-’gyur Tibetan, not Mongolian. In any case, only a few monks was in Beijing in 1410 under the Chinese MING DYNASTY went beyond the often highly able Tibetan-language (1368–1644). handbooks and commentaries, and copies of the full After a decline in Mongolian Buddhism in the 15th canon were not the basis of practical instruction. Even so, and 16th centuries, the newly converted ALTAN KHAN the importance of the bKa’-’gyur is seen even in Mongo- (1508–82) patronized Ayushi Güüshi (fl. 1578–1609), lian EPICS, in which the hero’s bride often brings a copy of Shiregetü Güüshi Chorjiwa (fl. 1578–1618), and other the canon in her dowry. translators in his capital Guihua (modern HÖHHOT). In See also LITERATURE; SECOND CONVERSION; TIBET AND 1587 Ayushi Güüshi created a complete set of new galig THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBETAN CULTURE IN MONGOLIA; TU (transcription) letters to enable the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. SCRIPT to render all the different letters of Sanskrit and Further reading: Walther Heissig, A Lost Civilization: Tibetan. This was important to ensure the proper pro- The Mongols Rediscovered, trans. D. J. S. Thomson (Lon- nunciation of the dharanis (Mongolian, tarni), or spells, don: Thames and Hudson, 1966); Karénina Kollmar- that sealed initiations and meditative visualizations. A Paulenz, “A Note on the Mongolian Translator Ayusi complete bKa’-’gyur translation was said to have been fin- Güsi,” in Tractata Tibetica et Mongolica, eds. Karénina ished in 1607 under Altan’s grandson, Namudai Sechen Kollmar-Paulenz and Christian Peter (Wiesbaden: Otto Khan (Chürüke, 1586–1607), but no copies have sur- Harrassowitz, 2002), 177–187. vived. Some treatises from the bsTan-’gyur were also translated. Black Death The Mongol Empire may have played a LIGDAN KHAN (1604–34), as part of his program of pivotal role in spreading the bubonic plague, which con- reviving the YUAN DYNASTY, commissioned Gungga-Odser vulsed its realms and ushered in the Eurasiawide catas- to produce a complete bKa’-’gyur translation in 1628–29. trophe of the mid-14th century. Gungga-Odser’s team mostly appropriated the work of By 1304 the various successor states of the divided the Höhhot translators, often excising the previous trans- MONGOL EMPIRE had reached a new period of stability. lators’ names and introducing their own. Their final Traditional Mongol policy subsidized long-distance com- product was a special manuscript edition in gold letters merce by plowing regressive taxation into capital for tax- on a blue ground and five plainer manuscript copies. exempt merchant partners (ORTOQ), who operated with Blue Horde 41 government guarantees of their profit and safety. Indian Golden Horde in 1346 and south to Mongol soldiers in Ocean sea trade and Inner Asian caravans linked China, Azerbaijan in 1346–47. Mongol military operations then Central Asia, India, the Middle East, and Europe. The spread it to Mosul and Baghdad in 1349. Early outbreaks increase of international trade created the conditions for in Sindh had probably followed caravan routes south transfer of diseases. from Khorazm; evidence of an Indian Ocean transmission The European Black Death began in the Genoese route is slim. port city of Caffa (Feodosiya) in the CRIMEA, whence Ital- In recent centuries, while poorer Mongols continue ian traders carried goods from the Mongol GOLDEN HORDE to enjoy marmots as food and sell their pelts, hunters all over the Mediterranean. The Crimean port cities paid have followed rigorous customary rules against hunting tribute but were often in conflict with the inland Mongol sick or weak individuals. The Tu (Monguor) nationality rulers. In 1346 plague broke out among Golden Horde in the Qinghai province of China even prohibit the eating soldiers besieging Caffa, who catapulted the bodies of the of marmot, saying it is to them what pork is to Muslims. dead into the city. Italian trading ships then carried the A scholar-lama of the Tu, Sumpa mKhan-po Ishi-Baljur plague all over the Mediterranean, hitting Alexandria, (1704–87), observed that bubonic plague spread from Aleppo, and Marseilles in 1347 and Cairo, Paris, and marmots (see MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL). The influx of Chi- London by 1348. nese hunters, unfamiliar with the danger of sick mar- Although the plague spreads to human populations mots, sparked plague epidemics in Manchuria in 1911 from fleas that infest black rats, the plague bacillus, Pas- and 1921, and the hardships after the fall of the Japanese teurella pestis, is fatal to humans and rats and hence Empire in 1945 led to another outbreak of bubonic needs a separate long-term reservoir. In nature it exists as plague, which devastated Inner Mongolia. an endemic disease in burrowing rodent populations. In See also CHAGHATAY KHANATE; INDIA AND THE MON- the 20th century, for example, after spreading by ship GOLS; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; WESTERN EUROPE AND from Hong Kong to port cities of North and South Amer- THE MONGOLS; YUAN DYNASTY. ica, it became nativized among Andean and Rocky Moun- Further reading: Michael W. Dols, Black Death in the tain ground squirrels and marmots. Since plague Middle East (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, outbreaks occasionally reached the Mediterranean but 1977); William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New never became a constant threat before the great outbreak York: Anchor Book/Doubleday, 1998). of 1347, the plague bacillus, now endemic among mar- mots in the neighboring Black Sea steppe zone, probably Blue Horde (White Horde, Princes of the Left Hand) became nativized there only in the 14th century. From This autonomous area within the Golden Horde, in cen- then on the burrowing rodents of the Black Sea and tral and eastern Kazakhstan, eventually nurtured forces Caspian steppes served as reservoirs for constant out- that would overthrow the Golden Horde’s rulers and cre- breaks in western Eurasia until trade and lifestyle ate a host of successor states. changes occurred in the 17th century. The patrimony of CHINGGIS KHAN’s eldest son, JOCHI The 14th-century Black Death first appeared in Mon- was known to the Russians as the GOLDEN HORDE. This gol-ruled China. From 1313 a series of epidemics struck territory was itself soon divided into two wings, right and Henan province; they culminated in 1331 with an epi- left, under the supreme rule of the family of BATU, Jochi’s demic that supposedly killed nine-tenths of the popula- second son. Four of Jochi’s sons, including Hordu (the tion. Epidemics broke out in coastal provinces in eldest) and Toqa-Temür, were the “princes of the left 1345–46. Finally, in 1351 massive epidemics began to hand,” the east, while the rest formed the right, or west- strike throughout China yearly up to 1362, causing catas- ern, half under the Batids. The “left hand” is called the trophic population decline. William McNeill has thus “Blue Horde” in Russian sources, but the “White Horde” speculated that the plague was originally native to bur- in Timurid sources. While Western scholarly tradition rowing rodents of the Himalayan foothills. The Mongols, has favored the second, the use of “Blue Horde” by Ötem- by joining YUNNAN on the southeastern skirts of the ish Hajji (fl. 1555), a Khorazmian scholar intimately Himalayas to China proper and hunting marmots there, familiar with the Horde’s oral traditions, indicates the inadvertently transmitted the plague to Henan and the Russian usage is correct. Chinese heartland by 1331, if not before. From there Although displaced as Jochi’s successor by order of Mongol activity introduced it into the marmot colonies of Chinggis Khan, Jochi’s eldest son, Hordu (fl. 1225–52), Inner Asia, whence it began to spread west. European headed the “princes of the left hand” and received a and Muslim writers virtually all recorded the plague as tümen, nominally 10,000, as his half-share of Jochi’s army. beginning in China and then crossing the steppe to the Hordu’s main camp was at Alakol Lake, and his territory Crimea. Excavations of a Christian cemetery near Ysyk- contained no significant cities, although a number of Köl Lake (Kyrgyzstan) suggest a devastating outbreak of small farming villages in its territory have been exca- plague in 1338–39. Muslim writers noted the progress of vated. The fur trade in Siberia was an important part of the plague from KHORAZM in 1345 to the center of the its economy (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). The 42 Bodô cities along the Syr Dar’ya, held first by Shiban of the of the Central Asian conqueror TIMUR (Tamerlane). Toq- “right hand” and later by the Chaghatayids, came under tamish went on to occupy Saray in 1378 and defeat Emir Blue Horde rule after 1320. At first the Jochid “left hand” Mamaq (Mamay) of the Qiyat (Kiyad) in 1380, the last was not sharply separate from the rest of the empire. powerful defender of the “right hand” leadership. Hordu participated in the western campaign of 1236–42, Despite Toqtamish’s later overthrow by Timur his son Qurumshi nomadized along the Dnieper at least (1395), the Blue Horde Chinggisids continued to domi- to 1256, and in 1252 Hordu assigned his son Quli to rep- nate the Qipchaq steppe, yet the tribal composition had resent the Golden Horde during HÜLE’Ü’s expedition changed considerably from the time of Bayan. Toq- against Baghdad. tamish’s four chief clans were the Shirin, Baarin, Arghun, In the Mongol civil wars after 1260, Hordu’s succes- and Qipchaq. The Shirin and Qipchaqs were local Turk- sors followed the policy set by the rulers of the Golden ish clans, but the Baarin were descendants of the Mongol Horde as a whole, supporting first ARIQ-BÖKE and then myriarchs (commanders of 10,000) on the Irtysh (see QAIDU against QUBILAI KHAN. From 1284, however, SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). These clans under Hordu’s immensely fat grandson, Qonichi (fl. 1277–96), Toqa-Temürid dynasties formed the tribal core of both the turned away from Qaidu to establish friendly relations Crimean (1449–1783) and the Kazan (1445–1552) with the Yuan and the IL-KHANATE, receiving luxury gifts khanates. and grain from the Yuan as reward. Qaidu then sponsored East of the Volga Shibanid princes dominated the old a rival, Köbeleg (or possibly Küilüg), against Hordu’s son Blue Horde and western Siberia, forming khanates in the Bayan (fl. 1299–1304), leading to civil war. course of the 15th and 16th centuries: the khanate of In Bayan’s time the leading non-Chinggisid comman- Tyumen’ that emerged under Ibrahim Ibaq (fl. ders (NOYAN) were all of Mongol clans: Keniges, QONGGI- 1473–1500) and the Uzbeks (or Özbegs) that coalesced RAD (later Turkish Qunghrat), Jajirad, and Besüd. around Abu’l-Khayr (b. 1412, r. 1428–68) and occupied RASHID-UD-DIN also mentions 4,000 Jalayir clansmen Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) in 1512. Meanwhile, Urus commanded by OIRATs. Hordu’s family were QUDA (mar- Khan’s family fled east to escape Abu’l-Khayr’s rule, riage allies) of Qonggirad as well as of the Jajirad, becoming KAZAKHS (from qazaq, freebooter) on the bor- KEREYID, NAIMAN, MERKID, TATARs, Arghun (probably a der of MOGHULISTAN; they returned to dominate the branch of the Önggüd in KHORAZM), and Qipchaqs, while steppe under Qasim Khan (d. 1523). Non-Chinggisid another Jochid married a woman of the Töles (a Siberian rulers also played a major role: the Manghits (or Nogays) people). From Qonichi’s time, at least, the Blue Horde on the Ural River, the Qonghrats (Qonggirads) in Kho- had its own KESHIG or royal guard. Hungarians, Circas- razm, and the Taybughids (probably of KEREYID ancestry) sians, and probably Russians served as discrete units in around Sibir’ (modern Tobolsk). These ethnopolitical Bayan’s armies. confederations formed part of the origin of the modern Under Bayan’s successors Sasi-Buqa (r. 1313–20/21) Uzbek, Kazakh, Tatar, Bashkir (Bashkort), Karakalpak, and Irzan (r. 1320/21–44/45), the Blue Horde’s center and Nogay nationalities. moved south to the Syr Dar’ya. Previously, the descen- Further reading: Th. T. Allsen, “The Princes of the dants of Shiban, easternmost of the “right hand” princes, Left Hand: An Introduction to the History of the Ulus of held the Syr Dar’ya valley, but now they apparently joined Orda in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries,” the “left hand.” Irzan was also the first Muslim ruler of Archivum Euraiae Medii Aevi 5 (1985 [1989]): 5–40; Allen the Blue Horde, sponsoring urban madrasahs (schools), Frank, The Siberian Chronicles and the Taybughid Biys of mosques, and Sufi (mystic) lodges. Nevertheless, the Sibir (Bloomington, Ind.: Research Institute for Inner Horduid lineage did not survive the BLACK DEATH that tra- Asian Studies, 1994). versed the Golden Horde from 1338 to 1346. By 1362 Urus Khan (d. 1377), of the line of Toqa-Temür, was rul- Bodô (Dogsomyn Bodoo) (1885–1922) A leader of the ing the Blue Horde from Sighnaq (near modern Chiili). 1921 Revolution who resigned as prime minister under criti- The western half of the Golden Horde was hit even cism and was later shot as a counterrevolutionary harder by the plague, however, and Blue Horde lineages Bodô was born in the Maimaching (Chinatown) of (including the Shibanids) streamed west to seek their for- Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR), as a member of the tune. In 1360 a Shibanid, Khizr (Khydyr) Khan, over- GREAT SHABI or ecclesiastical serfs. He became a clerk in threw Khan Nawroz (1360) and occupied the Golden the office of the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA, or the administra- Horde’s capital of New Saray. Meanwhile, Bulat-Temür tion of the Bogda’s (Holy One, the Jibzundamba and his son Arab-Shah, also Blue Horde princes, occupied Khutugtu) estate. Educated as a lama, he knew Mongo- Kazan. In 1373 Urus Khan overthrew Khizr Khan’s fam- lian, Tibetan, Manchu, and Chinese. In 1913 he left to ily. Urus Khan and his sons were overthrown in 1377 by become a teacher of Mongolian in the Russian-Mongolian another Toqa-Temürid, TOQTAMISH (fl. 1375–1405), and Translators’ School and helped TSYBEN ZHAMTSARANOVICH his commander in chief (beglerbegi), Edigü (d. 1420), of ZHAMTSARANO publish his progressive journal. Bodô the Manghit (Mongolian, MANGGHUD) clan, both protegés wrote both Buddhist surgal shilüg (teaching verses) and Bolor erikhe 43 Chinese-style fiction (see DIDACTIC POETRY and CHINESE appointment as ambassador to Moscow saying he would FICTION). “not abandon his country or religion” and returned to With the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY in autumn 1919, private life, living with his wife in the countryside near Bodô’s yurt in the Consulate Terrace area became the cen- Ulaanbaatar. That spring the youth league, headed by ter of a secret anti-Chinese nam (faction or party), includ- Bodô’s pupil Choibalsang, began cutting off “feudal” ing Chagdurjab (D. Chagdarjaw, 1880–1922), a wealthy ornaments on Mongolian clothing: large cuffs, women’s lama friend with a wide social network, MARSHAL jewelry, and high shoulders. The resulting storm of con- CHOIBALSANG, a Russian-trained interpreter, and occa- troversy was blamed on Bodô. In August he was arrested sionally local Russian Bolshevik sympathizers. The group by the Office of Internal Security and investigated by a eventually merged with another anti-Chinese nam, the Soviet adviser, Sorokin. Bodô’s first statement maintained East Khüriye group, to form the People’s Party of Outer his innocence, but in a later statement, after torture, he Mongolia. On July 27, 1920, Bodô and Chagdurjab were confessed to plotting to overthrow the government. Upon sent to Russia to appeal for assistance. Joined by other approval by the government (including his old enemies party organizers, Bodô with Danzin of the East Khüriye Danzin and Sükhebaatur) Bodô and 14 others, including group took the lead in negotiations with the Soviet Chagdurjab, were executed without trial on August 31. authorities in Irkutsk. By this time Bodô had already See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH; 1921 REVO- emerged in clashes with Danzin as the most radical of the LUTION; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. leaders, while Danzin criticized him as vain and intellec- tually arrogant. Bodoo, Dogsomyn See BODÔ. In September Bodô returned to Mongolia with Dog- sum (D. Dogsom, 1884–1941) of the East Khüriye group. Bogda Khan Period See THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Chinese arrests made revolutionary activity impossible, and he escaped east, where he was impressed into BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON UNGERN-STERNBERG’s White Rus- Bolad Chingsang (d. 1313) Ambassador from the Yuan sian army, which had invaded Mongolia. In mid-March to the Il-Khanate and cultural broker 1921 he escaped the Whites and returned to the Mongo- Bolad’s father, of the Dörben clan, served as imperial lian border town of Altanbulag, which had become the ba’urchi (steward) and guards commander for CHINGGIS base for the Soviet-allied People’s Party. On April 16 he KHAN. In the 1240s Prince Qubilai (1215–94) arranged replaced the unpopular Chagdurjab as prime minister of tutoring for Bolad from the Chinese scholar Zhang Dehui the provisional government and on July 8 delivered with (1197–1274), and Bolad became fluent in Chinese. After his comrades the terms of the new government to the Qubilai’s election as khan in 1260, Bolad served as Bogda. ba’urchi, designer of court ritual, censor, and chief of the Bodô became prime minister and concurrent foreign agricultural administration. Bolad also served as judge in minister of the new constitutional monarchy and deputy the sensitive cases of ARIQ-BÖKE (1264) and the murder of party chairman under Danzin. From September 29, while AHMAD (1282). From 1283–85 Bolad went as Qubilai’s Danzin and GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR were away in Russia envoy to the Mongol Il-Khan Arghun (1284–91) in the negotiating a friendship treaty, Soviet advisers described Middle East. His return was blocked by QAIDU’s insur- Bodô as the most reliable and forward looking of the rev- gency, and he remained in the Il-Khanate. Bolad received olutionaries. On his own authority he brought Chagdur- command in Arghun’s KESHIG (royal guard) and a royal jab back into the government as his deputy and organized concubine as a new wife. Subsequently, he served as con- a People’s Mutual-Aid Cooperative on October 16, a plan sultant on institutions and usages in China and at Qubi- that Chagdurjab had briefly attempted in 1918. Danzin lai’s court, including on paper money (chao) and on had preferred to leave constitutional arrangements unset- Mongol customs, history, and genealogy. In 1302 GHAZAN tled, but Bodô had the Bogda approve a nine-article KHAN made him commander of a new guards unit of “sworn treaty” on November 1. Later, his frequent con- redeemed Mongol slave boys. Under Öljeitü (1304–16), tact with the Bogda’s court, the clemency shown to the Bolad achieved great influence as chingsang (chengxiang, alleged lama-conspirators led by Shagja Lama, and his grand councillor) and aqa (elder). Working closely with publication of a controversial note by Danzin treating the RASHID-UD-DIN, Bolad Chingsang was a major purveyor of constitutional monarchy as a temporary expedient made Chinese culture in Iran. him look pro-clerical. See also QUBILAI KHAN. As a result, when Danzin returned on December 22, Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- he had more than enough ammunition for his insistence quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- that Bodô was “fickle and weak.” Ill and depressed, Bodô sity Press, 2001). twice tried to resign; the second time, on January 7, 1922, his resignation was gratefully accepted by Danzin, Bolor erikhe (Bolor Erike; Bolor Erkh) The Bolor Sükhebaatur, and ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO. He refused an erikhe (Crystal Rosary), written in 1774–75, was the first 44 Bonan Mongolian chronicle to use the Chinese-language sources Arulad clansmen served the khans in high positions both on the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY. Its author, Rashipungsug, in the YUAN DYNASTY in China and in the CHAGHATAY was a third-rank TAIJI and administrator (tusalagchi) of KHANATE in Turkestan. Baarin Right Banner (modern Bairin Youqi) in JUU UDA league. His only other known work is a history of a local boqta Virtually all travelers in the MONGOL EMPIRE temple. remarked on the boqta, the headdress worn by married After discussing the nature and origin of the Mon- Mongol women. Portraits of Mongol rulers from both gols, Rashipungsug traces the Mongol khans from their Iran and China in the 13th and 14th centuries show this legendary ancestors among the Indian and Tibetan kings, striking piece of clothing. The boqta (modern Mongolian through CHINGGIS KHAN, to Ligdan Khan’s death in 1634. bogt) had a round base that fit on top of the head, a tall A fourth chapter gives the genealogy of the descendants column, and a square top. On the square top was fitted a of BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN and the fifth chapter that of tuft formed of willow branches or rods covered by green the other Mongolian zasags (banner rulers). felt. The framework of the boqta was light wood, covered While drawing heavily on previous Mongolian with green or red silk. The column and the tuft at the top chronicles, for the period from 1206 to 1368 Rashipung- were decorated according to the wearer’s rank and sug incorporated extensive selections from 1) the YUAN wealth: peacock feathers, mallard or kingfisher down, or SHI’s basic annals, 2) the Zizhi tongjian gangmu (xu bian), precious stones. The boqta stood just over a meter or and 3) the Gangjian huizuan, all MING DYNASTY about 3.5 feet high. The boqta was worn over a hood into (1368–1644) works available in Mongolian or Manchu which the wearer would put up her hair in a chignon and translation. Rashipungsug discussed contradictions in his was tied on below the chin. Wearing the boqta was so sources, criticized Chinese prejudices against the Mon- closely associated with the status of a married lady that gols and Confucian prejudices against Buddhism, and boqtala- (modern bogtlo-), “to put on the boqta,” became defended apparent blemishes in the record of the Mongo- a synonym for marriage. The boqta may be the model for lian rulers. While by no means a critical historian, he other high headdresses found in Europe and the Middle illustrated the new intellectual horizons opened by con- East during the late Middle Ages, such as the Flemish tact with Chinese culture and furnished the background hennin. The boqta disappeared sometime before the late for the later Inner Mongolian author, Injannashi’s, rejec- 16th century. Fashion designers in Mongolia have tion of blind filiopietism. recently included boqta-style hats in their designs. See also CLOTHING AND DRESS; FAMILY; JEWELRY. Bonan See BAO’AN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. Borghochin See BO’ORCHU. Bo’orchu (Borghochin) Chinggis Khan’s earliest and most trusted nökör, or companion, and one of four heads of Borjigid (Borjigin) The clan of CHINGGIS KHAN, named his keshig, or imperial guard the Borjigid or, in a narrower sense, the Kiyad, formed Bo’orchu was the only son of Naqu the Rich, a herdsman the ruling class among the Mongols, Kazakhs, and other of the Arulad lineage, one of the free Dürlükin (non- peoples of Inner Asia. (Borjigin and Kiyan are singular noble) lineages of the MONGOL TRIBE. Once, when forms, while Borjigid and Kiyad are the plural. Temüjin (later CHINGGIS KHAN) was tracking horse Kiyan/Kiyad is spelled in Turkish and Middle Mongolian thieves who had stolen his eight geldings, he passed as Qiyan/Qiyat.) Recent genetic research has confirmed Bo’orchu milking his father’s mares. Bo’orchu, then 13 that as many as 16 million men from Manchuria to years old, immediately joined Temüjin in the chase, and Afghanistan may have Borjigid-Kiyad ancestry. they recovered the horses. Bo’orchu returned home, but with his father’s blessing soon joined Temüjin’s camp as IN THE MONGOL TRIBE his first NÖKÖR, or companion. From then on Bo’orchu The clan names Borjigid and Kiyad, which appear to be shared all the conqueror’s hardships. Accounts of Ching- synonymous, were both applied to the leading lineage gis’s rise all contain vivid stories of the sufferings within the 12th-century MONGOL TRIBE. Sometimes they Bo’orchu loyally endured although the details differ. were used as a general term for all branches of the domi- Bo’orchu, with Boroghul, MUQALI, and Chila’un of the nant Niru’un (“backbone”) patrilineage of the Mongol Suldus, formed the khan’s “four steeds.” After Chinggis tribe, while at other times they were applied only to the Khan’s coronation in 1206, Bo’orchu received command narrower branch that produced the khans. The Niru’un of the entire right wing of the army. Bo’orchu, like the moiety contained about 20 major sublineages, all claim- other “four steeds,” also shared titular command of the ing common ancestry, although controversies were rife KESHIG, or imperial guard, governing it for three days out over the legitimacy of this or that sublineage’s inclusion. of 12. Bo’orchu received 17,300 households in North As in the Türk ancestor myths, supernatural wolf China’s Guangping (near Handan) as appanage. Bo’orchu’s descent justified Borjigid supremacy. The patrilineage Borjigid 45 began with Blueish Wolf (Börte Chino’a) and his con- BORJIGID RULE IN MONGOLIA sort Fallow Doe (Gho’ai Maral), and the supernatural Under BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?) a broad animal motif was repeated when ALAN GHO’A, the Fair, Borjigid revival reestablished Borjigid supremacy among the widowed wife of Blueish Wolf’s 11th-generation the Mongols proper and even influenced the western descendant, Dobun Mergen, was impregnated by a ray Oirats. Among the Khalkha and in western Inner Mongo- of light, which metamorphosed into a “yellow dog” (dog lia, the descendants of Dayan Khan proliferated to become here is probably a euphemism for wolf). Alan the Fair’s a new ruling class. The eastern Khorchins were under the youngest son became the ancestor of the later Borjigid. Qasarids, and the Ongni’ud and Abagha Mongols under the Belgüteids and Odchiginids (see JUU UDA; SHILIIN GOL). IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE Meanwhile, a fragment of the Qasarids deported by the The rise of Chinggis Khan narrowed the scope of the Bor- Oirats became the KHOSHUDS, the only component tribe in jigid-Kiyad clans sharply. Virtually all of his uncles and the Oirat confederacy to claim Borjigid ancestry. first cousins had died, and from then on only the descen- The QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) formalized the class dants of YISÜGEI BA’ATUR (i.e., Chinggis and his brothers) distinction between the Borjigid ruling class (whether formed the real Borjigid. This separation was emphasized Chinggisid or of the fraternal lineages), called TAIJI, and by the intermarriage of Chinggis’s descendants with the their subjects. Genealogies of the Borjigid of each banner Barulas, Baarin, MANGGHUD, and other branches of the were updated triennially. Taijis had the right to certain ser- original Borjigid. (As patrilineages were exogamous, the vices from their subjects and were distinguished from fact of intermarriage made clans qari, or foreign.) In the them by distinguishing marks, such as rank buttons, while western khanates the Yürkin (Jürkin) and perhaps other only their wives could wear a sleeveless outercoat, or uuji. lineages near to Chinggis’s lineage used the clan name The Borjigid generally numbered about 10 percent to 20 Kiyad or Qiyat but did not share in the privileges of the percent of the male lay population, although in some BAN- Chinggisids. NERS or districts they reached as much as 42 percent. Within the empire the descendants of Chinggis’s four As an exogamous patrilineage, the Borjigid generally brothers (Qasar, Qachi’un, Temüge Odchigin, and his married either commoners or the taiji from southeastern half-brother, Belgütei) lived in the east along both sides Inner Mongolia’s KHARACHIN and Monggoljin banners of the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE, while his sons JOCHI, (see FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY), who were not CHA’ADAI, and ÖGEDEI KHAN had their appanages west of Borjigid. By the 18th century, however, Chinggisid Bor- the ALTAI RANGE. The reigning khan and/or descendants jigid were also taking wives from the KHORCHIN taiji and of Chinggis’s youngest son, TOLUI, held the middle. Fam- other fraternal lineages, despite disapproval from rigorists ily politics later led to the dispersal of the Ögedeid line such as Rashipungsug (fl. 1775; see BOLOR ERIKHE). and the creation of new Toluid centers in North China In every banner the taiji traditionally gathered for clan and in the Middle East. sacrifices carried on in various manners, depending on the In 1335, with the disintegration of the IL-KHANATE, influence of Buddhism, CONFUCIANISM, or the Mongol the first of numerous non–Borjigid-Kiyad dynasties native religion. These sacrifices were dedicated not only to appeared. Established by QUDA (marriage partners) of Chinggis or his brothers but also to more recent ancestors the Kiyad rulers, these dynasties included the Suldus of the Borjigid nobility, such as KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG- (see CHUBAN) and JALAYIR dynasties in the Middle East, TAIJI in Üüshin banner and ABATAI KHAN in Khalkha. The the Barulas dynasties in Central Asia and India (see largest of these clan sacrifices occurred at the EIGHT WHITE TIMUR), the Mangghud and QONGGIRAD dynasties in the YURTS in Ordos. Some were open to all Mongols, but others GOLDEN HORDE and Central Asia, and the OIRATS in west- were open only to the taiji. ern Mongolia. Yet the Chinggisid Kiyad continued to rule in the CRIMEA, Kazan’, Kazakhstan, and MOGHULIS- IN THE MODERN ERA TAN until the Russian and Chinese conquest. The Qiyat The linking of Borjigid descent to the privileges of aris- clan name is still found among the KAZAKHS, Uzbeks, tocracy made them a target of attack for 20th-century and Karakalpaks. revolutionary governments. In Mongolia CLAN NAMES After the expulsion of the Toluid dynasty from China were replaced by PATRONYMICS in an effort to break down in 1368, the emperors in Mongolia faced repeated chal- class distinctions. The democratization of the cult of lenges from rival Borjigid descendants as well as from the Chinggis Khan also diluted the previous close link of non-Borjigid Oirat. Meanwhile, descendants of Chinggis Borjigid status with Chinggis Khan. Even so, when the Khan’s brothers, Qasar and Belgütei, surrendered to the Mongolian government decided to revive clan names in Ming in the 1380s and became tributary princes of the 1998, many if not most of the Mongols preferred the THREE GUARDS. (Descendants of Temüge Odchigin name Borjigid. In Inner Mongolia the Borjigid or Kiyad nomadized with the Belgüteids.) By 1470 virtually all name became the basis for many Chinese surnames. In these lines were severely weakened, and Mongolia was in eastern Inner Mongolia taijis took the surname Bao (from almost total chaos. Borjigid), and in ORDOS Qi (from Kiyad). 46 Borotala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; KINSHIP SYSTEM. chief, stopped by Dei Sechen’s camp with his nine-year- Further reading: Tatiana Zergal et al., “The Genetic old son Temüjin (later CHINGGIS KHAN). Yisügei Ba’atur Legacy of the Mongols,” American Journal of Human agreed to Dei Sechen’s proposal to betroth the two chil- Genetics 72 (2003): 717–721. dren and left his son with Dei Sechen. On Yisügei Ba’atur’s murder a servant of Yisügei fetched back Borotala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture (Bortala) Temüjin to his mother’s camp. Borotala is a Mongol autonomous prefecture, or sub- As Temüjin and Börte entered adolescence, Temüjin provincial unit, situated within Xinjiang, China’s went to marry Börte. Dei Sechen worried that the autonomous region for the Uighur nationality. Covering young orphan could not protect his wife, but Börte’s more than 27,000 square kilometers (10,425 square younger brother Alchi convinced his father to agree. miles), the prefecture centers on the valley of the Borotala Börte thus joined Temüjin’s family, bringing a sable coat River draining into Ebi Nuur Lake, which lies 189 meters as dowry. Temüjin gave the sable coat as a present to (620 feet) above sea level. The Borotala valley is flanked the powerful KEREYID khan Toghril (later ONG KHAN), and when Temüjin’s teenage bride was kidnaped by by the Kökechin Mountains to the south and the Alatau MERKID tribesmen, Toghril Khan helped him rescue Mountains to the northwest, whose peaks soar to more Börte from her captors. Soon after her rescue, Börte than 4,000 meters (13,100 feet). Sayram Lake, 2,073 bore her first son, JOCHI, who was widely suspected of meters (6,801 feet) above sea level, is a major tourist not being Temüjin’s. attraction. The prefecture is divided into two counties, Temüjin and Börte had no further children for a few Wenquan and Jinghe, and a municipality, Borotala (Chi- years, and he encouraged her to adopt the orphan SHIGI nese, Bole). Since 1990 railways linking Kazakhstan and QUTUQU. Eventually she bore Temüjin three more sons, Xinjiang have passed through Jinghe. CHA’ADAI, ÖGEDEI (b. 1185), and TOLUI (b. 1192), and five Despite being a Mongol autonomous unit, the prefec- daughters. During Temüjin’s rise to power as Chinggis ture’s 26,448 Mongols are only 6.6 percent of its 403,733 Khan, he placed great store by Börte Üjin’s words. She people (1999 figures) and are outnumbered by Chinese first advised him to break with JAMUGHA and around (66 percent), Uighurs (13 percent), and KAZAKHS (10 per- 1210 convinced him that the shaman Teb Tenggeri posed cent). In 1982 the 21,500 Mongols were 7.4 percent of a mortal threat to the new dynasty. She survived her hus- the population. band, keeping his ORDO (palace-tent) into the 1230s. The original core of Borotala’s Mongol population See also ÖGEDEI KHAN. was more than 1,800 CHAKHAR soldiers assigned to garri- son the area in 1757–67 after its conquest by China’s QING DYNASTY. The area’s remaining ZÜNGHARS were Buddhism See BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST; BUDDHISM attached to the Chakhar banners (see EIGHT BANNERS). IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BUDDHIST FINE ARTS; CHAGHAN The area of Jinghe county in the east was settled in 1771 TEÜKE; CHOSGI-ODSIR; DANZIN-RABJAI; DIDACTIC POETRY; by Torghud Oirats fleeing from the Volga (see FLIGHT OF DORZHIEV AGWANG; INCARNATE LAMAS; JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU; THE KALMYKS). With the Chinese Communist entry into JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU; LAMAS AND MONASTICISM; LITERA- Xinjiang, Borotala was made an autonomous prefecture TURE; ’PHAGS-PA LAMA; RELIGION; SECOND CONVERSION; on July 1, 1954, at which time Mongols were 25 percent TIBETAN CULTURE IN MONGOLIA; “TWO CUSTOMS.” of the population. Total livestock (including pigs) num- ber 146,000 head (1999). Since 1950 the Chinese Peo- ple’s Liberation Army has operated military farms Buddhism, campaign against The campaign in revo- throughout the lowlands, and farmland has increased 8.9 lutionary Mongolia against Buddhism both as an institu- times, to 63,800 hectares, or 157,650 acres (1999). Ebi tion and as a belief system ended with virtually complete Nuur Lake is drying out, and dust storms have made 70 victory in 1940. percent of Jinghe county’s steppe unusable. EARLY CONFLICTS See also FLIGHT OF THE KALMYKS; TORGHUDS; XINJIANG Although the movement leading to the 1921 REVOLU- MONGOLS. TION began as a defense of faith and nation against the Chinese, the Mongolian People’s Party’s appeal to Soviet Bortala See BOROTALA MONGOL AUTONOMOUS Russia in 1920 raised the specter of atheism. During the PREFECTURE. 1921 battles the revolutionaries, in fact and in song, raised the red flag of the People’s Party with the yellow Börte Üjin (1161?–1237?) The principal wife of Ching- flag of Buddhism, yet Buddhism had so long been asso- gis Khan and the mother of his four famous sons ciated with Mongolia’s existing social order that calls for Börte Üjin (Lady Börte) was the daughter of Dei Sechen serious social reforms excited strong clerical opposition. of the QONGGIRAD lineage and his wife Chotan. When she Until 1924 the theocratic lama-emperor Bogda Khan was 10, YISÜGEI BA’ATUR (Hero Yisügei), a leading Mongol was retained as a constitutional monarch, but with his Buddhism, campaign against 47 death in May, the 1924 CONSTITUTION enjoined a strict persons, mostly clerics, were tried in the Eregdendagwa separation of church and state, the abolition of the shabi- case. The Yegüzer Khutugtu Galsangdashi (1870–1930) nar (personal subjects of monasteries or INCARNATE was executed with the lay TAIJI Eregdendagwa and his LAMAS), and the abolition of any secular jurisdiction of confederates on September 30, and the Diluwa Khutugtu religious figures. Estimates in 1924 showed about Jamsrangjab (1883–1964) fled the country. Another large 113,000 lamas, yet this figure must include many who group was tried in November 1931. lived essentially as laymen. After the government insisted In spring 1930 uncoordinated resistance broke out on treating these “part-time lamas” as laymen, probably against the party’s tsonjin shashin, or “religion of some increased their commitment to retain their monas- weapons,” as the lamas called it, in Dörböd territory (UWS tic status, while other accepted de facto laicization. In PROVINCE) and at Bandida Gegeen Monastery (Rashaant 1925 lamas resident in monasteries were estimated at Sum, Khöwsgöl). A far bloodier rebellion began at Ban- 87,300 persons, or about 25 percent of the male popula- dida Gegeen Monastery on April 12, 1932. The lamas tion, a major increase over past numbers, and the jisa organized an insurrectionary government while hoping (modern Mongolian, jas), or monastic herds, at 21 per- for the aid of the Panchen Lama and the soldiers of cent of all livestock. In 1925–26 the government ordered Shambala, the hidden Buddhist realm whose soldiers will that no child could be ordained before age 18, that only destroy the enemies of Buddhism at the end of the age. By those with two brothers could become ordained, and that July the new rebel government had 13 bands with more the jisa/jas be taxed. than 3,000 men, who sacked 35 sum government offices Implementation of these measures caused isolated dis- in NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE, KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE, turbances at monasteries from winter 1924–25 on. Apoca- SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE, and ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. lyptic chain letters warned believers against associating with the polluted party and the youth league members. THE LEGAL CAMPAIGN Disaffected believers looked to proposed reincarnations of The scale of this rebellion, which was not finally stamped the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, or the Sixth (or Ninth) out until October 1932, shocked the government into Panchen Lama (Chos-kyi Nyi-ma, 1883–1939), who had removing the most offensive features of the new regime. left Tibet and was traveling in North China and Inner The existing tax system remained, however, and the old Mongolia. As the party touched more lives through the economic position of the monasteries was not restored. draft, new schools, the mutual-aid cooperatives, and new The jisa/jas numbers steadily declined to 108,644 head in party and league cells, the countryside polarized into reli- 1936 and 84,605 the next year. The military tax, set on a gious and anticlerical camps. Even so, in 1929 only 5,773 sliding scale, had averaged 14.5 tögrögs per lama up to children were being trained in public schools, while 1934 but after that jumped every year to an average 116.1 18,995 children aged eight to 17 were being educated in per person in 1938. A special tax on lamas with high the monasteries. scholarly or administrative ranks was instituted in April 1936, with top rates of 75 percent of income. By 1938 the THE LEFTIST PERIOD monasteries were supplying one-quarter of total govern- The leftist period, from 1929 to 1932, saw the first com- ment revenues. Representatives reporting to the party and prehensive attack on the Buddhist clergy. Writers and security organs were appointed to each monastery in popular propagandists denounced the corruption of the 1934, and the lamas lost the ability to discipline their clergy and the Panchen Lama as the tool of Japanese own ranks. Even so, the number of lamas increased after and/or Chinese imperialism. After 1930 crude attacks and 1932 and remained steady at around 75,000 to 1937. The desecration of sacred objects organized by Youth League lamas were maintained by the staunch generosity of the members escalated. people; the government estimated that believers donated By late 1929 114 incarnations and high lamas had 2.7 million tögrögs worth of livestock in 1936 and 1937. had their property confiscated. By 1930 649,526 head of the monastic jisa/jas herds had been transferred to poor THE FINAL CAMPAIGN and middle-class herders and 1,224,565 head to the From 1934 the Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin had been insist- newly organized collectives. The total jisa/jas dropped ing on the elimination of the lamas in Mongolia. When from 3,598,329 head in 1927 (17 percent of all livestock) Prime Minister GENDÜN proved unwilling to do so, he to 3,034,568 head in 1930 (about 13 percent), and was replaced in March 1936, and real power was given to 392,322 head in 1933 (2 percent). Heavy taxes were the interior minister MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG. Given its levied on lamas of military age in lieu of service. Any continued strength, the elimination of Buddhism could form of education within the monasteries was prohibited, not be achieved solely by taxation. In 1936 100 lamas as was any new religious construction. were executed in SOUTH GOBI PROVINCE. In 1937 35 bor- Executions and show trials intimidated the high der monasteries were closed, with more than 2,000 lamas lamas. The Khalkha Zaya Pandita was arrested in 1929 executed for resistance. The number of military-age and executed in February 1930. From March 1930 38 lamas declined from 40,953 in 1937 to 23,254 in 1938 48 Buddhism in the Mongol Empire and 13,613 in 1939. Marshal Choibalsang noted that by introducing them to MUQALI, the Mongols’ viceroy in November 1939 he had formally arrested 17,335 lamas North China. On Muqali’s recommendation Chinggis and “made an end of” 20,356. About 50,000 lamas Khan granted both clerics the status of DARQAN, or tax returned to lay life, some after time in prison. Late in exempt, and allowed them to gather monks under their 1939 the great monasteries of ULAANBAATAR were closed, protection. That same year Yelü Chucai’s opposition and by 1940 lamas numbered fewer than 500. The final defeated a plan to conscript Buddhist monks for the army. liquidation netted 5,916 kilograms (13,042 pounds) of Chinggis Khan’s later contacts with the Taoist silver religious articles, 336,734 head of livestock, and (Daoist) MASTER CHANGCHUN gave the latter the opportu- 5,470 buildings. The silver was melted down and the nity to take over Buddhist monasteries, sparking a long- buildings mostly cannibalized for wood and bricks. standing conflict between Buddhists and Taoists. Under See also GANDAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY. ÖGEDEI KHAN Yelü Chucai and Haiyun defended Buddhist Further reading: Owen Lattimore and Fukiko Isono, interests and promoted Mongol appreciation of Chinese The Diluv Khutagt: Memoirs and Autobiography of a Mon- culture generally. Buddhist monasteries were also estab- gol Buddhist Reincarnation in Religion and Revolution lished in the new Mongolian capital of QARA-QORUM. In (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1982); Larry William 1247 GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48) appointed Haiyun chief of Moses, Political Role of Mongol Buddhism (Bloomington: all the Buddhist monks of the empire, and this was con- Indiana University Press, 1977). firmed in the first year of his successor, MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59). From 1255 to 1258 Möngke and his brother Buddhism in the Mongol Empire Probably the first Qubilai, his regent in North China, repeatedly demanded foreign religion to be given official status by the Mongols, that the Taoists cease their denigration of Buddhism. Buddhism eventually became the main religion of the Under Möngke Khan, however, Tibetan and Kash- Mongol Yuan dynasty in the East. miri Buddhism began to replace Chinese Buddhism in The earliest Inner Asian empire to accept Buddhism imperial favor. Under Ögedei Khan the Kashmiri brothers was the western branch of the first Türk Empire Otochi and Namo attended the Mongol court, where (552–659), under which Buddhism became the court reli- Otochi served as a physician. In 1253 Möngke made gion. The succeeding Uighurs turned to Manicheism, but Namo chief of all the Buddhist monks of the empire. In by 982 the Uighur oasis kingdom in Turpan (Turfan) and 1240 KÖTEN, Ögedei’s second son, dwelling in the old Besh-baligh (near modern Qitai) was Buddhist, mixing Tangut territory, had dispatched an expedition to central the native Nikaya (Hinayana) tradition with strong Chi- Tibet to renew the Tangut link with the monasteries nese Mahayana influences (see UIGHUR EMPIRE and there. In 1247 the hierarch of the Sa-skya-pa order and UIGHURS). Chinese Buddhism also exerted a profound head of the aristocratic ’Khon family, Kun-dga’ rGyal- influence on the KITANS, who founded the Liao dynasty mtshan (1182–1251), known as Sa-skya Pandita (Scholar (907–1125) in Inner Mongolia and the Tangut XIA of the Sakya), met Köten and won the sickly prince’s DYNASTY (1038–1227) in Northwest China. The Liao favor by healing him. In 1251–52 Möngke Khan ordered emperors sponsored the first critical edition of the Bud- the initial conquest of Tibet. As part of the conquest dhist scriptures in Chinese in 1063. Möngke also extended the tax exemption of all Buddhist During the 12th century Tibetan Buddhism eclipsed clergy to Tibet and granted its monasteries as appanages Chinese Buddhism among the Tangut. The later Xia to various Mongolian princes. The Tibetan Karma emperors invited monks from central Tibet to serve as Bakhshi (1206–83), famed for his miraculous accom- state preceptors (guoshi) and bestow on them Tantric ini- plishments, also received Möngke’s patronage. In 1253 tiations, while the Tibetan monks recognized the Xia Sa-skya Pandita’s nephew ’Phags-pa (1235–80) was sum- rulers as incarnations of a bodhisattva. Among the north- moned from the late Köten’s camp to that of Qubilai, ern nomads the Xia emperor became known as the Möngke’s brother. That same year ’Phags-pa conferred on Burqan Khan, or “Buddha Khan.” Under the JIN DYNASTY Qubilai the initiation of the Tantric protector deity, Heva- (1115–1234), which replaced the Liao and conquered jra. Such Tantric initiations became regular among Qubi- North China, Dhyana (Zen) Buddhism flourished. The lai’s descendants, accounting for the many Sanskrit QARA-KHITAI Empire (1131–1213), formed by Kitan names in the imperial family. refugees in predominantly Muslim Turkistan, also patron- The new Tibetan and Kashmiri Buddhists at the ized Buddhism, as did their eastern Uighur vassals. Mongol court assisted the Chinese Buddhists in their dis- The Mongols’ early contacts with Buddhism were all pute with the Taoists. In the 1258 debate with the Taoists with the Dhyana (Zen) school. In 1215 YELÜ CHUCAI, a in the presence of Qubilai, ’Phags-pa and Namo joined Kitan scholar and lay disciple of the Dhyana master Wan- forces with Fuyu (1203–75), abbot of Qara-Qorum’s song Xingxiu (1166–1246), entered CHINGGIS KHAN’s ser- Shaolin Monastery and a discipline of Wansong Xingxiu, vice. In 1219 SHII TIANZE, a Chinese general in Mongol and LIU BINGZHONG (1216–74), a disciple of Haiyun’s, to service, enrolled as a lay disciple of the Dhyana master humiliate their Taoist interlocutors. As a result 237 Taoist Zhongguan (d. 1220) and his disciple Haiyun (1202–57), monasteries were returned to Buddhist control. The Buddhism in the Mongol Empire 49 Tibetan Buddhist familiarity with the Indian textual tradi- and Uighur languages. (The temple’s pagoda is still tion and training in debating techniques impressed Qubi- extant.) ’Phags-pa Lama authored the Shes-bya Rab-gsal lai and helped ’Phags-pa win the debate. (1278), a detailed outline of Buddhist dogmatics dedi- When Qubilai became khan (1260–94) Liu Bingzhong cated to Qubilai’s son and heir apparent, JINGIM. In this remained a trusted councillor, but Dhyana Buddhism work ’Phags-pa first linked the Mongol khans to the his- declined in importance. Qubilai appointed ’PHAGS-PA torical succession of Buddhist monarchs. In the famous LAMA his state preceptor on the Xia or Tangut model, giv- multilingual Juyongguan inscription of 1345 Qubilai and ing him power over all the empire’s Buddhist monks, his successors were hailed as long-prophesied bodhisattva Chinese and Tibetan. In 1270, after ’Phags-pa created the khans. SQUARE SCRIPT on the basis of the Tibetan alphabet as a Under Mongol patronage the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist common writing system for the empire, Qubilai pro- textual tradition strongly influenced the long-standing moted him to imperial preceptor (dishi). The displays of Chinese and Uighur Buddhist scholarship as well as the levitation and other magical accomplishments at court by infant Mongolian tradition. When the Chinese Buddhist the baqshis (Buddhist teachers) astounded visitors such canon was reprinted in 1285–87, all items were collated as MARCO POLO. with Tibetan translations and the Sanskrit titles added For the rest of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China to from Tibetan sources where the Chinese lacked them. 1368, Tibetans were the most influential Buddhist clergy. Tibetan Tantric Buddhism continued to be patronized by In 1264 Qubilai created the Supreme Control Commission the succeeding MING DYNASTY (1368–1644), becoming a (Zongzhiyuan) under the state preceptor to administer part of Buddhism in China proper to the present. At the affairs of both Chinese and Tibetan monks. During ’Phags- same time familiarity with the standardized Chinese pa’s frequent absences in Tibet, power devolved onto a canon probably inspired ’Jam-dbyangs Bagshi, a cleric at coterie of Buddhist bureaucrats, including the Tibetan the Mongol court, to sponsor the creation of the first SANGHA. In 1288 Sangha, who had in the meantime risen Tibetan canon, or bKa’-’gyur, at sNar-thang monastery to high office, had the office renamed the Commission for (near modern Xigazê) around 1320. Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzhengyuan), while dis- Contact with Tibetans at court also brought about lit- placing ’Phags-pa’s ’Khon family in favor of less-highborn eracy in Tibetan among the Uighurs. Karunadasas, one of Sa-skya-pa monks. In 1315 the position of imperial pre- the first Uighur interpreters in ’Phags-pa’s entourage, ceptor moved back to the ’Khon family, where it stayed translated in 1302 the Indo-Tibetan devotional lyrics for until the end of the Yuan. the bodhisattva Manjushri. During the early and mid- In DAIDU (modern Beijing) Qubilai built the White 14th century, Uighurs in Kumul (Hami), Gansu, and Bei- Pagoda Temple (Baitasi), which became a center for Bud- jing translated many Tibetan works. Uighur and Mongolian dhist translations from Tibetan into both the Mongolian translators, such as Sonom-Gara and CHOSGI-ODSIR The White Pagoda in Beijing, designed by Aniga. It is the only remaining monument of the Yuan dynasty in its former capital. (Photo courtesy of Lynn Struve) 50 Buddhist fine arts (fl. 1307–21) with his disciple Shirab-Singgi in Beijing, their religion. The history of Buddhism is less well rendered many Tibetan Buddhist works into Mongolian, known in the CHAGHATAY KHANATE, but the very name of including sutras, devotional works, the biography of the the khanate’s first strong Muslim khan, Tarmashirin Buddha, and guides to lay Buddhist life. The translators (1331–34), indicates he was raised a Buddhist. Numerous also composed original hymns in alliterative verses. The fragments of Buddhist literature found at Turpan in the only Buddhist work known to be translated into Mongo- mid-14th century show the continuing popularity of Bud- lian from Chinese was the Sutra of the Big Dipper, trans- dhist literature among Mongols and Uighurs in the lated by Alintemür in 1328. khanate’s eastern half. In the GOLDEN HORDE, especially Buddhist monks shared in the privileges of the under Toqto’a Khan (1291–1312), Islam receded in face favored classes under Mongolian rule: tax exemptions for of the “Uighur” religion and their baqshis, which were them and their dependents and the right to use the JAM promoted by Toqto’a’s great NOYAN Saljidai of the QONGGI- (postroad). After the Mongol conquest of South China, RAD and his wife, Kelmish-Aqa, QUBILAI KHAN’s niece. In from 1277 to 1291 Yang Rin-chen-skyabs (Yang 1288 the dissident prince NOQAI of the Golden Horde Lianzhenjia) actively reconverted Taoist temples and the sealed his alliance with Arghun by presenting a sharil defunct SONG DYNASTY’s palaces into Buddhist monaster- (relic) of the Buddha. Following Islamization under ies, even desecrating Song tombs. In 1297 Emperor ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41), the term baqsi (from baqshi) Temür (1294–1307) decreed that those who struck or came to mean “shaman” and/or “bard” among the KAZA- insulted monks would have their hands or tongues cut KHS and other descendants of the Horde. off, while Emperor Shidebala (1320–23) sponsored The MONGOL EMPIRE marked a major epoch in the memorial halls for ’Phags-pa throughout the empire. The history of Buddhism. The conversion of the Mongols and frequent arrogance of Tibetan monks and the expense of the establishment of Tibetan Buddhism in China and Buddhist rituals at court caused deep but muted dissatis- Mongolia created the beginnings of the Inner Asian Bud- faction among Chinese Confucian officials. dhist commonwealth that would last to the 20th century. With the Mongol reunification of China, Chinese See also ASTROLOGY; BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR; EAST Buddhist monks were organized into Dhyana (Meditation ASIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KASHMIR; RELI- or Zen), Doctrine (principally the Garland or Huayan GIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET AND THE school), and Discipline schools. (The popular but ple- MONGOL EMPIRE; TREASURY OF APHORISTIC JEWELS. beian Pure Land tradition was ignored.) Other sects of Further reading: Yüan-hua Jan, “Chinese Buddhism Buddhist origin strong in the south, such as the White in Ta-tu: The New Situation and New Problems,” in Yüan Cloud and the Dhuta sect, were granted tax exemptions Thought: Chinese Thought and Religion under the Mongols, as separate religions, not as part of Buddhism. Dhyana ed. Hok-lam Chan and Wm. Theodore de Bary (New monks were favored over other Chinese Buddhists; after York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 375–417. palace lectures Qubilai concluded that their approach was complementary to that of the Tibetan lamas. Debates Buddhist fine arts Only recently recognized by with Taoism continued until 1281, when Qubilai ordered international art historians, Mongolia formed one of the Taoist scriptures burned, a measure that the Dhyana great centers of Buddhist painting, sculpture, and tem- monks enthusiastically endorsed. In 1288 Dhyana Bud- ple banners. dhists, with the assistance of Yang Rin-chen-skyabs, also won a court debate against the Garland school. PURPOSE Despite the Mongol Empire’s division in 1260, Bud- The primary purpose of Buddhist art is to aid contempla- dhist baqshis (teachers) continued to travel the length of tion by yogis. Tantric meditation in particular is based on the empire. The Il-Khans in Iran held the ’Phag-mo-gru- the visualization of the deities and gurus. This visualiza- pa order in central Tibet as their appanage, and HÜLE’Ü (r. tion can be either for progress in the spiritual path, for 1256–65), Abagha Khan (1265–82), and Arghun Khan devotion, or to consecrate some object. Images also serve (1284–91) lavishly patronized a variety of Indian, Kash- as objects of worship in a conventional sense by those miri, Chinese and Tibetan monks. Muslim sources claim unable to practice meditation. All images also instruct, the khans mainly sought immortality from the monks and certain genres, such as the depictions of the wheel of and that an Indian baqshi’s elixir of cinnabar killed samsara, serve primarily this purpose. Arghun. In 1295 GHAZAN KHAN, recently converted from Buddhism to Islam, approved the total destruction of FORMS Buddhism in Iran, destroying all Buddhist temples, even The deities of Mahayana Buddhism are divided into those containing a portrait of his father, Arghun, and peaceful (amurlingghui) and wrathful (dogshin) classes. forcing the baqshis to chose Islam or death. Ghazan Khan Buddhas and great bodhisattvas, such as Manjushri and later allowed surviving Buddhists to either emigrate or to Avalokitshvara, have blue hair with a topknot and wear remain at court as long as they did not openly practice only a religious toga. Historical gurus lack these and usu- Buddhist fine arts 51 The Wheel of Samsara, showing the six births, clockwise from top: gods, titans (firing arrows at the gods), animals, hell-beings, hungry ghosts, and humans. Note the yurts, felt making, hunting, lamas, and other scenes of Mongolian life in the human panel. Thangka (mineral paints on cotton), kept in the Buriat Historical Museum. (From Buddiiskaia zhivopis Buriatii [1995]) 52 Buddhist fine arts ally (but not always) wear monastic robes and a hat. Bud- advantage of being sturdier when stored in rolled-up dhas and gurus of this miserable world wear a robe made form. These were made by sewing pieces of colored cloth from scraps and have no ornamentation. Those from per- onto a cotton background. In the richer examples, pearls fected worlds have rich ornaments and fine robes. The and other precious stones were sewn on. wrathful deities have three glaring eyes, snarling tusks, wild orange-red hair, and a halo of flames. They include EXECUTION AND STYLES the tall yidams, or protectors of the various Tantric The first distinctive style of Buddhist art associated with cycles, and the squat Bodhisattva Vajrapani and the Mongolian patronage was that of Aniga (1244–78), who Dharmapalas, or protectors of the Buddhist dharma. ’PHAGS-PA LAMA had invited from Kathmandu in Nepal. All figures are specified by precise mathematical pro- Aniga’s school established a Sino-Tibetan style, which portions. On paintings these are drawn out beforehand in continued for centuries. geometrical forms. Within each class specific deities are Zanabazar (1635–1723, see JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, marked by attributes (book, rosary, begging bowl, bell, FIRST) began native Mongolian sculpture with works of scepter, etc.) and by hand gestures (mudra). The central genius unsurpassed later. His school’s images, of gilt figure is commonly surrounded by minor figures, illus- bronze or copper cast in two pieces, continued his trating other deities of the family. In INCARNATE LAMA Nepalese-influenced style through the 18th century. images, the previous incarnations are often represented. Works of his school outside Mongolia have been identi- Forms of Buddhist art not centered on a deity figure fied particularly by the drum-shaped bases and the dis- include the stupas, or reliquary, from several centimeters tinctive gilded double vajra (powerbolt) on the bottom of to several meters high, which consists of a pedestal, a the base. By the 19th century, however, Dolonnuur (mod- vessel holding the sacred remains, and a spire. Mandalas ern Duolun) became the main center for both routine and depict a perfected world around the deity of a Tantric ini- superior Buddhist images. Sculptures of the Dolonnuur tiation in schematic form. Another type of painting or school were made of hammered copper or bronze sheets temple banner represents offerings of various types to aid and assembled in many pieces. Billowing scarves, distinc- a yogi in visualizing things to be offered to the deity. tive flat crowns and earrings attached separately, and pro- Finally, illustrations of the 12 deeds of the Buddha fuse inlays of precious and semiprecious stones Shakyamuni or of the six births in the wheel of samsara distinguish masterpieces of this style from those of the (cyclic existence) are intended primarily for teaching and Zanabazar school. often are painted on the outside of temple walls. The only surviving paintings of the SECOND CONVER- SION are the wall paintings of Maidari Juu (near BAOTOU) MATERIALS and ERDENI ZUU, both dating from the late 16th century. Most of these types of art could be made in several media. The background of the former already shows the influ- Sculpture was used for the chief offering site of every ence of Chinese landscape painting, with its attendant temple that could afford it. The most valuable were gilt cool palate of greens and blues that forms so much of the bronze and (more rarely) silver. At the other end of the overall look of Qing-era Tibetan and Mongolian thangkas. market were amulets of papier-maché or terra-cotta Extant Mongolian thangkas date mostly from the 19th stamped from metal molds. Painted wood was also used, and early 20th centuries, although surviving examples particularly for complex three-dimensional representa- from the time, if not the hand, of Zanabazar are similar tions of paradises or divine realms. The large demand for stylistically. Buddha figures created an industry in Buddha images A distinctive feature of Mongolian guru portraits, par- both at Dolonnuur and (from the 1880s to 1914) in War- ticularly of the Jibzundamba Khutugtus, is the interest in saw. In use the main sculptures are clothed, hatted, and individual portraiture. Zanabazar’s self-portraits showed garlanded. Evanescent media used for particular rituals an early interest in this, and the Fourth Jibzundamba included colored sand for mandalas and painted dough Khutugtu (Lubsang-Tubdan-Wangchug, 1775–1813) had figures (baling) for exorcisms. portraits of his predecessors made from their mummified Considerably less expensive than sculpture were remains. Early in the 20th century painters such as thangka paintings. These are painted on a cotton scroll “Busybody” Sharab used the new medium of ink to draw with mineral paints in a size of animal fat. Some paints the flesh of the Khutugtus while drawing the clothing were also made with crushed scale insects. All these fea- and attributes in the traditional manner in mineral tures involving killing disturbed the more scrupulous paints. lamas, as did the artists’ frequent use of spit to moisten By 1900 about 40 master artists were working in the paint. (Some paintings, however, were valued pre- Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). The antireligious cam- cisely because they contained the spit of great painters, paigns of the mid-20th century almost ended the tradi- such as “BUSYBODY” SHARAB.) Gold leaf could also be used tion of Buddhist art among the Mongols. In Inner for fiery halos. Finally, temple banners, or appliqués Mongolia Buddhist temples had already become so (zeegt naamal), were modeled on thangkas but had the dependent on Chinese artisans working on commission Buqa 53 that no distinctly Mongolian Buddhist art survived the the Oghur subfamily, close to modern Chuvash. (See Cultural Revolution (1966–76). In Mongolia thangka ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY.) Around 670 the Khazar painting survived on a small scale, to be revived after khanate dispersed the Bulghars, most of whom moved 1990 with the advent of religious freedom. The expensive west to subjugate the Balkan Slavs and form the nucleus and labor-intensive sculptural and temple banner tradi- of modern Bulgaria. Another group, however, moved tions were less hardy and have not been revived beyond north to the confluence of the Volga and the Kama purely functional needs. Rivers. By 921–22 these northern Bulghars controlled the See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHOIJUNG trade of fur and slaves to the Middle East and KHORAZM. LAMA TEMPLE; MONGOL ZURAG; PALACES OF THE BOGDA Khorazmian merchants converted the Bulghars to Islam. KHAN; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. The capital city was known as Bulghar. The Bulghar Further reading: Patricia Berger and Theresa Tse warred constantly with the advancing Russians, but by Bartholomew, Mongolia: The Legacy of Chinggis Khan (San 1150 they controlled the lower Volga city of Saqsin. Francisco: Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 1995); N. In 1224 the Bulghars ambushed the Mongol army of Tsultem, Development of the Mongolian National Style SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR and JEBE as it passed Saqsin. In 1229 Painting “Mongol Zurag” in Brief (Ulaanbaatar: State Pub- under ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), Kökedei and Sönidei lishing House, 1986); ———, Mongolian Architecture attacked Bulghar outposts on the Yayiq (Ural) River, (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing House, 1988); ———, besieged Saqsin, and camped in the Bulghar heartland in Mongolian Sculpture (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing 1232. The Bulghar cities and the local Qipchaq and House, 1989). Bashkir (Bashkort) nomads resisted successfully, and in 1235 Ögedei mobilized a much larger army under his Buin Nemkhu See BUYANNEMEKHÜ. nephew BATU (d. 1255). In 1236 Sübe’etei took the city of Bulghar, butchering the entire population. Saqsin city and the Bashkirs (Bashkort) were subdued in the same year. Bulgan province Created in 1937 from Khöwsgöl, Despite the conquest, the city of Bulghar reached its Gazartarialan (modern Selenge), Central, and North apogee of development in the 13th and 14th centuries. Khangai provinces, Bulgan lies in north-central Mongolia The GOLDEN HORDE under Batu and his successors with a frontier on Buriatia in Russia. Its territory was allowed emirs of the old Bulghar families to continue rul- mostly part of KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary ing while paying the same fur tax. The Golden Horde Tüshiyetü Khan province, with small parts of Sain Noyan encouraged caravan trade and began again to coin money. province. Teshig Sum, on the northern border, is primarily In the time of ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) the Mongols Buriat, however. The new ERDENET CITY was removed from adopted Islam and soon became Turkicized in language, Bulgan’s jurisdiction in 1976. The province’s 48,700 square forming a new people called the TATARS. The revived Rus- kilometers (18,803 square miles) cover the northern sians sacked Bulghar again in 1399, and the crisis of the foothills of the KHANGAI RANGE and the valleys of the late 14th century that shattered the Golden Horde also SELENGE RIVER and the ORKHON RIVER. It is a relatively wet broke up Bulghar’s prosperity. In 1446 the Chinggisid province. The population has risen from 30,900 in 1956 to prince Ulugh Muhammad and a large body of Tatars 62,600 in 2000. Bulgan is one of Mongolia’s leading arable occupied Kazan’ (a new and nearby rival of old Bulghar agricultural provinces, accounting in 2000 for about 19 city), founding the independent Kazan khanate. Ivan IV, percent of the country’s wheat harvest. The province’s czar of Russia, conquered Kazan’ in 1552. The contempo- 1,522,800 head of livestock in 2000 included the third- rary Tatars of Tatarstan are descendants of the fused Bul- largest number of cattle (225,800 head). The capital, Bul- ghar and Tatar peoples; the neighboring, mostly gan town, was originally Wang-un Khüriye, a combined non-Muslim, Chuvash preserve a rustic form of the monastery town and residence of the prince of Daiching medieval Bulghar language. Zasag banner. Its population in 2000 was 16,200. See also OSSETES; QIPCHAQS; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL See also AMUR; BURIATS IN MONGOLIA AND INNER MON- EMPIRE. GOLIA; DAMBA, DASHIIN; KHANGDADORJI, PRINCE; MAGSUR- Further reading: Th. T. Allsen, “Prelude to the West- JAB; TSOGTU TAIJI. ern Campaigns: Mongol Military Operations in the Volga- Ural Region, 1217–1237,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 3 Bulgaria See BYZANTIUM AND BULGARIA. (1983): 5–24. Bulghars (Greater Bulgaria) The Mongols conquered Buqa (Bögä, Boka) (d. 1289) Supreme Mongol comman- the Bulghars, a northern people on the Volga, who der and vizier under Arghun Khan, ruler of the Mongols of engaged in the fur trade, during the great western expedi- the Middle East tion of 1236. Born of a minor branch of the JALAYIR clan, Buqa and his The Bulghars first appeared north of the Black Sea in brother Aruq were raised in the personal entourage of the 481 as a nomadic people speaking a Turkic language of Il-Khan Abagha (1265–82) in the Middle East. 54 Buriad Appointed as to tamghachi (keeper of the commercial boundary. To this day the dialect of these “Selenge Buri- tax), Buqa unsuccessfully supported Abagha’s son Arghun ats” is close to Khalkha Mongolian and quite far from as khan after Abagha’s death. Qutui Khatun, mother of standard Buriat. The Khori Buriats, by contrast, share the victorious candidate, Ahmad (r. 1282–84), protected CLAN NAMES with Barga Mongols who were resettled on Buqa from retaliation, however. When Ahmad arrested the Manchu Qing side of the frontier. Barga Mongols Arghun in 1284, Buqa freed Arghun on the night of July numbered perhaps 70,000 to 90,000 in 1990. New and 4, seized the camp, and led the army against Ahmad. Old Barga dialects differ somewhat from each other and Once victorious, Arghun (r. 1284–91) appointed rather more from Khori Buriat. In addition, 2,100 Bargas Buqa simultaneously commander in chief (beglerbegi) live in Mongolia. After 1920 thousands of Buriats fled and vizier, holding the supreme red seal (al tamgha). Bolshevik control to Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Their QUBILAI KHAN in China awarded Buqa the title of descendants in Mongolia numbered 35,444 in 1989 and chingsang (chengxiang, grand councillor). Buqa’s brother have been estimated at about 6,500 in Inner Mongolia. Aruq received the lucrative governorships of Baghdad In Russia Buriat has been divided into five dialects. and Diyarbakır. The most widely spoken is Khori, found along the Uda Buqa’s ruling clique included junior Jalayirids like valley from around Onokhoi northeast to Romanovka on himself, ambitious Persian rivals of Shams-ud-Din the upper Vitim. It is also spoken in Aga and among the Juvaini, the Assyrian Christian governors in Mosul and Buriats of Inner Mongolia and northeast Mongolia. The Irbil, and the Georgian king Dmitri (1273–89; see GEOR- Ekhired-Bulagad (Russian Ekhirit-Bulagat) group is spo- GIA). Eventually Buqa’s tight control alienated Mongol ken in Ust’-Orda east of the Angara and the Ol’khon, Bar- commanders such as TA’ACHAR. Arghun dismissed Aruq guzin, and Selenge delta districts around Lake Baikal. The after the Jewish clerk SA‘D-UD-DAWLA promised to double Alair-Tünkhen (Russian, Alar-Tunka) dialect group revenues and then gave the crown territories (injü) to includes Tünkhen dialect in southwest Buriatia and Alair Ta’achar and command of the center (ghol) to of western Ust’-Orda. Extinct today is the very archaic Qunchuqbal of the QONGGIRAD, thus vitiating Buqa’s Nizhneudinsk dialect far to the west. Finally, the Kham- financial and military power. Buqa feigned illness while nigan dialect is found among Buriatized EWENKIS (a plotting to overthrow Arghun. The plan betrayed, Arghun Manchu-Tungusic people) subject to the Aga Buriats and executed Buqa (January 16, 1289), Aruq (February 22), has been carried with them also into Mongolia and their families and supporters. The torture and demotion China. Some linguists consider Khamnigan dialect to be a of Buqa’s Assyrian confederates sparked anti-Christian separate archaic Mongolian language. rioting in Mosul. The Buriat language is nowhere used in secondary or higher education and is, compared with Mongolian in Mongolia or even Inner Mongolia, in an advanced stage of Buriad See BURIATS. loss. With rapid urbanization since 1970, almost half the republic’s Buriats now live in cities or towns. Official fig- Buriat language and scripts Buriat is the language of ures show the percentage of Russia’s Buriats claiming the Buriat Mongols of southern Siberia and northeastern Buriat as their native language dropping from 98.1 percent Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. According to the 1989–90 in 1926 to 86.3 percent in 1989, but surveys taken in census figures, there were about 463,000 BURIATS world- 1988–90 indicate only 39 percent of Buriats in the republic wide and up to 93,000 of the allied Bargas. have actually mastered the spoken language and only 19 In the 13th and 14th centuries BARGA and Buriat percent the written language. While 62 percent speak tribes inhabited the present-day Barguzin valley and the Buriat with their parents, only 31 percent (and only 11 lands west of LAKE BAIKAL. The Barga were in close con- percent in the cities) speak it with their children; only 19 tact with the Mongols and form the ancestors of the mod- percent use the language at work. Taught only in primary ern Barga and of the Khori Buriats. The Buriats of that schools and in subordination to Russian even there, the period appear to be the ancestors of today’s Ekhired-Bula- Buriat language, whether spoken, printed, or broadcast, is gad group. The location of the Khongoodor tribe, ances- not a significant vehicle of public discourse. While the tors of the Tünkhen and Alair Buriats, is not clear. Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia still largely speak Buriat, education and books are in standard Mongolian. DIALECTS AND SOCIOLINGUISTICS Buriat language in its pure form is quite different from DISTINCTIVE FEATURES Mongolian and very difficult for a speaker of Modern The most distinctive feature of the Buriat dialects is the Mongolian to understand, yet the Kyakhta Treaty of 1727 transformation of all affricates into fricatives or spirants. that fixed the boundary of the Russian and Manchu Qing Sharing with the Khalkha and Kalmyk-Oirat the splitting Empires (including Mongolia and Inner Mongolia) of Middle Mongolian j and ch into j or ch before i and dz included KHALKHA Mongols of the Tsongol, Sartuul, and or ts before all other vowels, Buriat has gone further, other OTOGs (camp districts) on the Russian side of the transforming j and ch into zh and sh, and dz and ts into z Buriat language and scripts 55 and s. Thus sharga, “sled” (from Middle Mongolian the western Buriats. The learned lama AGWANG DORZHIEV chirgha), becomes a homonym with the horse color (1853–1937) introduced a modified Uighur-Mongolian sharga, “light bay” (Middle Mongolian shirgha). Perhaps script called the Vagindra script after its creator’s pen to avoid this sort of convergence, Buriat changes Middle name, intended for use among the western Buriats. The Mongolian s to h before a vowel. Thus, Middle Mongo- script was popularized by Buriat intellectuals from 1905 lian chagha’an sara, “white moon, Lunar New Year” to 1910 but never achieved success. The Latin script (Mongolian tsagaan sar), becomes sagaan hara. introduced by the Buriat intellectual Bazar Baradiin Buriat shares with the East Mongolian dialect of (1878–1937) in 1910 likewise did not succeed, although Inner Mongolia the Manchurian areal feature of replac- his device, borrowed from Finnish, of writing long vow- ing e by ¹ (conventionally written e). Short ö disap- els with double letters was later adopted into Buriat and pears, replaced by ü in the initial syllable and e Mongolian Cyrillic scripts. afterward, so that Khalkha tölöölögch becomes in Buriat After the Russian Revolution of 1917 overthrew the tülöölegshe. czarist religious and educational policies, the new Soviet Buriat and Khalkha share the merger of final -n and -ng regime strongly promoted Buriat literacy in the Uighur- into -ng (conventionally written -n). Like Kalmyk-Oirat, Mongolian script, especially after the 1923 administrative however, Buriat retains the unstable -n in the nominative unification of the eastern and western Buriats. Yet some (thus, Buriat oshon, spark versus Mongolian och) and has western Buriats still preferred Cyrillicization. Suddenly, in formed personal conjugations from postposed pronouns 1930 Latinization became the general policy for Soviet (for example, yabadagbi, “I go,” from yabadag, “go(es)” + nationalities. After discussions Bazar Baradiin produced a bi, “I,” or yerebesh, “you came,” from yerebe “came” + shi, new Latin script in January 1931 based on the literary “you”). While a few idiosyncratic sound changes resemble language, which he hoped would be used by all Mongols, Kalmyk-Oirat, Buriat morphology is quite distinct from not just Buriats. When it was decided that summer to either Kalmyk-Oirat or Mongolian with its accusative in - choose a living dialect, not a literary language, as the new iiye rather than -iig, ablative in -ha (from reconstructed - script’s standard, Tsongol was chosen, one close to sa) rather than -aas, and genitive after consonants in -ai, Khalkha Mongolian. rather than -iin. Buriat also contains unique forms (e.g., In 1936, with the growth of Russian nationalism niutag, homeland, compared to Mongolian nutag, Kalmyk under Joseph Stalin, the Khori dialect, one very different nutg; or˘ıyool, “peak,” compared to Mongolian orgil, from Khalkha, was chosen as the standard dialect. Kalmyk örgl), and unique vocabulary, such as zon, “peo- Finally, in 1938 it was decided to switch the Buriats from ple,” and basagan, “girl.” the Latin script to a new Cyrillic script based on the Buriats have been in close contact with Russians Khori dialect. A new design, relatively close in structure longer than any other Mongolic people and in addition to to the former Latin script but quite different from the usual recent political and technical vocabulary, have a previously introduced Kalmyk Cyrillic scripts, was cre- number of old, assimilated loanwords such as büülkhe or ated in 1939. The only new letters used for Cyrillic khileemen, “bread” (from búlkha or khleb), khartaabkha, Buriat were ö, ü, and the distinctive Buriat h. In imitation “potato” (from kartófel’), and khapuusta, “cabbage” (from of Bazar Baradiin’s Latin script, long vowels were marked kapústa). by doubling rather than a diacritical. Rather than using N the “half i” ( ˘ ) for the consonant y, e was always written SCRIPTS as э, and the Cyrillic palatalized vowels were used to The UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT was introduced among mark the consonant y-: я (ya), e (ye), ë (yo), and ю (yu Russia’s Buriats in the 18th century from Mongolia. By or yü). Finally, the Cyrillic ы (y, or back i) was intro- the 19th century there was a significant body of Buddhist duced for the long ii in certain case endings. All of these religious texts, genealogies, chronicles, law codes, and devices were later also adopted in designing Mongolia’s primary school textbooks. In 1895 the first bilingual Rus- Cyrillic script (see CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MONGOLIAN). The sian-Buriat Mongolian newspaper was published. The Buriat Cyrillic script has been used until the present vocabulary, morphology, and orthography of Buriat both in the BURIAT REPUBLIC and in the Ust’-Orda and Uighur-Mongolian works clearly reflect the distinctive Aga autonomous areas, which were separated from it in features of the Buriat dialects. Czarist regulations, how- 1937. ever, blocked the Uighur-Mongolian script from spread- See also KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT; MON- ing to the Buriats west of Lake Baikal. There Christian GOLIAN LANGUAGE. Buriats Iakov V. Boldonov (1808–49) and N. S. Boldonov Further reading: James E. Bosson, Buriat Reader (1835–99) designed a Cyrillic script for Buriat and (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1962); Yeshen-Khorlo printed pamphlets, liturgies, and catechetical works from Dugarova-Montgomery and Robert Montgomery, “The 1840, producing a modest degree of Cyrillic literacy. Buriat Alphabet of Agvan Dorzhiev,” in Mongolia in the During the 1905 Revolution the new Buriat intelli- Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen gentsia demanded an end to the educational separation of Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. 56 Buriat Republic Sharpe 1999), 79–97; Juha Janhunen, Material on Russians moved into Buriatia in several distinct Manchurian Khamnigan Mongol (Helsinki: Castrenianum waves. The “old-timers,” whether Cossacks or peasants, Complex of the University of Helsinki and the Finno- settled in the valleys around the Cossack forts in the 17th Ugrian Society, 1990). and 18th centuries. Many came without women and mar- ried Siberian natives. Cossack units remained on the Buriat Republic The Buriat Republic is the main frontier until the Russian Revolution. Old Believers, homeland of the South Siberian Buriat Mongols. Founded exiled for protesting liturgical innovations in the Russian in 1923 as an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Orthodox church, were, by contrast, settled with their (ASSR) within the Soviet Union, the republic adopted a families around Mukhorshibir’, Bichura, Tarbagatai, and new constitution as a constituent republic within the Zaigraevo from 1756 to 1780. Political dissidents, begin- Russian Federation in 1992. The ASSR originally included ning with the Decembrists of 1825, often added to the the Aga, Ust’-Orda, and Ol’khon districts, but they were area’s cultural development. In 1890–1905 emancipated stripped from the republic’s territory in 1937. (See AGA peasants streamed west to settle on former Buriat land BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA and UST’-ORDA BURIAT newly opened by the czarist authorities. Finally, in the AUTONOMOUS AREA.) In 1989 the republic’s population Soviet industrialization and during World War II, whole was 1,038,252, of which 249,525, or 24 percent, were industrial populations were resettled as a bloc in Ulan- Buriat. The capital is ULAN-UDE. (For the history and cul- Ude and elsewhere. ture of the Buriats as an ethnic group, see BURIATS.) Since 1939, when Buriats formed 21.3 percent of the republic’s population of 545,800, Russian immigration GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY has matched the higher Buriat birthrate, doubling the Buriatia occupies 351,300 square kilometers (135,638 population while maintaining the ethnic balance. Buriats square miles) along the southern and eastern side of LAKE form relatively high percentages of the population in the BAIKAL, linking the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU to the East Barguzin valley (41 percent), the Khori valley (48 per- Siberian uplands. It is mostly over 800 meters (2,600 cent), the western side of the Selenge valley (32 percent), feet) above sea level. The highest peak is Munku-Sardyk and the southwestern districts (61 percent). In the Akha in the Sayan Mountains at 3,491 meters (11,453 feet), (Russian, Oka) district in the far southwest, Buriats and the lowest spot is the shores of Lake Baikal at 456 (including the Soyots) total 91 percent. Even where Buri- meters (1,496 feet) above sea level. Siberian taiga forest ats are a small minority, however, in the rural areas they covers 67 percent and high mountain tundra or barren generally live in villages separate from Russians. While rock 16.0 percent of the territory, but the lowlands con- traditionally purely rural, by 1989 44.5 percent of the tain patches of steppe and forest steppe. Buriat lived in urban areas, forming 17.3 percent of the Ranges divide Buriatia into six major valleys or urban population. Ewenki reindeer herders and hunter- basins: 1) the middle Selenge and its tributaries; 2) the fishers dwell in the northern Barguzin and Upper Angara Khori area around the Uda (Buriat, Üde), Kholoy (Buriat, valley and the Vitim plateau, while Turkish-speaking Soy- Khooloi), and Khudan valleys and the Yeravna (Buriat, ots (allied to the TUVANS and DUKHA) live in the Sayan Yaruuna) lakes; 3) the Barguzin (Buriat, Bargazhan) val- Mountains. ley; 4) the Irkut valley; 5) the Upper Angara-Muya valley; From 1926 to 1989 the absolute number of persons and 6) the Baikal basin. In the northeast and southwest living in the countryside changed relatively little, from are the sparsely inhabited Vitim plateau and Sayan Moun- 338,500 to 397,800, although as a percentage of the total tains uplands. population rural dwellers dropped from 87 percent to 37 Buriatia’s population is concentrated in the steppes of percent. The countryside weathered the post-Soviet eco- the middle Selenge, Khori, Barguzin, and Irkut valleys and nomic-demographic crisis better than did the cities, and around the Selenge delta by Lake Baikal. The Selenge val- by 1996 its population had risen absolutely and relatively ley and its tributaries from the Mongolian border to Ulan- to 425,400 or 40 percent. Ude are Buriatia’s economic hub, whether in industry, Until 1975 Ulan-Ude, the capital, was Buriatia’s only grain farming, or the raising of sheep for wool and cattle major urban center. Subsequently, Gusinoozërsk (1989 for meat and milk. The Khori area and the Barguzin valley population 29,790) in the Selenge valley grew around a are more purely rural, with sheep and cattle breeding and massive new coal-fired thermal-electric energy plant, and some grain farming. In the Irkut valley cattle breeding Severobaikal’sk (28,336) developed on the Baikal-Amur predominates, while along the southern shores of Lake Railway in northern Buriatia. Both declined in population Baikal pig and cattle breeding dominate. Average rural in the 1990s. population densities range from 5.5 persons per square kilometer (14.2 per square mile) in the middle Selenge AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM valley to 1.5–2.3 per square kilometer (3.9–6 per square From 1923 to 1992 the Buriat ASSR was a Soviet-style mile) in the other steppe valleys and as low as one person republic within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist per 5 square kilometers (0.5 per square mile) elsewhere. Republic, which in turn was one of 15 “union republics” Modern Buriatia Buriatia, 1922–1923 Bratsk RUSSIAN SFSR FAR R. R. 6 ngara a EASTERN er A uy . M REPUBLIC Up p aR 1 2 Severobaikal’sk Le n 3 7 Irkutsk Chita 4 A n g ara R . n Ve 8 rk hneu zi dinsk 5 9 u IRKUTSK REGION R. kal rg R. z in tim Ba Vi Verkholensk rgu Bai Ba Aimags of the Mongol-Buriat Autonomous Region Kachug E k h i re d 1. Alair R. a) UST’ UST’-ORDA ’- ir Akh a 2. Bookhon O ka ( BAA BAA A Al 3. Ekhired-Bulagad Ol’khon I. BURIAT REPUBLIC 4. Tünkhen Bookhon Bulagad E k h i re d 5. Selenge i or So Ust’-Ord Ust’-Ordynskiy Yervana (Yaruuna) K h e yo Aimags of the Buriat-Mongolian t Autonomous Region k Lakes La Uda R . 6. Barguzin Irkutsk 7. Khori E k h i re d Chita T 8. Aga ü R. . Khori n Irkut R Ulan-Ude Khori 9. Chikoy k h Tsongol e n ¨ Gusinoozersk R. ge R. Khilok len Aginskoye Se Selenge AGA BAA Sartuul CHITA REGION . on R Jida R. On Kyaktha R. Chikoy Buriatia, 1934 R U S S I A N S F S R MONGOLIA MONGOLIA Ulan-Ude Capital of a region-level BAA Buriat Autonomous Area administration unit BUR IAT- Boundary of administrative units Irkutsk MON Aginskoye Capital of within the Russian Federation GOL Chita IAN autonomous area International frontier between Ulan-Ude ASS R CHITA REGION Name of regional level the Russian Federation and Mongolia administration unit 0 120 miles Barguzin Sub-ethnic group or “tribe” 0 120 km 58 Buriat Republic The town of Kyren (Buriat, Khüren) in the valley of the Irkut (Buriat, Erkhüü) River. This town is the center of the Tunka (Buriat, Tünkhen) district and the Tunka National Park. (Courtesy Katherine Metzo) within the Soviet Union. While lacking the formal “right grade school. Written materials were few and almost to secede” enjoyed by the “union republics,” the Buriat exclusively propagandistic, folkloric, literary, or pedagog- ASSR did have its own rarely used flag and seal. The gov- ical in character. In 1970 Buriat language instruction in ernmental form was specified in three successive local schools was abolished. constitutions, adopted in 1923, 1937, and 1978, and was The Soviet system enacted preferential policies for essentially identical to that in other region-level Soviet nationalities in their own areas. These preferences, com- governments, although until 1965 rural districts and set- bined with ambitious ethnic Russians’ tendency to emi- tlements were given Buriat names such as AIMAGs and grate, resulted in a striking overrepresentation of Buriats somons. both in government organs and in the intelligentsia. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union, as the During the disintegration of the Soviet system, Buria- sole permitted political party before 1990, had commit- tia declared itself sovereign in 1990. After renaming itself tees parallel to each level of government, controlling both the Buriat Republic in 1992, a new constitution with a the elections and the voting behaviors of the soviets (i.e., new flag and seal based on the Mongolian SOYOMBO SYM- local and ASSR legislatures). The party-state strictly con- BOL was adopted on February 22, 1994. A new language trolled all legal media and cultural organizations and law passed in 1992 made Russian and Buriat equal official allowed no criticism of Moscow’s policies. The socialist languages. The new constitution provides for a 65-mem- economic system, which put major industrial enterprises ber standing legislature, the People’s (or National) Khural directly under economic ministries in Moscow and gov- (Assembly), a directly elected president, and a govern- erned all economic activity according to All-Union Five ment responsible to the president. Supreme Court jus- Year Plans, further diminished any real Buriat autonomy. tices are appointed by the president and confirmed by the In 1939 the Buriat writing system was switched from People’s Khural. On June 30, 1994, Leonid V. Potapov (b. the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT to a new Cyrillic script, 1935), a Russian engineer and party cadre raised in which was somewhat modified later for use in Mongolia Kurumkan, won a direct election to a four-year term as (see BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS). Education in this president of Buriatia. While Russians have captured the new standard Buriat language was, however, restricted to visible top positions, Buriats are still heavily overrepre- Buriat Republic 59 sented in official ranks. As elsewhere in Russia, no new areas many sheep were actually fattened in Mongolia. As stable party structure has appeared. Potapov won reelec- pasture degraded, more animals had to be fed on fodder, tion in 1998 and 2002 and has expressed support for acreage of which grew from 34,000 hectares (84,010 Moscow’s plans for administrative consolidation. acres) in 1940 to 291,000 (719,060 acres) in 1970. Faced with overwhelming economic and financial In 1940 industry in Buriatia was based primarily on problems, Potapov signed a power-sharing agreement electric power production (81.9 million kilowatt-hours), with Russia’s federal government on August 29, 1995. coal (39.1 thousand metric tons; 43.1 thousand short Buriatia is represented as an autonomous unit in Russia’s tons), lumber, glass, (2 million square meters; 21.5 mil- upper house, the Federation Council. Federal-regional lion square feet), and food industries. In the 1950s disputes continue, however, both over constitutional woolen textiles were added and in the 1960s machine matters and over federally owned enterprises. tools, instruments, and so on. By 1969 coal production reached almost 1.3 million metric tons (1.4 million short ECONOMY tons) and electricity 871 million kilowatt-hours. Other The current Buriat economy is primarily urban. In 1991, products mined included tungsten and molybdenum near at the beginning of the post-Soviet economic crisis, the Zakamensk and gold near Bagdarin and Irakinda. In the sectoral composition of the gross regional product was as 1970s the new thermal-electric plant at Gusinoozërsk follows: industry, 37.0 percent; services, 32.7 percent; was built with an installed capacity of 1.25 gigawatts. agriculture, 16.2 percent; and construction, 13.8 percent. From 1974 to 1989 the Soviet government poured money In 1993 23.4 percent of employed persons were in indus- and energy into the Baikal-Amur Railway (BAM) project try and only 14.9 percent in agriculture (including herd- of building a northern parallel to the Trans-Siberian Rail- ing). A further 9.2 percent were employed in trade, 15.2 way. As part of Soviet policy, regional interdependence percent in culture, and 2.9 percent in management. These was emphasized, and Buriatia exported two-thirds of its employment trends were all relatively close to those else- industrial products and imported 89 percent of its con- where in Russia. sumer goods. Only 9.0 percent of Buriatia’s land is usable for arable By the late 1980s pasture degradation and newly agriculture, hay mowing, or pasture. Pastures total about assertive Mongolia’s prohibition on cross-border grazing 16,700 square kilometers (6,450 square miles), with forced a sharp decrease in sheep numbers. By 1995 Buria- another 3,500 square kilometers (1,350 square miles) tia herded about 380,000 cattle, 475,000 sheep and goats, used for hay mowing. With collectivization in 1929–32, and 65,000 horses. Meanwhile, sown acreage (excluding the agricultural sector (including herding) was forced fodder) shrank to 376,000 hectares (929,100 acres) as into kolkhozes, or collective farms, and sovkhozes, or farmers found the cost of operating machinery soaring state-owned farms worked by wage labor, often transient. while grain prices stagnated. Still, grain farming is gener- In 1970 kolkhozes numbered 71, and sovkhozes num- ally more profitable than livestock. bered 58. In 1979 collective farmers were only 8.8 per- This profound rural depression, combined with the cent of the population. strong traditions of collectivism and the absence of any Soviet agricultural policy stressed farming over herd- marketing, financial, or technical infrastructure, made ing and commercial products over subsistence, along the rural “privatization” campaign ordered by Moscow in with mechanization and economies of scale. From 1940 1992 a fiasco. While the kolkhozes are mostly bankrupt, to 1969 the total sown area in Buriatia (excluding acreage they are still preferred to private farms. Families subsist dedicated to fodder) increased from 384,000 hectares by keeping hay- or fodder-fed cattle and raising vegeta- (948,860 acres) to 524,000 (1,294,800 acres). Summer bles and pigs. Thus, fodder acreage (348,600 hectares, or wheat and oats largely replaced the traditional Siberian 861,390 acres, in 1994) and pig numbers (160,000 in crop of winter rye, and agriculture was heavily mecha- 1995) have remained steady. From 1991 to 1996 the con- nized. In 1970 2,800 grain harvesting combines were in sumption of potatoes rose by 29 percent, while that of operation. Pigs about doubled, from 79,000 (1941) to meat declined 61 percent. 153,000 (1969). Animal husbandry accounted for more Meanwhile, the urban economy faced equal or than two-thirds of the total agricultural product in the greater challenges. Not only did the economy contract 1970s, due in large part to the commercialization of herd- sharply in absolute terms, there was, as elsewhere in the ing. In 1941 Buriatia’s herders herded 407,000 cattle and former Soviet bloc, a sea change in its sectoral composi- 637,000 sheep and goats, but by 1970 emphasis on wool tion. By 1998 services dominated the economy, account- production expanded sheep and (relatively rare) goat ing for 50.8 percent of the gross regional product, while numbers to 1,706,000, while cattle reached only 440,000. industry and construction declined to 24.8 percent and Animal husbandry supplied 53,000 metric tons (58,422 6.45 percent, respectively. Farming and herding produced short tons) of meat (including pork and poultry), 5,600 17.3 percent of the region’s goods and services. Electricity metric tons (6,173 short tons) of wool, and 103,900 met- from Gusinoozërsk remained an important product, ric tons (114,530 short tons) of milk in 1969. In border exported to both Chita and Mongolia. In 1995 industrial 60 Buriats output was 36.5 percent in fuel and energy, 17.3 percent atia most unlikely. Indeed, projected plans of Russian in machine tools and metalworking, 16.8 percent food administrative consolidation have raised the possibility of processing, 7.5 percent in lumber and woodworking, and merging the Buriat Republic with Irkutsk and Chita into 6.1 percent in construction materials. one large Baikal district. In 1995 Buriatia’s average income was 21 percent See also CLIMATE; DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE lower than that of Russia as a whole, while its living costs DEGRADATION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FAUNA; were 17 percent higher. The overall infant mortality rate FLAGS; FLORA; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. in 1993 was 20 per 1,000 births. More than two-thirds of Further reading: Caroline Humphrey, “Buriats,” in the population live below the poverty line, and while the The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union, ed. Graham government aims to attract foreign investment, the busi- Smith (London: Longman, 1990), 290–303; Caroline ness climate is estimated as one of Russia’s worst. Humphrey, Marx Went Away, but Karl Stayed Behind (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); G. V. Man- ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY zanova, “Problems of Employment and Unemployment in With the Red Army’s reconquest of eastern Siberia in Jan- Buryatia,” in Culture and Environment in Inner Asia, vol. 2, uary–March 1920, western Buriatia fell to the Russian Society and Culture, ed. Caroline Humphrey and David Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), while east- Sneath (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1996), 49–60; ern Buriatia came under the Far Eastern Republic, a Larisa R. Pavlinskaya, “Reindeer Herding in the Eastern Communist-controlled buffer state between Russia and Sayan,” Cultural Survival Quarterly 27.1 (spring 2003): Japan. In the Far Eastern Republic the new constitution 44–47. of April 1921 created a Buriat-Mongolian Autonomous Region of four aimags, and on January 9, 1922, a Mon- Buriats (Buryats, Buriyad, Buriad) The Buriats are gol-Buriat Autonomous Region with five aimags was cre- the northernmost branch of the Mongolian peoples. ated in the RSFSR. Both of these autonomous regions Inhabiting southern Siberia on both sides of LAKE BAIKAL, united several discontinuous chunks of territory within they were brought under Russian control in the 17th cen- the modern Buriat Republic, Aga, Ust’-Orda, and tury. Early in the 20th century the Buriat Mongols Ol’khon. The RSFSR Buriat region had 185,192 people, of seemed poised to become leaders of the entire Mongolian whom 129,000 were Buriats, and the 108,800 people in world, with a generation of brilliant scholars, publicists, the Far Eastern Republic were likewise mostly Buriat. and thinkers who combined profound attachment to In October 1922 Japan withdrew from Siberia, and their Mongolian heritage with mastery of modern the RSFSR absorbed the Far Eastern Republic. The two thought. Yet the increasingly repressive and closed Soviet autonomous regions were merged to form the Buriat- regime under which the Buriats lived aborted this possi- Mongolian ASSR on May 30, 1923. In order to form a bility. Only in the 1980s did the Buriats awaken after a contiguous territory, intervening Russian territories were period of long-standing Russification. annexed. As a result, while the new republic included 90 percent of Russia’s Buriats, its population of 491,000 was DEMOGRAPHY, LIFESTYLE, AND only 43.8 percent Buriat (1926 figures). In 1927 the ASSR ETHNIC IDENTITY was slightly further enlarged by annexing the Kabansk The Buriats of the Soviet Union numbered 421,000 in district, and certain districts north of the Baikal were 1989. Since 1937 they have been principally distributed added subsequently, bringing the total area to 424,100 among the Buriat Republic (59 percent of all Buriats) and square kilometers (163,746 square miles). two nearby but noncontiguous districts, Aga (10 percent) On September 26, 1937, in the middle of Joseph and the Ust’-Orda (12 percent), all in the Soviet Union’s Stalin’s GREAT PURGE, the Central Executive Committee of Russian Republic. Only in Aga, however, are the Buriats a Moscow’s Supreme Soviet partitioned the Buriat-Mongo- majority. lian ASSR, giving Aga aimag to the Chita region and the Traditionally, the Buriats were heavily rural, and this Alair, Bookhon (Russian, Bokhan), and Ekhired-Bulagad is still true in Aga and Ust’-Orda, where 81 percent and aimags to Irkutsk. This partition, undertaken in a panic 84 percent, respectively, of the Buriats live in country vil- over a possible Japanese invasion, cut the percentage of lages (defined as settlements of fewer than 15,000 peo- Buriats in the ASSR to 23.1 percent. Later, on July 7, ple). Rural Buriats today are all sedentarized and live in 1958, Moscow’s Supreme Soviet again changed the repub- Russian-style houses, although those herding on far pas- lic’s name from “Buriat-Mongolian” to simply “Buriat,” tures may use traditional yurts for temporary camps. In confirming the death of pan-Mongolist dreams. the republic, however, only 55 percent live in the coun- In 1990 the Buriat legislature, supported by scholars tryside. Urbanization and an orientation toward success and activists, protested the illegality of the 1937 and 1958 in Russian society have largely broken the transmission decisions, which were never approved by the ASSR’s leg- of Buriat language, so that only 62 percent of adult Buri- islature, yet Ust’-Orda and Aga’s economic dependence on ats today speak Buriat with their parents and only 31 per- their current parent regions makes any expansion of Buri- cent speak it with their children. This percentage falls to Buriats 61 only 11 percent in the cities. Buriats, like INNER MONGO- the TÜRK EMPIRES (552–742). Remains of settlements and LIANS in China, are grossly overrepresented in educa- old Turkish Runic inscriptions have been found in Ust’- tional, cultural, and civil administrative positions but Orda territory and the upper Lena (see RUNIC SCRIPT AND underrepresented as technical specialists and industrial INSCRIPTIONS), but not in Transbaikalia. workers. Of the Buriat Republic’s secondary and higher During the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN in the 12th to 13th education staff, 74 percent are Buriat. centuries, the Buriats proper lived along the Angara River The question of Buriat identity is complex. Tradition- and its tributaries. Meanwhile the Barga appeared both ally, Buriats have been distinguished from the Mongols west of Lake Baikal and in northern Buriatia’s Barguzin proper by their dialect, strong clans, lack of a Chinggisid valley, described as the MONGOL EMPIRE’s coldest, north- aristocracy, and greater attachment to SHAMANISM. How- ernmost land. Linked also to the Barga were the Khori- ever, by this definition the Buriats of Russia’s Selenge val- Tumad along the Arig River in eastern KHÖWSGÖL ley would have to be considered Mongols, while the PROVINCE and the Angara. All of these peoples (and their BARGA of Inner Mongolia would be considered Buriats. In Turkic neighbors to the west) were skillful skiers with practice, by 1900 Buriat had come to mean all the czar’s many shamans living deep in forests and hunting the more-or-less Mongolian subjects in Siberia. The Buriats’ abundant squirrels and sables. Neither the Selenge valley indubitable Mongolian connections led the Transbaikal in today’s southern Buriatia or the Aga steppe had at this Buriats in the early 20th century to adopt a dual “Buriat- time any connection with the Buriats; these were the Mongolian” identity. At first encouraged by the Soviet lands of the MERKID tribe and the MONGOL TRIBE proper. authorities, this dual identity was officially “canceled” by The Barga had long intermarried with the Mongols Moscow in 1958. The nation-building process under the and appear to have joined their cause early. In 1207 Soviet period has powerfully shaped modern Buriat iden- Chinggis Khan’s son JOCHI subjugated the “forest peo- tity; Buriats frequently look down on Mongols as back- ples,” including the Buriats, west of Lake Baikal and ward. While the Mongolian connection is being revived, made them pay a tribute of furs (see SIBERIA AND THE the Buriats function socially and politically today as a MONGOL EMPIRE). Commanders of note in the Mongol nationality, or people, within Russia, distinct from the army came only from the Barga of Barguzin Hollow; the Mongols despite their acknowledged Mongolian origin other tribes did not participate in the imperial venture. and affinity. During the first half of the Northern Yuan (1368–1635), “Tribal,” or subethnic, stereotypes and conflicts the Buriats and Bargas joined the Oirat alliance against the among the Buriats are still strong. While western, or Ust’- great khans. Some of the forest peoples moved south: The Orda, Buriats are considered to be effective politicians Tumad, Barga, and Bulaghachin clans later appear in Mon- who look out for one another, the Khori are often seen as golia proper and Inner Mongolia. When Russian Cossacks mutually jealous despite their leadership in cultural, in the Yenisey valley first heard of the Buriats in 1609, they technical, and scientific fields. The Selenge Buriats, who were still west of Lake Baikal paying fur tribute to the had no prerevolutionary tradition of political leadership, KHALKHA Mongols while themselves collecting fur tribute are stereotyped as poor, passive, and very religious. from the Ket and Samoyed peoples on the Kan and the The official Buriat population until recently included EWENKIS (Tungus) on the lower Angara. Buriat lands the Soyots in the Akha (Russian, Oka) region in the far then extended west as far as Nizhneudinsk and north as west and the Khamnigan EWENKIS in and around Aga. far as Verkholensk and Bratsk. They were arranged in an The Soyots are a branch of reindeer-herding TUVANS. In intermarrying confederation of two allied groups, the Soviet times they were officially merged with the Buriats, Bulagad (sables) in the Angara and Oka as far as Nizh- and their reindeer herding was slated for extinction. By neudinsk and the Ekhired (twins) in the Lena region. 1999, however, more than half of the 4,000 “Buriats” of Scattered Mongol or Oirat clans lived among these Buri- Akha had declared themselves as Soyots again. A similar ats. Although intermarrying, the Ekhired and Bulagad movement has expanded the numbers of Khamnigan saw themselves as distantly related by a common Ewenkis, who had been assimilated by the more powerful descent from the Bull Lord (Bukha Noyon) descended Buriat clans in the 19th and 20th centuries. from heaven. Meanwhile 11-clan alliance of the Khori-Barga had EARLY HISTORY TO 1628 migrated out of the Barguzin valley eastward to the lands Scholars have connected both the Bayirqu and the between the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE and the Ergüne Quriqan (Chinese “Guligan”), who appear in the early (Argun’) River. Around 1594, to escape subjection by the seventh to ninth centuries, to the ancestry of the Buriats. Daurs (see DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE), most of them The name Bayirqu is linked to the BARGA (Middle Mongo- migrated back to the Aga and Nerchinsk steppes. After lian, Barghu), a component of the Buriats east of Lake 1607 most of the Khori Buriats migrated farther west to Baikal, while the Quriqan are mentioned in western Ol’khon (Buriat, Oikhon) Island and the Selenge delta to Baikalia. The Angara and Upper Lena valleys and Lake escape harassment by the “Horse” Ewenkis (Khamni- Baikal’s western shore were major areas of settlement of gans) and Khalkha Mongols. (Those who remained east 62 Buriats of the Ergüne and in the Transbaikal steppe became reached as far as Bratsk, Il’imsk, Yeravninsk, and ancestors of Inner Mongolia’s Old and New Bargas, Nerchinsk, while the khans besieged the forts on the respectively). While the Khori did not call themselves Selenge. At the same time, however, the Khoris along Buriats and claimed descent not from the Bull Lord but the Uda River in 1647 surrendered as a block to the from a swan maiden, they did speak a Buriat-type dialect Russians to escape paying tribute to the Khalkhas. (see BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS). Finally, in Mongolia’s Smaller Mongol clan fragments also defected north to modern Khöwsgöl province lived the Khongoodor tribe the protection of Cossack forts. The invasion of Khalkha also speaking a Buriat dialect. by GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN in 1688 stopped Khalkha resistance to the Cossack advance and sent more Mon- RUSSIAN CONQUEST AND BURIAT gol refugees fleeing into Russian control. In 1703 the MIGRATIONS, 1628–1727 Khori chiefs confirmed their submission to the czar in From 1628 the Cossacks advanced along Siberia’s rivers return for an imperial patent guaranteeing a cessation of into Buriat lands using muskets to extort yasak (from Cossack abuses. Mongolian jasaq), or tribute, in furs from the Siberian The Buriat reaction to these invasions created the natives. The advance was decentralized, with fortress contemporary ethnic geography as groups moved mostly commanders (voevoda) competing to explore new lands, east, leaving only a small body of Buriats (numbering build new fortresses, and put the natives to tribute. As 1,598 in 1897) isolated near Nizhneudinsk. The core of under the Mongol Empire, the new conquerors also the Bulagad settled in today’s central and western Ust’- traded in slaves, mostly women and children captured in Orda, while the Ekhired remained on the upper Lena. raids or sold by the impoverished natives (see SIBERIA AND The Khori had vacated Ol’khon and the Selenge delta, THE MONGOL EMPIRE). Following the conquest, Russian settling along the Uda River before using their alliance peasants moved into the often depopulated river valleys. with the Russians to attack their old rivals, the Horse The primary Cossack advance into Buriatia came up Ewenkis, and seize the Aga steppe. Ekhireds and Bula- the Angara, through southern Lake Baikal, up the Selenge gads occupied the vacant Ol’khon Island and in 1704 to Verkhneudinsk (modern ULAN-UDE), and thence by crossed the Baikal to occupy the Selenge delta. Mean- land across Transbaikalia to Nerchinsk. There their while, the Khongoodor in the late 17th century moved advance met the independent advance from Yakutsk into from Khöwsgöl north to escape Mongol rule, occupying the Amur basin. A secondary advance came up the Lena today’s southwestern Buriatia (Tünkhen) and western from Yakutsk, by portage to northern Lake Baikal, and Ust’-Orda (Alair). In 1740 a group of Ekhireds from Verk- thence up the Upper Angara and Barguzin Rivers to holensk crossed the frozen Baikal and subjugated the Baunt Lake. By 1647 fortresses had been founded on both Ewenkis there, settling in Barguzin valley. The Selenge the southern and the northern reaches of Lake Baikal, Mongols, cut off by the new border from their Khalkha and by 1676 Cossack forts controlled the territory kinsmen and mixed with displaced Buriats and Khori, roughly up to the present Russo-Mongolian frontier. gradually accepted the Russian designation as Buriat, Bands of Ewenkis roamed the uplands and forests forming the final component of the Buriat people. around the Buriats, who primarily inhabited the patches of steppe in the valleys. These Ewenkis were the main SOCIETY AND ADMINISTRATION, 1727–1898 hunters of valued sables, and the Russian demand for fur In 1708 Siberia was made a civilian province (guberniia), tribute from the Buriats exacerbated hostilities between with eastern Siberia to be supervised from Irkutsk. The the Buriats and Ewenkis. The Selenge valley, as before, rise of Verkhneudinsk east of the Baikal created a division was inhabited by Mongol clans, such as the Khatagin, of the Baikal lands and hence the Buriats into 1) Cis- Tsongol, Sartuul, and Tabunanguud, under the rule of the baikalia, directly under Irkutsk, and 2) Transbaikalia, Khalkha khans. The Transbaikal steppe around the ONON under Verkhneudinsk. This division persisted through RIVER, Shilka River, and Ergüne River was inhabited numerous administrative reorganizations. Russian demo- mostly by Bargas and “Horse” Ewenkis, who had adopted graphic and administrative pressure was stronger in Cis- the Mongolian pastoral way of life and paid tribute to the baikalia than in Transbaikalia, a fact that accentuated Khalkha khans. preexisting cultural differences. However, it must be Resistance to the Cossack advance came from both remembered that this division does not correspond the local Buriats and from the Khalkha khans. Until exactly to Buriat cultural or ethnographic distinctions. about 1645 western Buriat resistance was relatively The Transbaikal Buriats of the Selenge delta, for example, local, but in 1644–46 the Ekhired and Bulagad tribes remain closer to their Ekhired-Bulagad cousins than to cooperated to field at one point 2,000 men. They were the Khori or Selenge Buriats. defeated despite sieging Verkholensk, but rebellions The Buriats’ native political structure differed sharply continued until 1695–96. By 1652 the Khalkha khans from that of the Mongols’ in its complete absence of the were also protesting the Russian incursions into Trans- Chinggisid BORJIGID ruling lineage and the legitimizing baikalia, and from 1666 on Khalkha raiding parties charter of Chinggis Khan’s conquest and rule. This was Buriats 63 true even of the Selenge Buriats, among whom only sub- diverse livestock: sheep, goats, horses, cattle, and a few ject clans and no Borjigid were found. Instead, Buriat camels. tribes or confederations were formed of large numbers of While remaining basically nomadic, in the late 19th exogamous clans, whose senior leaders jostled for influ- century wealthier Buriats began adopting Russian pat- ence while claiming some remote fraternal origin. terns of progressive ranching, using horse-drawn hay- Buriat society varied greatly by tribal origin and by making machines and milk separators, developing economic origin. The agropastoral Buriats of Ekhired, livestock breeds such as the Buriat horse, and building Bulagad (including the Barguzin), and Khongoodor ori- wooden yurts at their winter campsites. In home life the gin lived in tight groups of 20 to 200 closely related per- Buriat women adopted sewing machines. Nomad Buriats sons nomadizing between winter and summer pastures. replaced the open fire and trivet, which filled the yurt Each group, called an ulus by Russian administrators, with eye-watering and health-endangering smoke, with held pasture in common and periodically redistributed portable stoves and metal stovepipes. the fertilized hay fields vital to their cattle-based hus- Russian administration was applied through the bandry. These Buriats lived in round wooden yurts or native political leadership they found among the Buriats. Russian-style cabins rather than Mongol felt yurts. Fish- Among the western Buriats, on average 30 uluses, or more ing played a large role for the Verkholensk Ekhired and than 2,000 persons, in a single valley formed a single especially the Ol’khon Island Buriats, and the Ekhireds tribal community. Those of Ekhired and Bulagad origin still engaged in large-scale battue hunting. The Khori and generally contained segments of many different clans Selenge Buriats, however, were far more nomadic, living bound by long-standing marriage alliance (QUDA) rela- mostly or, in Aga, entirely in felt yurts. As with the Mon- tions, but those of Khongoodor origin were often formed gols, the Khori nomadized frequently in small camps of by branches of a single clan. On the Khori and Aga one to three yurts, raising much larger numbers of steppes the 11 Khori clans, numbering from several Two Transbaikal Buriat taishas with their wives and three daughters, 1890. (Courtesy Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Ethnologisches Museum) 64 Buriats hundred to several thousand, formed the natural units part of the Khalkha, the Tsongol and Sartuul had been between the household and the tribe as a whole. familiar with Buddhism decades before the Cossack All these units had their chiefs, who were generally conquest of the Selenge valley. Yurt dugangs (assembly hereditary, being designated on the basis of clan seniority. halls) already existed in 1700, and sedentary datsangs Those of the smaller uluses had general titles such as darga (monasteries) were soon built in Sartuul and Tsongol (head, boss) or zasuul (administrator), but those of larger territories. In 1728 the authorities prohibited the fur- units bore ranks similar to that which had existed under ther entrance of Mongolian lamas among the Buriats but the NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY and the OIRATS: shülengge, authorized the ordination of two tax-exempt lamas per zaisang, and taisha (from Mongolian TAISHI), in ascending clan. In 1741 a decree by the Russian empress Elizabeth order of dignity. The Khori taishas borrowed rank buttons authorized the creation of 11 datsangs in Transbaikalia and other marks of status from Mongolia. The taisha of the with 150 lamas each. In 1764 this official Buddhist Galzuud clan was recognized as the head taisha (akha- structure was completed with the selection of the lagsha taisha) and titular head of the Khori people. shireetü lama (throne lama) Damba-Darzhaa Zayaev (d. In 1822 the Russian reformer Michael Speransky 1777) of Tsongol Monastery as the Pandita Khambo- rationalized the system of Siberian native administration. Lama (Learned Abbot Guru) with authority over all The ulus was defined as the “clan administration” and Buriat Buddhists. Buddhism soon spread to the Khori, grouped according to valleys or other existing units as where monastery construction began in 1758. Monas- “native administrations.” Finally, those “native adminis- teries began on the Aga steppe in 1801, among the Alair trations” among the Buriats that had a history of tribal and Tünkhen Khongoodors in 1814–17, and in Bar- unity were grouped into 12 “steppe dumas.” These were guzin in 1818. Buddhism remained primarily a Selenge- composed of clan chiefs elected by their peers. All native Khori-Aga phenomenon, however, and was never officials were unpaid and had similar tasks: apportioning officially authorized in Cisbaikalia. taxes, keeping track of their subjects, serving as interme- The attitude of the Russian authorities to Christian diaries between Russian local officials and their subjects, missionary activity in Siberia was at first ambivalent, as and administering justice according to the “Steppe becoming a Russian Orthodox believer earned exemption Code,” which Speransky developed on the basis of exist- from yasak. As yasak became less important as revenue, ing Buriat codes. The titles zaisang and taisha were Orthodox missionary activity became an important part apportioned to “clan administrators” depending on their of Russification. Moreover, while Russian churchmen did size, while “native administration” or steppe duma heads not find shamanism threatening, the spread of Buddhism were titled head taisha. Taxes included the fur yasak, in Cisbaikalia alarmed them, prompting a renewed mis- which since 1727 could be paid in cash and by the late sionary activity by the Russian Orthodox Church, estab- 18th century was often paid primarily in grain. Speran- lishing mission stations and appointing priests, especially sky’s attempts to limit taxation failed, however. in Tünkhen, Alair, and neighboring Bulagad areas. While Entirely apart from the native Buriat administration the Speransky legislation guaranteed freedom of religion, were Buriat Cossack units. These were organized in the bribery and coercion were pervasive, whether in ordinary 1760s from Selenge Buriat frontier guards recruited in mass conversions or in high-profile successes, such as the 1727. In 1851 these Buriat Cossacks were yoked with 1857 conversion of the Tünkhen taisha Khamakov and Russian units in the Transbaikal Cossack army. They were his son Damba. organized into seven stations (stanitsa), all in the Selenge At the time of the Russian conquest, the Selenge valley, and in the 1897 census numbered with their fami- Buriats and possibly the Khori had some experience with lies 26,782 persons, or 14.9 percent of the Transbaikal the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, but the other Buriats were Buriats. Like the Buzava Cossacks among the KALMYKS, illiterate. Education among the Transbaikal Buriats was the Buriat Cossacks became strongly Russianized in their dominated by the Tibetan-language education in the lifestyle and organization and had a number of bilingual monasteries and Mongolian-language clerical education Russian-Mongolian schools. From Cossack ranks came sponsored by the chiefs (see EDUCATION, TRADITIONAL). In DORZHI BANZAROVICH BANZAROV (1822–55), the first 1800 the Barguzin Buriats invited teachers from Khori to Buriat Ph.D., Sanzhimitab Budazhapovich Tsybyktarov begin instruction in the Uighur-Mongolian script. (1877–1921), the first Buriat M.D., and Tsyrempil Schools for Buriats conducted in Russian spread in both Ranzhurov (1884–1919), the first Buriat Bolshevik. Cis- and Transbaikalia during the 19th century but by the Unlike the Buzavas, however, who remained staunchly late 19th century had a combined enrollment of only 600. Buddhist, the Buriat Cossacks frequently converted to In Cisbaikalia education was almost entirely in Russian; a Russian Orthodoxy. new Cyrillic-script Buriat designed for Christian materi- als was little used, and the Uighur-Mongolian script not RELIGION AND CULTURE, 1727–1898 at all. Despite the relatively shallow reach of Russian-lan- During the 18th and 19th centuries the Transbaikal guage education, a number of Buriats after Dorzhi Ban- Buriats progressively converted to Buddhism. Originally zarov received some kind of Russian higher education Buriats 65 Buddhist temple at Gusinoozersk (Goose Lake) around 1770 (From Peter Simon Pallas, Sammlungen historischer Nachrichten über die mongolischen Völkerschaften [1976]) and conducted important academic research on Buriat (1887). Most of the chronicles use a common Buriat- folklore, religion, and Mongolian literature. Mongolian language written in the Uighur-Mongolian By the late 19th century copies of most of the major script but with a strong influence of Buriat dialect. While genres of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist literature cir- the Khori and Selenge chronicles link their history to culated both in manuscript and from the late 19th cen- Chinggis Khan and Tibetan Buddhism and are strongly tury in block print form from Tsugol, Aga, and other critical of shamanism, they also show a sense of common monasteries. New works included translations of Bud- Buriat identity and strong loyalty to the czar. dhist classics, histories of Chinggis Khan, and records of By 1897 Russia’s first census quantified the striking pilgrimages to Tibet. Particular to the Khoris were Buriat- differences between the Cisbaikal and Transbaikal Buri- language legal documents based on Speransky’s steppe ats. The 108,937 Cisbaikal Buriats were now 90.9 per- code and long genealogical records. cent primarily farmers and only 5.9 percent herders. Tugultur Toboev (Toba-yin Tegülder), Aga’s head (Those who were mixed farmers and herders were taisha from 1853 to 1878, wrote a pioneering chronicle of counted as farmers.) Religiously, they were 47.6 percent Khori and Aga history in 1863. Tegülder’s work inspired shamanist, 41.8 percent Russian Orthodox, and only two subsequent Khori-Aga chronicles as well as Selenge 10.6 percent Buddhist. By contrast, 77.2 percent of the chronicles. Wandan Yumsunov’s Khori-yin arban nigen 179,726 Transbaikal Buriats were livestock herders and etsige-yin zon-u ug izagur-un tuuji (Tale of the lineage of 20.1 percent practiced farming. Religiously, 91.9 percent the people of the eleven fathers of the Khori, 1875) is the were Buddhist, 6.7 percent, mostly Cossack, were richest in material, describing in four chapters the origins Orthodox, and only 1.5 percent were shamanist. Liter- of the Khori, Buddhism, shamanism, and administration. acy among men in Cisbaikalia was 9.2 percent and in The Barguzin taisha Tsydeb-Jab Sakharov (b. 1839) pub- Transbaikalia 16.4 percent (that of women was much lished a history of the Barguzin in Russian in 1869, later lower—0.8 percent and 0.6 percent, respectively). The writing another briefer history in Buriat-Mongolian nature of literacy was also different: 93 percent Russian 66 Buriats in Cisbaikalia, and only 16 percent Russian in Trans- The chaos and poverty of revolutionary Russia pre- baikalia (the balance in both cases was Tibetan and/or vented the realization of the Burnatskom’s aims, espe- Mongolian). One thing that both groups shared was cially in spreading the Uighur-Mongolian script to the their almost purely rural character. western Buriats. Increased land seizures by Russian peas- ants led in August to the formation of Buriat militias. CRISIS, REVIVAL, AND REVOLUTION, 1898–1923 Still, in the November 1917 election the Burnatskom From 1890 the Russian government began to implement (now headed by Tsyben Zhamtsarano) received 26,155 aggressive Russification among the Buriats, as it did with (14.7 percent) votes in Transbaikalia and 15,464 (7.2 per- other nationalities. Communally held land was stripped cent) in Irkutsk, making it the region’s second party. from the Buriats of both Cis- and Transbaikal and Siberia’s Russian settlers overwhelmingly supported assigned to Russian peasants. The building of the Trans- the peasant-based Social Revolutionary Party, which won Siberian Railway in 1898–1900 increased the flood of more than 56 percent of the combined Irkutsk-Trans- Russian settlers. In 1901 Speransky’s steppe dumas and baikal vote in November 1917. Its Siberian oblastniki steppe code were finally abolished and replaced by direct (regionalist) wing was allied to the Burnatskom. By con- administration of Buriats as individuals in districts trast, the Bolsheviks’ core supporters were workers and (volost’) of 300 to 3,000 persons. In World War I 12,000 soldiers from the front, both of whom were rare in Buriats were conscripted for labor battalions. Siberia. The Third Buriat All-National Congress in An expanding network of Buriat lamas, scholars, and December 1917 denounced the Bolshevik seizure of publicists protested Moscow’s new policies. Education was power, but that winter the Bolsheviks seized power in the expanding this new intelligentsia as secular schools under Baikal area, aided by Cossacks returning from the front. the Russian Ministry of Education grew from only six in Under Bolshevik rule the Burnatskom elected the 1890 to 36 in 1911. (See NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS.) With socialist Rinchino as its chairman but was attacked in the shaking of czarist rule in the 1905 Revolution, sup- May 1918 as anti-Soviet. Even so, the local Bolsheviks pressed religions revived: shamanism in the east and Bud- had to accept provisionally the somon-khoshuun-aimag dhism in the west. Cisbaikal Russian Orthodoxy suffered system despite their opposition on principle to autonomy. massive defections. The established leadership of taishas Under the slogan “socialization of land,” they egged on hoped to have the Speransky system revived; their Russian peasants to seize Buriat and Cossack territories, a spokesman in the Russian Duma of 1907 was the Aga movement that reached a crescendo of violence in 1918. schoolteacher and assistant to the taisha, Bato-Dalai Ochi- As rumors spread of an apocalyptic conflict between rov (d. 1914). He and the Bulagad Buriat Mikhail Nikolae- Buriats and Russians and a mass Buriat “return” to Mon- vich Bogdanov (1878–1920), educated in St. Petersburg, golia, Khori and Aga Buriats began migrating in April Berlin, and Zürich, also pursued detailed research on the 1919 to northeastern Mongolia and HULUN BUIR, while rural economy and advocated organizing rural coopera- Selenge Buriats migrated to north-central Mongolia. (See tives. Other leaders, however, allied with the socialists by BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA.) demanding the prohibition of land privatization, elected Meanwhile, a charismatic lama of Khori’s Kizhinga leadership, progressive taxation, and women’s equality. monastery, Samtan Tsydenov (1850–1922), proclaimed Despite these conflicts with czarist policy, Transbaikal himself “king of the dharma” and “subduer of the Three Buriats such as AGWANG DORZHIEV and TSYBEN ZHAMT- Worlds” who would destroy the enemies of Buddhism at SARANOVICH ZHAMTSARANO (1881–1942) vigorously pro- the end of the era and built an independent regime in moted Russia’s interests in Tibet and Mongolia. Khudan valley. His unorthodox ideas and dangerous Buriats reacted quickly to the Czar’s abdication on insubordination to the czar had long alienated the regular March 15, 1917 (March 2 in the old calendar). On May clergy, while the Burnatskom opposed his seemingly 3–8 (April 20–25) the Buriat National Committee (Rus- backward character. sian abbreviation, Burnatskom), led by Tsyben Zhamt- With the overthrow of Bolshevik rule by Czechoslo- sarano, Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino (1888–1938), and the vak prisoners of war and White Guards, the half-Russian chairman M. N. Bogdanov, was organized at Chita. The Buriat Cossack Grigorii M. Semënov in November congress renamed the Buriat administrative hierarchy brought together a faction of Burnatskom supporters led with terms taken from Mongolia: somon (old ulus), by Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino into what was called the long- khoshuun (old volost’), and AIMAG (roughly the steppe awaited Buriat National Duma in November 1918. Relo- dumas), and advocated autonomy with elective adminis- cated to Chita, this Duma grew into a pan-Mongolist trations, common land ownership, a reformed Buriat DAURIIA STATION MOVEMENT involving Hulun Buir and code, and universal Buriat-language education in the Inner Mongolian delegates, but it foundered by autumn Uighur-Mongolian script, capped by a Buriat National 1919. Most Buriat nationalists kept their distance and Duma as an autonomous legislature. The Burnatskom’s Semënov had M. N. Bogdanov shot and Samtan Tsydenov insistence that secular education precede Buddhist train- imprisoned; the latter’s mysterious escape only increased ing caused conflict with conservative lamas. his fame. By this time local partisan movements sprang Buriats 67 up against White rule and the Red Army advance put the A core of relatively assimilated Alair and Bulagad Bolsheviks again in charge of Buriatia by March 1920. To Communists was used to control the less reliable but avoid complications with Japan, a puppet Far Eastern more influential Transbaikal Buriat intelligentsia. The Republic was maintained in Transbaikalia from April republic’s initial leadership troika included the party sec- 1920 to November 1922. retary Mariia M. Sakh’ianova (1896–1981, Balagan), pre- Through Russian peasant attacks, emigration, and mier MIKHEI NIKOLAEVICH ERBANOV (1889–1938, Alair), civil war, Russia’s Buriat-speaking population dropped and head of state Matvei I. Amagaev (1897–1944, Bala- from 1897 to 1926 by more than 50,000, from 289,100 to gan); all had joined the party in 1917. The old Bur- 236,800. At first under the new regime, the taishas and natskom intellectuals led cultural and educational other wealthy Buriats were tolerated, although they were activities. Other pan-Mongolist movement alumni, partic- disenfranchised. Incomplete figures show the number of ularly Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino, were assigned to Mongo- lamas declining from 11,276 in 1916 to 7,566 in 1927, lia. Buriat agents served the Soviet Union as far as Inner although the number of monasteries actually increased to Mongolia. 47. Tsydenov was again briefly imprisoned by the Bolshe- M. N. Erbanov diligently implemented the centrally viks, and after his death his movement was harassed into approved policy of korenizatsiia (nativization), increas- virtual extinction by 1924. ing the percentage of Buriat party members, cadres, and While the Irkutsk party organization remained hos- workers and the public use of the Buriat language. Lan- tile to autonomy, V. I Lenin and Joseph Stalin (then head- guage policy milestones included the creation of a ing the People’s Commissariat of Nationalities) insisted Buriat newspaper (in the Uighur-Mongolian script) in that Buriat autonomy was necessary for foreign political 1921, the Buriat Academic Committee (Buriatskii reasons. Soviet leaders hoped Buriat autonomy would uchenyi komitet, or Buruchkom) in 1922, a Buriat peda- serve as a showcase for Communist minority policy gogical vocational high school in 1924, and Buriat-lan- among the Mongols, Tibetans, and other Buddhist peo- guage radio broadcasts in 1931, two years after the first ples of the Far East. With this aim the Far Eastern Repub- Russian broadcasts from Verkhneudinsk. Despite the lic’s new constitution already guaranteed Buriat Russian cadres’ criticism of nativization, by 1939 Buriat autonomy, and a Buriat-Mongol Autonomous Region city dwellers had risen to more than 20,741, or 9 per- (oblast’) of four noncontiguous aimags, Aga, Khori, Bar- cent, of Buriats as preferential policies enticed Buriats guzin, and Chikoy (around KYAKHTA CITY) was created in out of the countryside. April 1920. Leadership was in the hands of a mix of non- From 1908 western Buriat students in Irkutsk had party Buriats and Russian Bolsheviks. On January 9, begun producing theater pieces, and the movement grew 1922, a Mongol-Buriat (sic) Autonomous Region was cre- into a virtual craze of playwriting after 1917. In 1918 the ated in the Cisbaikal territories of the Russian Soviet Fed- Burnatskom intellectual and reform Buddhist Bazar erated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), again with five mostly Baradiin (1878–1937) of Aga set up a Buriat printing noncontiguous aimags: Alair, Bookhon (Russian, press in Chita, where he printed first a comedy of man- Bokhan), Ekhired-Bulagad, Tünkhen, and (western) ners based on the Aga nobility and then historical Selenge. Here leadership was in the hands of a small tragedies. The dean of Soviet Buriatia’s socialist realist lit- number of rapidly recruited Buriat Bolsheviks. erature, the Khori schoolteacher Khotsa Namsaraiev (1889–1959), began his writing career with the play Kha- BURIATS IN THE BURIAT-MONGOLIAN REPUBLIC, rankhii (Darkness, 1919) before going on to write prolifi- 1923–1937 cally in every genre. The other major genre of early Soviet When the Far Eastern Republic was absorbed into the literature was poetry. Pëtr Nikiforovich Dambinov of RSFSR (subsequently itself merged into the Soviet Bookhon aimag published his first poem, “Sesegte Tala” Union), Moscow again insisted in 1923 that the discon- (Flowery steppe, 1922), under the pen name Solbone tinuous aimags be merged into the Autonomous Soviet Tuya (or Solbonoi Tuyaa, “Rays of the Morning Star”). He Socialist Republic with urban centers and a mostly con- later became the first secretary of the Buriat Writers’ tiguous territory. As a result, the new Buriat-Mongol Union. Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (BMASSR) After 1928 popular opposition to the increasingly included 90 percent of Russia’s Buriats, but its population radical and violent policies initiated by Soviet ruler was only 43.8 percent Buriat. The capital of the new Joseph Stalin stoked Moscow’s fears of pro-Japanese pan- republic was the small city of Verkhneudinsk, which with Mongolism. In May 1929 pan-Mongolism was attacked, the neighboring stretch of the Trans-Siberian Railway had and the old Burnatskom intellectuals were gradually been previously excluded from Buriat autonomy. Only exiled to Moscow or Leningrad. The Buruchkom and 0.6 percent of the Buriats were urban, and in the Buriat many literary journals were closed down, and “nativiza- regional Communist Party apparatus only 153 of the tion” of the cadres wound down after 1932. The intro- 1,326 members and candidate were Buriats, most from duction in 1931 of a Latinized Buriat script destroyed the western aimags. existing native-language literacy just as the political 68 Buriats impetus for developing non-Russian literacy was weaken- further, from 238,100 to 224,719. Literacy had risen from ing. To strengthen the impact of political theater, a studio 28.5 percent in 1926 to 67.6 percent in 1939, but another was organized in 1928 and an art technicum in 1930, body of intellectuals like that destroyed in the Great which eventually grew into the Kh. Namsaraiev Buriat Purge would not appear again. Dramatic Theater in 1950. On a mass level the impact of these policies was WARTIME AND POSTWAR BURIATS, 1937–1984 dwarfed by that of forced collectivization and sedenta- During World War II Buriats served mostly in Irkutsk rization begun in 1929. Widespread revolt broke out, par- and Transbaikal divisions and were heavily decorated. ticularly among the Buriats in Tüngkhen and the Russian The several Heroes of the Soviet Union among the Buriats Old Believers in the eastern Selenge valley. As in 1919, included the major general Il’ya Vasil’evich Baldynov and the Buriat rebels were inspired by apocalyptic preaching colonel Vladimir Buzinaevich Borsoev; after the war three and the idea of a return to Mongolia. The Buriats resisted other Buriats achieved the rank of general. During the fiercely the demand to surrender their livestock to the Soviet Union’s brief war on Japan in Manchuria and Inner collectives, slaughtering their animals before surrender- Mongolia, Buriats served both as combat soldiers and, ing them. The number of Buriatia’s livestock fell 62.5 per- like S. D. Dylykov, as translators and political officers. cent from 1929 to 1932. By 1934 75.8 percent of the Perhaps as a reward for this loyalty, a Buriat first party republic’s agricultural-pastoral households had been col- secretary, A. U. Khakhalov, and premier, D. Ts. Tsyrempi- lectivized, and in 1937 the number reached 91.6 percent. lon, were again chosen for the ASSR in 1951. Even then, the number of livestock was only 51 percent During World War II and its aftermath, Moscow tol- of the 1929 figure. erated religious activity, and the war deaths reinvigorated Meanwhile, Buriat Buddhism came under frontal the cults of the dead; many Buriats held large tailgans attack. In May 1928 the datsangs were labelled “the (sacrifices) to the spirits of war before being shipped out republic’s biggest reactionary force.” By 1933 lamas were to the front. In 1946 the Ivolga and Aga datsangs were reduced to 2,758 in 29 datsangs, almost all along the reopened as Buddhist centers, with two dozen married Mongolian frontier. The campaign climaxed in 1935. Of lamas; the khambo-lama, or abbot of Ivolga datsang, the remaining 1,219 lamas, 617 were repressed, 150 to chaired the Central Spiritual Administration of Buddhists 180 fled to Mongolia or Inner Mongolia, 120 to 130 and became titular head of Soviet Buddhism. The GESER became herders, and 280 to 320 became workers in the epic was also encouraged in the war years as a way of cities. Lama physicians at the Atsagat medical datsang developing martial patriotism. In 1948–49, however, the numbered 440 in 1925 but only 53 in 1937. In the next epic was attacked as exemplifying feudal reaction and year the remains of organized Buddhism were crushed. implicitly resistance to Russian rule. This attack ceased All these cultural campaigns were mostly implemented at only in 1953, after Stalin’s death. In the early 1960s the grass roots by a new generation of convinced Buriat Moscow began a new campaign against superstitions and believers in the Soviet system. religious beliefs that for the first time targeted shamanism M. N. Erbanov, now the Buriat party committee’s first more than Buddhism. Still, the sincere and militant athe- secretary, presided over this cultural devastation until his ism of the revolutionary activists became rare in postwar own time came in 1937 during Stalin’s Great Purge. The generations. fabricated “Case of the A[gwang] Dorzhiev Organiza- The 1937 purges and dismemberment of Buriatia tion,” built on bogus testimony extracted by torture that marked the abandonment of Moscow’s aim to use it as a implicated 1,303 Buddhist clerics, eventually metasta- model for Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. In the postwar sized into a new “Japanese-Buriat Counterrevolutionary period Moscow slowly eliminated the remaining traces of Center” case that eventually implicated 723 members of the earlier policy. In 1958 the ASSR was renamed simply the republican leadership and Buriat intelligentsia: the Buriat ASSR, dropping the word Mongol. In 1965 the Erbanov himself, second secretary A. A. Markizov, pre- Buriat local administrative terms of aimag and somon mier D. D. Dorzhiev, head of state I. D. Dampilon, the were abolished. Meanwhile, the dominant theory of the Writers’ Union secretary Solbone Tuya, and so on. As Russian archaeologist A. P. Okladnikov maintained that elsewhere in the Soviet bloc, countless smaller cases the Buriats were actually Mongolized Turks, thus mini- annihilated a whole generation of party and social lead- mizing links to the Mongols (see ARCHAEOLOGY). The ele- ers. On September 26, 1937, the same month as the show vation of Aga and Ust’-Orda “national areas” to the level trial that sentenced Erbanov and 53 other supposed con- of “autonomous areas” in 1977 was applied to all Russia’s federates to death, Buriatia was dismembered, and the “national areas” and had no special Buriat significance. Aga and Alar, Bookhon, and Ekhired-Bulagad aimags During the postwar period the Buriats showed mod- were separated as the Aga and Ust’-Orda “national areas.” erately high population growth, increasing 39.5 percent The 1939 census revealed that as a result of the cam- from 1959 to 1979, a rate close to that of Yakuts and paign against Buddhism, the Great Purge, and collec- Kalmyks. This increase was almost twice that of the Rus- tivization, the ethnic Buriat population had declined even sians but much lower than that of the Soviet Muslim peo- Buriats 69 ples. Urbanization in the ASSR increased during World the lamas were strictly forbidden to conduct Buddhist War II, when many industries were relocated to Ulan-Ude activities outside the datsang. Unofficial Buddhism was along with their Russian workers. The percentage of strictly forbidden. Bidiyadara D. Dandaron (1914–74), a ASSR Buriats living in urban areas (towns of more than Khori Buriat chosen by Samtan Tsydenov as his future 15,000) increased from 16.6 percent in 1959 to 35.9 per- incarnation, was jailed three times (1937, 1948, and cent in 1979, while the Buriat percentage of the republic’s 1972), the last time for attempting to revive Buddhist rit- urban population rose from 8.1 percent to 14.5 percent. uals outside the monastery with Buriat and non-Buriat As with the Mongols of Inner Mongolia, preferential participants. Even so, once again foreign policy needs— policies in employment and education acting on a rela- now the desire to highlight the Soviet Union’s greater tively low population base exerted a strong “pull” toward benevolence compared with Maoist China—pushed white-collar cultural and administrative positions. By Moscow to allow the Fourteenth Dalai Lama several visits 1970 the Buriats had a higher percentage of “specialists” to Ivolga from 1979 on. (156.5 of 1,000) than did any other Soviet nationality except the Jews. Under ANDREI URUPKHEEVICH MODOGOIEV, NATIONAL REVIVAL AFTER 1984 an Ust’-Orda Buriat who ruled Buriatia from 1960 to The wave of liberalization in the Soviet Union after 1985 1984, this pull also drew educated Aga and Ust’-Orda came only slowly to Buriatia. In 1984 the new Soviet Buriats to migrate to the Buriat ASSR. From 1970 to 1979 leadership retired the long-ruling Buriat apparatchik the Buriat population grew by only 8.3 percent in Aga Modogoiev and replaced him as party secretary with A. and actually declined 6.0 percent in Ust’-Orda, even M. Beliakov, a Russian. At the same time Buriat-language while growing 15.8 percent in the ASSR. In 1989 Buriats education was revived in the primary schools, and in formed 50 percent of the regional party apparatus, 45 1989 the sagaalgan was openly celebrated. percent of the city and local party cadres, and 60 percent In 1990–91 the existing ASSR leadership was forced of the responsible ASSR officials. In the countryside the to respond to the breakup of the Soviet Union and the rural intelligentsia was heavily Buriat, and public recogni- new multiparty situation. As in other autonomous units, tion went mostly to Buriat-dominated collective farms. a declaration of sovereignty, a new flag, a declaration of Russification of the Buriat elite caused the official equal official status for the local language (i.e., Buriat) Soviet-style Buriat-language culture to languish. While and Russian, and finally in 1992 a new constitution fol- output of Buriat belles lettres, particularly poetry and the- lowed. Nevertheless, just as in other regions of Russia, ater, continued, it was unsupported by Buriat-language Buriatia soon found financial needs overwhelming desires nonfiction or by education above the high school level. for greater autonomy. While the elections of 1994 Increasing urbanization and familiarity with Russian fur- brought the Buriat Republic a Russian president, overall ther diminished the appeal of the heavily rural-oriented the Buriats remained in a strong position governmentally. Soviet Buriat culture. In 1970 Buriat-language education In the legislature 40 percent was Buriat (compared with was eliminated, and although many Buriat poets such as 50 percent in 1989), as were 70 percent of the republic’s Dondok A. Ulzytuev (1936–72) and Bayir S. Dugarov (b. ministers. Even so, Moscow’s plans for administrative 1947) saw themselves as voices of Buriat national conti- consolidation threaten to merge the Buriat Republic with nuity, their audience was limited. Buriat language ability, one or more neighboring Russian provinces. particularly at advanced levels, declined swiftly. With the new freedom of expression, historical and Despite the decline in the Buriat language, much tra- cultural questions are being frankly discussed. Renewed ditional religious and spiritual culture was maintained. contacts with the Buriats of China, who seem to have By the 1960s the most important calendrical rituals were preserved their traditions so well, have only accentuated sagaalgan, the lunar new year, or WHITE MONTH of the the Russification of the Buriats in their homeland. In this Mongols, and the summer sur-kharbaan, or ARCHERY festi- situation the question for the Buriats was expressed in val, similar to the Mongolian NAADAM. The former was the title of the noted historian Shirap B. Chimitdorzhiev’s associated with Buddhism and frowned upon, while the book: Kto my Buriaty? (Who are we Buriats?). latter was coopted by the state. Tailgans and worship at Many Buriats have looked for the answer to this OBOO (cairns for Buddhist or shamanist worship) were question in religion, specifically Buddhism and shaman- frequent and well attended in many collective farms ism. A Buddhist revival began in 1988, and by 2000 25 although also still officially frowned upon. Shamans still monasteries and religious organizations existed on Buriat existed, although even devoted clients considered them soil. The role of Buddhism was recognized by the republi- to have but a shadow of their ancestors’ spiritual power. can government with the 1991 celebration of the 250th Detailed genealogical knowledge remained widespread, anniversary of the empress Elizabeth’s recognition of and clan exogamy was practiced, although many rituals Buriat Buddhism. Shamans, too, have organized on an were conducted by the collective farm community, not official level, forming the Association of Shamans of Buri- clans. Ivolga and Aga datsangs were maintained by dis- atia in 1993, which sponsored large-scale tailgans, or clan crete popular devotion throughout the late Soviet era, but sacrifices, at Ol’khon Island in 1993 and 1996. However, 70 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia as in the early 20th century, new connections with Nomadic and Sedentarized Buryat,” in Pastoral Production Tibetans and non-Buriat Buddhists have created contro- and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, versial organizations and sparked criticism of clerical 1979): 235–260; Helen Sharon Hundley, “Speransky and marriage and alcohol consumption tolerated by the Tradi- the Buriats: Administrative Reform in Nineteenth Cen- tional Buddhist Sangha (Monastic Community) of Russia, tury Russia” (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana- the successor of the Soviet-era organization of Buddhists. Champaign, 1984); Rinchen, Four Mongolian Historical The lasting division between Buddhism and shaman- Records (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian ism and the new divisions in Buddhism have made the Culture, 1959); Robert A. Rupen, Mongols of the Twentieth epic hero Geser the most consensual symbol of Buriat Century, 2 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, identity. In 1990 the Buriat republic’s legislature declared 1964); Elena Stroganova, “Millenarian Representations of 1990 the 1,000-year anniversary of Geser. From 1991 to the Contemporary Buriats,” Inner Asia 1 (1999): 1992 a series of Geser readings, coinciding with summer 111–120; Natalya L. Zhukovskaya, “Religion and Ethnic- sur-kharbaan festivals and the movement of the official ity in Eastern Russia, Republic of Buriatia: A Panorama of Geser banner, was staged successively at the birthplaces the 1990s,” Central Asian Survey 14 (1995): 25–42. of famous Geser singers in Ust’-Orda, Khori, and Aga. Both Ust’-Orda and the new Tunka National Park have adopted the tourist slogan “Land of Geser.” Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia Estab- A more sensitive question is that of Buriat unity and lished by BURIATS fleeing Russian peasant attacks in 1919, the link to Mongolia. The Buriat legislature officially the Buriat communities in Mongolia and in China’s Inner charged on August 27, 1990, that Moscow’s dismember- Mongolia have often been leaders in modern reforms in ment of the republic in 1937 was illegal since it had never their communities. been approved by the ASSR itself, yet the practical obsta- In Mongolia Buriats number 35,400, or 1.7 percent cles to restoring the pre-1937 boundaries have proved of the population (1989 figures). In China the Buriats insuperable. Thus, both the relatively mainstream All- remain socially distinct, although they are officially regis- Buriat Association for Cultural Development (founded tered as Mongols. Due to this fact, no official figures on February 1991) and the more political Congress of the their population exist, although their numbers were esti- Buriat People (July 1996) have sought nonadministrative mated in 1990 at more than 6,000. ways to strengthen Buriat unity. While often denounced With the establishment of the Russia-Qing frontier in by Russians both in Buriatia and elsewhere, pan-Mon- 1727, the Buriats of Russia and the KHALKHA Mongols golism has not had any practical success. The word Mon- under Manchu Qing rule were separated by wide border gol in the republic and the autonomous areas’ names has zones manned by frontier guards. As Russia established not been revived, and pan-Mongolian parties have as yet its sphere of influence in Mongolia in the early 20th cen- obtained no share in power. Many of their more talented tury, Buriats began using pasture in HULUN BUIR and along alumni have, however, been coopted as individuals into the northern border of Mongolia. With the 1911 RESTORA- the government. The vogue of Chinggis Khan seems to be TION of Mongolian independence, educated Buriats also quite superficial compared to the profound veneration in served as translators, interpreters, and schoolteachers, Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Even so, the continuing working for both the Russian consulate and the Mongo- economic and social crises have again stimulated apoca- lian government. lyptic rumors that after some great catastrophe, Russians During the Russian Revolution attacks and land will take over the land and the Buriats will return to seizures by Russian peasants intensified against the Buri- Mongolia. ats. In April 1919 Aga and Khori Buriats, along with See also AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA; CLOTHING many Khamnigan (Buriat-influenced EWENKIS), in des- AND DRESS; DANCE; EPICS; HUNTING AND FISHING; JEWELRY; peration fled over the border to today’s EASTERN PROVINCE RELIGION; UST’-ORDA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA; WED- and KHENTII PROVINCE in Mongolia and to Hulun Buir in DINGS; YURT. Inner Mongolia, while Tünkhen and Tsongol Buriats fled Further reading: James Forsyth, A History of the Peo- to areas in today’s SELENGE PROVINCE, BULGAN PROVINCE, ples of Siberia: Russia’s North Asian Colony, 1581–1990 and KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE. Buriats fighting for the White (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Roberte Russian cause likewise took refuge in Hulun Buir. The Hamayon, “Emblem of Minority, Substitute for Buriats and the native Bargas and Khalkhas frequently Sovereignty: The Case of Buryatia,” Diogenes 49.2 (2002): clashed over pastures and incidents of armed robbery and 16–25; Caroline Humphrey, “Buryats,” in The Nationali- horse theft. ties Question in the Soviet Union, ed. Graham Smith (Lon- After the 1921 REVOLUTION many Buriat intellectuals don: Longman, 1990): 290–303; Caroline Humphrey, again returned to Mongolia’s capital as prominent politi- Marx Went Away, but Karl Stayed Behind (Ann Arbor: Uni- cal figures, while the rural Buriat refugees petitioned to versity of Michigan Press, 1998); Caroline Humphrey, receive refuge in Mongolia. Since many were anti-Com- “The Uses of Genealogy: A Historical Study of the munist, this was a sensitive issue for Mongolia’s new Burma 71 Soviet-aligned government. On February 5, 1922, the any subethnic group in Mongolia. Mongolia’s prime min- Buriats in the capital convened and established a Buriat ister from 1991 to 1992, D. Byambasüren, was a Buriat. Assembly, which served as the new People’s Government’s While the Shinekhen Buriats prospered during that liaison with the rural Buriats in Mongolia until 1925. time in Hulun Buir, they remained wary of possible From 1922 to 1923 the government established six spe- Soviet invasion. By 1945 more than half the Buriats had cial Buriat banners in Setsen Khan and Tüshiyetü Khan migrated south from Hulun Buir and were living in provinces. Finally, at Mongolia’s First Great Khural in SHILIIN GOL and Jirim leagues. The Soviet invasion in November 1924, the Buriats of Mongolia, numbering August 1945 swept scores of Inner Mongolia’s Buriat 4,361 households and 16,093 persons, were collectively lamas and many more laymen into Soviet labor camps, naturalized as Mongolian citizens. In 1931, with the although the major leaders evaded capture. During the provincial reorganization, the Buriat banners were ensuing Chinese civil war the Shiliin Gol Buriats waged replaced by ordinary sums. a guerrilla war against the Chinese Communists. In Hulun Buir the autonomous banner authorities Defeated, many Buriats were executed, while others fled agreed on December 3, 1921, to allow the Aga Buriat west as far as Kökenuur. By 1956 the surviving Buriats and Khamnigan herder refugees to stay permanently. had all been resettled back at Shinekhen, where in Octo- They based their decision in part on sympathy with the ber 1957 they were made citizens of China. In 1990 the refugees’ sufferings at the hands of the Reds and in part three Buriat SUM (districts) had about 5,950 Buriats out on Hulun Buir’s historical connection with the Aga and of 7,981 residents; another 1,000 were Khamnigan Khori Buriats and the Khamnigans (see EWENKIS). The Ewenkis. next year a new banner was formed on the Shinekhen With liberalization in China after 1980 and in Mon- (Xinhen) River in Solon Ewenki territory (modern golia after 1990, the distinctive Buriat culture of well- Ewenki Autonomous Banner) with about 160 house- kept genealogies, strict clan exogamy, lamas, BARIACH holds and 700 people. While Buriat emigration to Mon- (Buriat, baryaashan, bone setters), and shamans has been golia ceased after 1921, anticommunist Buriats openly revived. Mongolian and Shinekhen Buriats both continued to move into Hulun Buir, bringing the preserve their Buriat tongue, wear distinctive Buriat Shinekhen population in 1931 up to about 800 house- clothing on festive occasions, and frown on intermarriage holds and 3,000 people. with local Mongols, whether Khalkha, or BARGA. Only in In both Mongolia and Hulun Buir the Buriats intro- Mongolia, however, can the memories of persecution be duced new handicrafts, farming techniques, hay-mowing openly recalled. Buriats of Russia have become interested machines, improved horse and cattle breeds, sewing in both groups, but especially the Shinekhen Buriats, as machines, and enclosed portable stoves with stovepipes preservers of traditional Buriat culture. instead of the old open fires. Mostly nomadic, in Mon- See also AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA; BURIAT LAN- golia’s wooded KHENTII RANGE they built supplementary GUAGE AND SCRIPTS. log cabins and in Hulun Buir mud-brick houses. The Further reading: A. Hurelbaatar, “An Introduction to Buriats built many Buddhist temples throughout their the History and Religion of the Buryat Mongols of Shine- new banners. hen in China,” Inner Asia 2 (2000): 73–116; Ippei Shima- With the beginning of Mongolia’s leftist period in mura, “The Roots Seeking Movement among the 1929, Buriat intellectuals with “White” (i.e., anticom- Aga-Buryats: New Lights on Their Shamanism, History of munist) pasts were dismissed from government posi- Suffering, and Diaspora,” in A People Divided: Buryat tions. The Japanese occupation of Manchuria increased Mongols in Russia, Mongolia and China, ed. Konagaya Yuki the Soviet advisers’ sense of threat from pan-Mongolist (Cologne: International Society for the Study of the Cul- Buriat espionage. In July 1933 the LHÜMBE CASE became ture and Economy of the Orclos Mongols, 2002). the first manufactured spy case to affect the Buriats, sending 251 to execution or lengthy prison sentences. Buriyad See BURIATS. The GREAT PURGE of 1937–39 had a far more terrible impact. By one count Buriats in Dornod and Khentii provinces accounted for 5,368 of the 25,785 persons Burma (Myanmar) Mongol campaigns in Burma known to have been unjustly shot or imprisoned, as (modern Myanmar) shattered the Pagan kingdom but did special execution squads in trucks (khorpoodlog) not lead to permanent conquest. roamed the Buriat countryside. In the 11th century the rulers in Pagan adopted These grim years left a legacy of suppressed bitter- Theravada Buddhism, the scholastic sect of Buddhism ness among Mongolia’s Buriats, expressed by both the based in Sri Lanka. At the same time they subdued the dissident poet RENTSENII CHOINOM and the orphaned spir- more civilized realm of the Mon, a people speaking a lan- its that possessed Buriat shamans. Still, the Buriats guage related to Khmer on the coast. Called Mian by the remained occupationally successful. In 1989 27.7 percent Chinese, Burma had abundant gold, which attracted of the Buriats were white-collar workers, the highest of traders from Bengal in the east to YUNNAN in the west. 72 Buryats In 1271 and 1273, the Mongol administration in White Month (lunar new year). During the summer they Yunnan sent monks as envoys to Pagan’s king Narathi- are served only when special guests come. Dumplings are hipate (Narasihapati, r. 1256–87) but the Pagan kingdom particularly popular in Mongolia’s capital, ULAANBAATAR, in reply began harassing the Gold-Tooths (ancestors of where buuz, potato salad, slices of sausage with onion, the modern Dai and then Mongol subjects) along the and shots of vodka form the standard food for guests. Yunnan-Burma border, launching a full-scale attack in See also FOOD AND DRINK. March 1277, with a large army including elephants. The 700-man Mongol garrison under Qutuq rallied Achang and Gold-Tooth tribesmen along the Yunnanese border Buyannemekhü (Sonombaljiriin Buyannemekh, Buin and defeated the Burmese at Nandian (near Tengchong). Nemkhu) (1902–1937) Mongolia’s first revolutionary poet In November the Mongol official Nasir-ad-Din (d. 1292; and playwright see SAYYID AJALL) raided Burma with an army of 3,840 Buyannemekhü was born in Tüshiyetü Zasag banner (in Mongols, Cuan (Yi), and Mosuo, reaching the Irawaddy modern Delgerkhangai Sum, Middle Gobi) but was early at Jiangtou (probably modern Katha). In December 1283 taken to Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). At age 10 he 10,000 soldiers from Sichuan and Miao tribal auxiliaries, was adopted by the Inner Mongolian anti-Chinese rebel all under the Mongol prince Sang’udar, advanced by raft Togtakhu Taiji (1863–1922) and tutored in Mongolian, and by land to Jiangtou and Biao-Dian (probably modern Manchu, and some Chinese. Buyannemekhü also listened Mabein), garrisoning them before taking Tagaung. Peace to the minstrels who entertained Togtakhu. At age 16 negotiations proved inconclusive. Buyannemekhü was enrolled in Mongolia’s new public In November 1286 QUBILAI KHAN’s grandson Esen- primary school and studied Mongolian, Russian, and Temür, the prince of Yunnan, set out from Yunnan with Chinese. Buyannemekhü greatly appreciated CHINESE FIC- 6,000 troops and 1,000 Gold-Tooth auxiliaries. While TION and Beijing opera. King Narathihapate’s son Thihathu (Sihasura) seized the Fleeing Chinese rule, Buyannemekhü joined the throne and murdered his father at Shrikshetra (modern Mongolian People’s Party at Troitskosavsk (in modern Prome), the Yuan army garrisoned Tagaung and Mong- KYAKHTA) on February 27, 1921. His “Mongolian Interna- Nai-Dian (near modern Molo). Esen-Temür advanced tionale” became for many years the de facto national that spring to Pagan, but disease decimated the Mon- ANTHEM. After working as a publicist in Irkutsk, he gols, and they withdrew. The Pagan kingdom fell into returned to Khüriye in late 1921 and became a leader in anarchy. the MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY YOUTH LEAGUE. Buyan- In 1297 Thihathu’s brother Tribhuvanaditya submit- nemekhü and his comrades wrote and performed shii ted to the Yuan court, but in 1299 his younger brother jüjig (Beijing opera style plays) in Mongolian with revo- Athinkaya murdered him. Another expedition was dis- lutionary or historical themes: Oirakhi tsag-un tobchi (A patched to suppress Athinkaya, but already involved with survey of modern times, written 1922, revised 1924), the Babai-Xifu of northern Thailand, the Yunnan authori- covering Mongolian history from 1911 to 1921, and ties recommended accepting Athinkaya’s proferred sub- Bagatur khöbegün Temüjin (The heroic boy Temüjin, writ- mission. Central and southern Burma soon came under ten March 3, 1928), describing the boyhood of Temüjin Thai rulers who paid nominal tribute to the Yuan, and (CHINGGIS KHAN). only the north remained under Mongol control. Naive and excitable in his politics, Buyannemekhü was briefly imprisoned during the Third Congress (August 1924). Terrified by the congress’s execution of opponents, Buryats See BURIATS. Buyannemekhü fled to Inner Mongolia, where he worked with the Daur revolutionary MERSE for more than a year. buuz Meat dumplings, generally called buuz, are the After reconciling with the new Mongolian regime, he did most typical holiday fare among the Mongols, always propaganda work in Buriatia until August 1928. served during the WHITE MONTH and for welcome guests. In January 1929 he helped form the Writers’ Circle Adopted during the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), buuz with TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN, BYAMBYN RINCHEN, and (from Chinese baozi) are meat dumplings wrapped in other writers. The group’s first collective anthology, Uran thin skins of leavened flour and cooked in a steamer. The üges-ün chuglagan (A gathering of artistic words), con- meat filling, or shanz (from Chinese xianzi, today xianr), tained several of his songs, poems, and essays. is made of ground mutton or beef mixed with onions, Buyannemekhü’s first wife, Dulmajab, divorced him cabbage, salt, and today black pepper. In wrapping the while he was in Inner Mongolia. His alcoholism and her skins, cooks leave a small hole at the top with a whirl jealousy made his second marriage with a Tatar woman, pattern around it to allow steam to escape. Buuz, bänshi Zhena, miserable. In 1930 he was expelled from the party (small meat dumplings in soup), and such foods are gen- for his controversial past and irregular personal life. In erally eaten during the winter months; vast amounts are March–September 1932 he was imprisoned for his made and frozen to be eaten during the course of the involvement with Merse and other INNER MONGOLIANS. Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 During the succeeding NEW TURN POLICY, however, an alliance against Bulgaria with Noqai, then nomadizing Buyannemekhü became a leading journalist and play- west of the Dnieper, sealing it with another natural wright. Buyannemekhü’s most famous play, Kharangkhui daughter. From then until his death Noqai served as a Zasag (A dark regime, 1934), pictured all the characters reliable ally for Byzantium in its rivalry with Bulgaria. of Qing-era Mongolian society and the way they con- Even after the new Bulgarian czar George I Terter spired to destroy the lowborn couple Tsetseg and Chulu- (1280–92) sent his son Teodor Svetoslav as hostage and unbaatur. His reminiscence about his 1922 meeting with his daughter as wife for Noqai’s son Jöge (Bulgarian, Lenin, published in 1935, was widely reprinted. In 1936 Chaka), Noqai continued to raid Bulgaria. he received the Star of Labor. With the GREAT PURGE, In autumn 1299, however, the new khan of the however, Buyannemekhü was arrested on September 11, Golden Horde, Toqto’a (1291–1312), overthrew Noqai. 1937, and executed on October 27. In 1963, with de- Noqai’s son Jöge/Chaka fled with Teodor Svetoslav to Bul- Stalinization, he was posthumously exonerated and his garia, where Teodor had Chaka crowned czar. Within a collected works reprinted in Cyrillic. year, however, Toqto’a invaded Bulgaria, and Teodor over- See also LITERATURE; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY, threw his former protegé, becoming czar himself THIRD CONGRESS OF; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. (1300–21). From then on the Golden Horde was firmly allied to Bulgaria. Wary of this development, Byzantium, Byzantium and Bulgaria Mongol contacts with too, cultivated relations with both the Golden Horde and Byzantium and Bulgaria resulted from Mongol advances the Il-Khans. In the palace a special school was set up to into the Black Sea steppe and the Caucasus. As the Mon- train girls of noble or lowly family as the emperor’s adop- gol prince Batu’s armies retreated from Hungary, they tive daughters, who played a role in diplomacy. Toqto’a, crossed the Danube and forced Bulgaria to pay tribute his successor ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41), the Il-Khan Öljeitü (1242–43). After the Mongols dispatched an embassy to (1281–1316), and many lesser princes all received such Byzantium in 1254, Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259–82) fictive daughters, Özbeg apparently twice. allied with Il-Khan HÜLE’Ü (1256–65), to Mongol ruler of Despite this marriage diplomacy, from 1320 Özbeg the Middle East, partly from fear and partly to gain an repeatedly raided Thrace, partly in service of Bulgaria’s ally against Turkmen raids. wars against both Byzantium and the rising power of Ser- In 1262, however, MAMLUK EGYPT sought a three- bia but just as much in pursuit of loot. Usually the Mon- power alliance against Hüle’ü among Egypt, Byzantium, gol detachments were small, 2,000 to 3,000, but in 1324 and Berke (1257–66), Mongol khan of the GOLDEN HORDE. 12 tümens (nominally 120,000 men) pillaged Thrace for Michael at first temporized until NOQAI, the Golden 40 days; on the last raid in 1337 they pillaged for 15 days Horde’s commander, invaded in 1264 with 20,000 troops and supposedly took 300,000 captives. Özbeg’s succes- and Bulgarian allies, forcing Michael to join the alliance. In sors did not continue his aggressive policy, and contacts 1265, however, Michael married a natural daughter to with Byzantium and Bulgaria lapsed. Hüle’ü’s son Abagha (1265–82), who agreed to be bap- Further reading: Bruce G. Lippard, “The Mongols tized. Thereafter, Michael managed to remain friendly to and Byzantium, 1243–1341” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana Uni- both warring Mongol parties and Egypt as well. versity, 1983). Bulgaria and Byzantium remained, however, gener- ally hostile to each other, and in 1272 Michael concluded C calendars and dating systems Since the 13th cen- tury at least, the Mongols have used the traditional East shamans. After the Mongol khans conquered North China, their Kitan adviser YELÜ CHUCAI (1190–1244) pro- Asian lunar-solar calendar, with the WHITE MONTH, or mulgated in their name a Chinese-style calendar, cor- lunar new year, around January or February. While this rected by comparison with Middle Eastern astronomical has been replaced in the 20th century by the solar Grego- observations. From the beginning the Mongol khans cele- rian calendar, the lunar-solar calendar is still used for tra- brated the new year in late January or early February and ditional festivals and astrological calculations. continued to do so even after the conversion of the west- ern khanates to Islam, which had its own calendar. CALENDARS In the 17th century Tibetan lunar-solar calendars The complexity and variations of the world’s calendrical and the Chinese lunar-solar calendar used by the systems stem from the discrepancy between the length of Manchu QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) were introduced the year (approximately 365 1/4 days) and that of 12 into Mongolia for astrological and administrative pur- lunar phase cycles that formed the early basis for the poses. The Khalkha of Mongolia proper, however, used months (approximately 354 1/2 days). While European an independent lunar-solar calendar designed by the calendars opt to ignore the Moon and Islamic calendars scholar-lama Sumpa mkhan-po Ishi-Baljur (1704–87), to ignore the Sun, East Asian calendars, including the somewhat different from both the Chinese and Tibetan Mongolian, use both. The full moon must always fall on calendars. After the 1921 revolution, this Mongolian cal- the 15th of the month, yet the new year should fall endar was used for official purposes alongside the “Euro- around late January, when the Sun is in the constellation pean” (i.e., solar, or Gregorian) calendar until 1924, Aquarius. To achieve this balancing act, traditional East when only the Gregorian calendar was used (see REVOLU- Asian calendars insert an extra intercalary lunar month TIONARY PERIOD). Traditional festivals are still calculated approximately every three years. Differences between var- according to the Mongolian calendar. In Inner Mongolia, ious East Asian calendars stem from different calculations as part of China, only the Gregorian calendar has been for inserting the intercalary moon and for calculating the used for official purposes since 1912, but the Chinese beginning of the (then invisible) new moon. lunar-solar calendar is still used to date both Mongol and At the time of the TÜRK EMPIRES, the Turks used a Chinese traditional festivals. Thus, the White Month lunar-solar calendar that followed the moon but with a (tsagaan sar) is sometimes celebrated on different days new year timed to the rising of the Pleiades. This autum- in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. nal new year was reflected in the Turk and Uighur desig- nations of the month according to the TWELVE-ANIMAL THE WEEK CYCLE, even though by 1200 the Uighur astrologers used Since the time of the MONGOL EMPIRE, if not long before, the full Chinese calendar. Meanwhile, the 12th-century the Mongols have reckoned time in seven-day weeks. At Mongols had their own indigenous names for the lunar least since the 16th century the days of the week were months and calendar of festivals, probably kept by named after either the Sanskrit or Tibetan names of the 74 camels 75 Sun, Moon, and five visible planets. In the 20th century preferred, however, to use the twelve-animal cycle dates numerical names replaced them in both Mongolia proper instead. In 1936 the nationalist Inner Mongolian govern- and Inner Mongolia, although not in exactly the same ment of Prince Demchugdongrub declared year 731 of way. Thus, Tuesday (Mars’s day) may be referred to either “Holy Chinggis,” dating from his coronation in 1206. as anggarig (Sanskrit), migmar (Tibetan), khoyordokh ödör This system continued until the fall of his government in (day second, in modern Mongolia), or garig-un khoyar 1945. (second planet, modern Inner Mongolia). Since 1989 the The Christian dating system from the birth of Christ Tibetan names have again become more widely used in first appears in Mongolian-language documents among Mongolia. Mongolia and Inner Mongolia have a five-and- the BURIATS in czarist Russia. From 1921 these dates were a-half day workweek, working a half day on Saturday. added on official documents in Mongolia proper as the “European year.” This system did not actually replace DATING SYSTEMS the “Year of Mongolia,” however, until the adoption of The Mongolian dating systems include the twelve-animal CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MONGOLIAN in 1945–50. In 1949 the Peo- cycle, the imperial reign years, and the Christian, or com- ple’s Republic of China adopted the Christian, or com- mon, era. The choice of such systems has always been mon, era. closely associated with sovereignty and power. See also ASTROLOGY; FIVE-YEAR PLANS; FOOD AND The twelve-animal cycle was adopted from China by DRINK; KOUMISS; NAADAM; QURILTAI. the Türk and Uighur Empires in the sixth to ninth cen- turies. Its use was continued by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries. From 1260, however, QUBILAI KHAN camels The Bactrian, or two-humped, camel of Mongo- introduced the simultaneous use of Chinese nianhao, or lia is used as a draft animal, for its fine hair, for milk, and reign years. These auspicious-sounding titles were pro- for its hides and meat. In the year 2000 camels in Mongo- claimed on the coronation of a new emperor or to com- lia numbered 322,900, or only 1.1 percent of total stock. memorate dramatic events. For example, in 1260 Qubilai The two-humped camel, or Camelus bactrianus, is better Khan proclaimed Year One of Central Unification (Zhong- adapted to cold but less hardy in extremely dry and hot tong) to mark his coronation. In 1264, when his rival ARIQ- conditions than is the one-humped camel, or dromedary BÖKE surrendered, he proclaimed Year One of Returning to (C. dromedarius) of Arabia and the Sahara Desert. The the Fundament (Zhiyuan). Such Chinese reign years were two-humped camel is primarily an animal of the GOBI proclaimed by the Mongol great khans even after the Mon- DESERT. The endangered wild two-humped camel (khawt- gol dynasty was expelled from China in 1368. They went gai) is found in southwestern Mongolia. out of use some time between 1450 and 1500, leaving the The Alashan breed, a typical breed of the Mongolian twelve-animal cycle the only dating system. camel, weighs on average 608 kilograms (1,340 pounds) With the revival of Mongolian historiography around for the bull and 454 kilograms (1,001 pounds) for the 1600, the twelve-animal cycle, which often led to confu- cow. It produces 4 to 5 kilograms (9–11 pounds) of hair a sion, needed to be refined. The ancient Chinese system of season and can carry loads of 150–250 kilograms concurrent 10- and 12-year cycles producing a 60-year (330–550 pounds) for 30–40 kilometers (19–25 miles) cycle was thus adopted, first in various Uighur or Tibetan daily, while geldings can pull up to 428 kilograms (944 forms. Around the same time the Mongols submitted to pounds). Mongols ride camels with a soft felt saddle with the Manchu Qing dynasty (1636–1912) and adopted the attached stirrups placed between the humps; it is con- Manchu reign years, which were proclaimed not just in trolled with a halter and reins and a separate rope Chinese but also in Manchu and Mongolian versions. attached to a wooden stake through the camel’s nose. Thus, 1821 was Year One of Daoguang (Brilliant Way, Loads are placed between felt or wool pads along the ani- Chinese) or Törö-Gereltü (Brilliant State, Mongolian). mal’s sides and are held in place by two wooden poles With the restoration of Mongolian independence, the tied in front and back and underneath the camel’s belly. new Mongolian theocratic government proclaimed 1911 Wild and domestic camels are commonly found on Year One of Olan-a Ergügdegsen (Cyrillic, Olnoo Mongolian and southern Siberian PETROGLYPHS from the Örgögdsön), “Elevated by the Many.” This title was a Upper Paleolithic to the Bronze and early Iron Ages translation of the name of the first monarch at the dawn (1500–500 B.C.E). Literary evidence and petroglyphs of time, according to the Buddhist scriptures. This reign show that camels regularly drew the Inner Asian YURT year continued in use after the 1921 Revolution. In 1924, carts. When the collapsible yurt replaced the yurt cart, with the proclamation of a republic, it was replaced by the camel remained the main beast of burden for the “year of Mongolia,” yet this year was still numbered nomadic movements. from 1911, so that 1925 was “year 15 of Mongolia” (see In 1924 275,000 camels formed only 2 percent of REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD). independent Mongolia’s total herd. In 1953 the number of In Inner Mongolia the Mongols were forced to use Mongolia’s camels reached 888,000, or 3.9 percent. With the “Year of the (Chinese) Republic” from 1912 on. Most the camel’s role as transport slowly yielding to motorized 76 “Campaigns of Genghis Khan” transportation, the number steadily declined from then on 275,700 (1990), the percentage of cashmere exported in to 537,500 (2.1 percent) in 1990, and sales of camel hair raw form fell to barely 25 percent. likewise declined from a high of 3,900 metric tons (4,299 In China the Inner Mongolian Yekhe Juu (also short tons) in 1955 to 2,300 metric tons (2,535 short spelled Ih Ju) League Cashmere Factory was founded in tons) in 1990. After 1990 the fuel crisis put camels once 1972 in Dongsheng City (Ordos) with the ability to pro- more in demand for local transport, but herders have cess 200 metric tons (220 short tons) of cashmere annu- turned to more marketable commodities, throwing camel ally. As in Mongolia before the creation of Gobi numbers into a steady decline. SOUTH GOBI PROVINCE has Cashmere, poor production technology meant most of always been by far the leading camel-herding province, the raw cashmere was exported. In 1979 the Japanese with EAST GOBI PROVINCE, MIDDLE GOBI PROVINCE, GOBI- firm Mitsui invested 3 billion yen (13 billion yuan) in the ALTAI PROVINCE, BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE, and KHOWD Dongsheng plant, with further investment in 1987. By PROVINCE containing most of the rest. Traditionally about 1990 the factory was the world’s largest cashmere factory. 21 to 23 percent, South Gobi’s percentage of Mongolia’s Inner Mongolia’s total production in 1989 reached 1,976 camel herd reached 29 percent in 2000. metric tons (2,178 short tons) of cashmere, 637.47 met- While camels were traditionally raised in Kalmykia and ric tons (702.69 short tons) of hairless cashmere, and in the Aga steppe, they were eliminated by Soviet economic 137.25 metric tons (151.29 short tons) of knitted goods. planners. In Inner Mongolia the total number of camels in Of this, 130 metric tons (143 short tons) of hairless cash- 1947 was 110,000. The number peaked at 344,000 in 1978 mere and 268,000 cashmere sweaters were exported before declining as commercialization advanced to 247,000 annually. in the middle of 1990. In 1990 (year end), the total number In the 1990s, with the opening and PRIVATIZATION of was 222,900, of which 149,700 lived in ALASHAN league. By the Mongolian economy, cashmere production in Mon- 2003, droughts and commercialization further reduced golia proper rose from 1,500 metric tons (1,653 short Alashan’s camel herd to only 68,000. tons) in 1990 to 3,300 (3,638 short tons) in 1999. Even so, Mongolian factories did not modernize their equip- “Campaigns of Genghis Khan” See SHENGWU ment, and Mongolia’s fiber width showed a worrying QINZHENG LU. increase while the capacity of Inner Mongolia’s factories expanded past 4,500 metric tons (4,960 short tons). 6 After Mongolia’s export controls were eliminated, 45–60 Caqar See CHAKHAR. percent of Mongolia’s total cashmere production has been exported in raw form to Inner Mongolia. Since Caracathay See QARA-KHITAI. 1996, however, the glut on the world market has caused prices to plummet. The Gobi Cashmere Joint-Stock cashmere Cashmere refers to the soft undercoat of Company, still Mongolia’s largest single buyer of cash- cashmere goats and the fabric made from weaving such mere and maker of cashmere goods, has lobbied in vain fibers. Since the 1970s the Mongolian plateau has been for reinstatement of export controls on raw cashmere. producing the great majority of the world’s cashmere. Despite being one of the state sector’s most profitable Mongolia and China’s Inner Mongolia have become the enterprises, in 2001 the Gobi Company was scheduled to main rivals in the world production of cashmere. Cash- be privatized. mere goats flourish particularly in dry areas of the GOBI See also COLLECTIVIZATION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; DESERT, covering Mongolia’s BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE, DECOLLECTIVIZATION; ECONOMY, MODERN. GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE, and SOUTH GOBI PROVINCE and Inner Mongolia’s ALASHAN, BAYANNUUR, and ORDOS leagues. Responding to insistent Soviet demands before and cattle Mongolian cattle in ancient times were used for during WORLD WAR II, Mongolia’s cashmere production milk and as draft animals but were rarely, if ever, eaten. shot up from 100 metric tons (110 short tons) in 1940 to Today beef and dairy cattle are both major parts of Mon- 800 metric tons (882 short tons) in 1945. Later, in the golian animal husbandry. Most cattle are ordinary domes- collectivized economy, cashmere production increased tic cattle (Bos taurus), but yaks (Bos grunniens) and from an average of 1,193 metric tons (1,315 short tons) yak–cattle crossbreeds are kept in Mongolia’s mountain- in 1960–65 to 1,327 (1,463 short tons) in 1986–90. Con- ous west. In 2000 Mongolia had 3,097,600 head of cattle. certed efforts improved the average cashmere yield per The traditional breed of Mongolian bulls are about goat from 200 grams (7.1 ounces) in 1960 to 295 grams 1.2 meters (3.9 feet) high at the shoulder and 1.37 meters (10.4 ounces) in 1990. (4.49 feet) long and weigh about 300–400 kilograms Japanese war reparations paid in 1972 created the (660–880 pounds). Cows are about 1.1 meters (3.6 feet) state-owned Gobi Cashmere Factory in ULAANBAATAR to high and 1.27 meters (4.17 feet) long and weigh about knit cashmere as well as camel hair goods. As cashmere 250–350 kilograms (550–770 pounds). The dressing per- goods production rose from 38,900 pieces (1980) to centage is about 53 percent, and milk production on cattle 77 good pastures is about 500–700 kilograms (1,100–1,540 only 9 percent of the animals were cattle. Thirteenth-cen- pounds) annually, with 5.3 percent butterfat content. In tury travelers reported that the cattle were used mostly as fact, real annual milk production per cow in Mongolia draft animals, to pull carts and the mobile YURTS of the averages around 290–350 kilograms (640–770 pounds). period. They were milked but eaten only rarely. The 1640 While meat and milk production are thus far below those MONGOL-OIRAT CODE prescribed fines of CAMELS, HORSES, of purebred cattle, Mongolian cattle are adapted to live on SHEEP, and GOATS, but none of cattle. open range with little water and through very cold win- Cattle became more common in the 19th century. In ters. They are also very disease resistant. The quality of 1924 cattle in Mongolia proper totaled 1,512,100 head, meat and milk is high. or 11 percent of all livestock. The absolute numbers in Mongolian yaks inhabit primarily the KHANGAI 1940 reached 2,722,800 head (10.3 percent). At this time RANGE and ALTAI RANGE. They are particularly common in the herders were selling more beef than mutton to the certain sums (districts) of KHOWD PROVINCE, GOBI-ALTAI state procurement agencies, although this illustrates only PROVINCE, and BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE and are also the eating habits of the small urban class. The numbers found in the mountainous areas of NORTH KHANGAI declined absolutely and relatively in the 1950s but gradu- PROVINCE, SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE, ZAWKHAN PROVINCE, ally increased again in the succeeding decades to KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE, BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE, and UWS 2,848,700 head (11 percent). The increase was primarily PROVINCE. In Tibet yaks do not breed or work well in alti- in dairy cows, as average annual production of milk rose tudes below 3,000 meters (9,800 feet), but Mongolian from 219,600 metric tons (242,067 short tons) in yaks are bred in altitudes as low as 2,500 meters (8,200 1961–65 to 306,100 metric tons (337,417 short tons) in feet). Like Tibetans, the Mongolians produce common 1986–90, while annual beef production rose only from cattle-yak crossbreeds, called khainag, which can be 62,300 metric tons (68,674 short tons) to 66,200 metric found as low as 1,600 meters (5,250 feet). tons (72,973 short tons) from 1960 to 1990. In the early steppe empires cattle appear to have With the market transition of 1990 the production of been rather rare on the Mongolian plateau. In the eastern both beef and milk increased sharply, as the number of Inner Mongolian pastures under the JIN DYNASTY in 1188, cattle reached 3,824,700 in 1999 (11.4 percent of total Khainag (yak-cattle crossbreeds) grazing near the shore of Lake Khöwsgöl, 1992 (Courtesy of Christopher Atwood) 78 census in the Mongol Empire livestock). In that year beef production reached 104,600 tion of a household. In China, where the extended family metric tons (115,302 short tons) and milk 467,000 met- was the ideal, married sons living with their father were ric tons (514,779 short tons). In the following year a one household, but in Turkestani and Mongol practice massive ZUD (winter die-off) hit the cattle-breeding every adult man was head of a separate household for tax provinces especially hard. Most of Mongolia’s cattle are in purposes. Yelü Chucai prevented the application of this the wetter northern provinces, especially North Khangai standard to China, at least temporarily. province, Khöwsgöl province, KHENTII PROVINCE, South In 1235 Shigi Qutuqu was sent as judge to North Khangai province, and CENTRAL PROVINCE. China, and the census was repeated with much greater In Inner Mongolia the number of cattle rose from thoroughness. Local censuses also took place in the 1,764,000 head in 1947 to 4,932,000 in 1965. After 1240s in Russia and TURKEY. GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48) declining during the Cultural Revolution, the number ordered an empirewide census, but his death aborted the again expanded from 3,585,000 in 1978 to 4,398,000 in enterprise. Thus, it was MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) who in 1990 (all June figures). Of the 3,853,000 left after the 1252 first counted the empire’s entire population. The 1990 fall slaughter, almost 80 percent lived in central extent of the empire made the census very time consum- SHILIIN GOL and the three eastern districts of TONGLIAO, ing; while that of North China was completed in 1252, KHINGGAN, and CHIFENG (see KHORCHIN and JUU UDA), Novgorod in the far northwest was not counted until with 819,000 (21 percent) in Tongliao Municipality (for- winter 1258–59. merly Jirim) alone. The new census was far more complicated than the A number of cattle breeds have been developed by old census, counting not just the number of households improving Mongolian cattle or crossbreeding them with but also the number of men aged 15 to 60 and the num- other breeds. Dual-use breeds include the improved ber of fields, livestock, vineyards, and orchards. Since Kalmyk cattle, the crossbred Three Rivers cattle produced some subject people paid taxes while others served in the in HULUN BUIR by White Russian ranchers, and the cross- military, there were separate registers of military and bred Steppe Red cattle of central Inner Mongolia devel- civilian households. Another registry listed those in the oped from 1953 on. The Selenge, developed in Mongolia, personal appanages of the Mongol nobility. Within the is a beef breed. civilian register craftsmen were also listed separately, See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; DAIRY while in the military registers auxiliary and regular PRODUCTS; FOOD AND DRINK. households were distinguished. Clergy of the approved religions were separated and not counted. The census took place in winter, during the slack season, and evaders census in the Mongol Empire The census first faced beatings and even execution. In Novgorod, Arme- appeared among the Mongols in 1206 when CHINGGIS nia, and other tributary districts the census and the KHAN numbered his people as part of his DECIMAL ORGA- regressive taxation it facilitated sparked popular riots and NIZATION. In the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, Ching- resistance. The large census teams combined both Mon- gis Khan ordered SHIGI QUTUQU, the first JARGHUCHI gol clerks from the court of the khans and experienced (judge) of the MONGOL EMPIRE, to record in a “blue regis- local staff, at least where it was available, as in China and ter” (köke debter) all the households under their proper Iran. When the new “blue register” was completed, prob- decimal units. The register was to be a permanent record ably in both the local administrative language and in of the assignment of the people to their units. This first Uighur or Mongolian, one copy was returned to Qara census was remarkably complete; when Chinggis Khan Qorum and one copy kept for the local administration. put his companion (NÖKÖR) Degei over the “hidden As taxation, corvée, and military levies depended on households,” they made only 1,000 out of the 95,000 census records, government power depended on a regular counted. Since all Mongols served the government in the census, yet in all the Mongol successor states the census same way, this census did not divide them into categories, eventually lapsed. In the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY of China although the merits of the decimal unit commanders the records were revised yearly from 1262 to 1275. After were recorded and updated in the registers. Chinggis that year the conquest of South China and a general repeated the census around 1225. slackening of administration broke off the yearly census. The conquest of the sedentary regions required new The vastly enlarged realm was counted in 1291–93 and census practices. In Chinggis Khan’s time subjects in a again in 1330, but efforts to increase tax revenues by newly conquered city were sorted and classified, but accurately investigating land holdings failed in the face of there was no written register of the subject population. widespread opposition. The census of military house- ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) ordered the first census of holds likewise lapsed after 1289. In the IL-KHANATE in sedentary peoples under Mongol control in 1233 in Iran the census continued in HÜLE’Ü’s reign (1256–65) North China. This first census of the subject peoples led but then lapsed until the time of GHAZAN KHAN to a debate between YELÜ CHUCAI and Mahmud Yalavach (1295–1304), who ordered a new census. In the GOLDEN (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG) over the defini- HORDE a second census was carried out in 1274–75. The Central province 79 lapse of the census marked the transformation of Mongol Prince Qadan (son of ÖGEDEI KHAN) crossed the frozen rule from a charismatic regime based on expansion into a Danube in December 1241. Qadan chased Bela to Ragusa, traditional regime based on support of a stable upper until news of Ögedei Khan’s death on December 11, class. 1241, prompted the Mongols to return through Bulgaria See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL to the Qipchaq steppe in spring 1242. Mongol princes EMPIRE; MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL CONQUEST; MILITARY carried thousands of Hungarians and Transylvanian Sax- OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. ons captive to their appanages as slaves. Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Mongol Imperial- Despite famine, after the invasion King Bela poured ism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Rus- resources into castle building. He also resettled refugee sia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259 (Berkeley: Qipchaqs and OSSETES back in Hungary, marrying his son University of California Press, 1987). to a Qipchaq princess, and sought Russian allies. The Poles, too, sought to use Russian princes against the Mongols, first supporting Michael of Chernihiv, then Central Europe and the Mongols Despite devastat- Daniel of Halych. Daniel later turned for assistance to the ing invasions in 1241–42 and later, Hungary and Poland pagan Lithuanians and expelled the Mongol garrisons remained outside the Mongol Empire. Hungary and from his territory in 1256. When the Lithuanians Poland first learned of the Mongols through their eastern betrayed the alliance and invaded Halych, Batu’s brother neighbors. The Hungarians, themselves of steppe origin, Berke (r. 1257–66) dispatched Boroldai to reassert Mon- had dispatched Friar Julian to convert their relatives in gol authority. Daniel fled to Poland, but his brother “Greater Hungary” (the modern, now Turkicized, Vasil’ko and his sons joined Boroldai in 1259 to ravage Bashkirs or Bashkort). Julian returned in 1237 warning Lithuania and Poland, massacring Sandomierz. Another King Bela IV (r. 1235–70) about the advancing Mongols. Russian–Mongol raid on Poland, instigated by Daniel’s In the same year the chief KÖTEN (Kotian, Kötöny) of the son Lev, followed in 1280. QIPCHAQS (Comans) also sought refuge in Hungary with By 1280 Noqai, leader of a junior Mongol line, had 40,000 cavalrymen. King Bela welcomed the Qipchaqs as established a virtually independent realm from the bulwarks both against the Mongols and the nobility. Dnieper to the Danube, ruling Ossetes, Vlachs (Romani- Meanwhile, both Poland and Hungary had long been ans), and Russians of Halych and Volodymyr. King Ladis- involved in southeastern Russia (modern western laus IV (r. 1272–90), Bela IV’s grandson, whose mother Ukraine), and when the Mongols destroyed Kiev in was Qipchaq, had fought with the nobility and the church December 1240 and sacked Halych (Galich) and and had adopted the Qipchaq lifestyle. In winter 1285–86 Volodymyr (Vladimir), Prince Daniel of Halych (d. Noqai and the future khan, Töle-Bugha (r. 1287–91), 1264), his brother Vasil’ko of Volodymyr (d. 1269), and invaded Hungary. Noqai plundered Transylvania, while Michael of Chernihiv (Chernigov, d. 1246) all took refuge snow bogged down Töle-Bugha in the Carpathians. The in Poland. Poles exploited the absence of the Russian princes with When the Mongols demanded that Bela IV deport the Mongols and raided Russian land, so the next year Köten, he refused, and the Mongols thus invaded in five Noqai and Töle-Bugha raided Poland in reprisal. columns, commanded by SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR in the van- As Hungary and Poland assimilated their eastern ele- guard, along a vast front from Poland to Wallachia. ments, the Mongols lost interest in conquest. In 1290 Hordu (CHINGGIS KHAN’S senior grandson) commanded Qipchaq malcontents murdered Ladislaus, ending the the attack in Poland, at that time divided among nine Qipchaq interlude in Hungarian history. Poland annexed princes of the Piast dynasty. The Mongols drove through Halych in 1349, and while it would later suffer from raids Poland, sacking its major cities before defeating a com- by the TATARS, descendants of the GOLDEN HORDE, con- bined Polish–German army at Liegnitz (Legnica) on April quest was never again a threat. 9, 1241. Hordu’s army then crossed Moravia to rejoin the See also BYZANTIUM AND THE BALKANS; CHRISTIAN others in Hungary. The other four columns crossed the SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KIEV, SIEGE OF; LIEG- Carpathian Mountains through separate passes and NITZ, BATTLE OF; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; WEST- linked up in northeast Hungary. The Mongols found the ERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. Hungarian army under Bela formidable, even though the Further reading: Nora Berend, At the Gate of Chris- Qipchaqs had revolted after jealous barons murdered tendom: Jews, Muslims, and “Pagans” in Medieval Hungary, Köten. Hordu’s brother BATU and his generals Boroldai c. 1000–c. 1300 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and Sübe’etei crushed the Hungarians on April 11 at 2001); James Chambers, The Devil’s Horsemen: The Mon- Muhi (just south of Miskolc), and Bela escaped first gol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassel, 1988). to Austria and then to Croatia. As Pope Gregory IX (r. 1227–41) and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220–50) issued conflicting calls for a crusade, the Central province (Töv) Created in the 1931 reorga- Mongol army summered in Hungary and then under nization of Mongolia, Central province surrounds the 80 17th-century chronicles capital ULAANBAATAR in east-central Mongolia. In the After the death of Chinggis Khan the common mate- early 1950s Selenge was combined with Central province, rial in the Altan tobchi and the Erdeni-yin tobchi includes a but the two were separated again in 1959. The borders of list of khans up to Toghan-Temür (1333–70) and some Ulaanbaatar, a separate province-level unit, with Central material, drawn from Tibetan sources, on their Buddhist province were readjusted in 1994. Its territory was chaplains. A story cycle follows, recounting the fall of the entirely included in KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Yuan, Toghan-Temür’s escape, his lament over lost DAIDU Tüshiyetü Khan province. (see “LAMENT OF TOGHAN-TEMÜR”), and how his queen Covering 74,000 square kilometers (28,572 square gave birth to the Ming’s Yongle emperor (1402–24), who miles), Central province includes the well-watered and was thus truly Mongolian. wooded KHENTII RANGE in the northeast and steppe in the With the reign of Elbeg Khan (1392?–99?) the Mon- west and south. It is crossed by the TUUL RIVER. Its popu- golian chronicles begin a cycle of Mongol-Oirat conflicts. lation of 82,000 in 1956 dropped to 63,600 in 1969 due Most of the names can be identified with figures who to the separation of Selenge but reached 98,000 in 2000. appear in MING DYNASTY frontier reports but with fre- The province’s livestock, numbering 2,022,100 head, quent divergences of narrative caused by numerous inac- contains high numbers of HORSES (249,500 head) and curacies in both types of materials and by their radically SHEEP (1,101,200); cattle, including milking cows supply- differing interests: tribal and genealogical politics for the ing Ulaanbaatar, number 184,200. Central province is Mongols and frontier raids for the Ming writers. The also an important arable agriculture center, producing 11 chronicle episodes, all told from a Mongolian and anti- percent of Mongolia’s grain, 21 percent of its potatoes, Oirat standpoint, emphasize the priority of loyalty to and 15 percent of its vegetables. Since 2003, a rich gold blood, the Chinggis cult and sovereignty, rivalries with mine at Bornuur is being operated by a Canadian com- princes descended from Chinggis Khan’s brothers Qasar pany. Zuunmod, with 16,200 people, is the province’s and Belgütei, and the need for Mongol unity. administrative center. Lubsang-Danzin’s Altan tobchi includes a genealogical See also NATSUGDORJI. appendix identifying the origins of the Mongol noble lines that survived the Manchu conquest. The Erdeni-yin 17th-century chronicles The Mongolian chronicle tobchi interlards even richer genealogical material on the tradition, founded in the 17th century, expressed and Ordos and TÜMED nobles in the text. In later chronicles transmitted the traditional Mongolian sense of history the genealogical material expanded tremendously. into the 20th century. Throughout, the chronicles typically date not events, but only the births, coronations, and deaths of khans, COMMON STRUCTURE AND THEMES often with their ages at coronation and/or death. Certain The basic structure of Mongolian chronicles is illustrated divergences among the lists and episodes and clear inter- in the earliest mature examples of the tradition: the ALTAN polations show that these were based on king lists, TOBCHI, or “Golden summary” (c. 1655), compiled by Lub- whether of the Mongol great khans or Ming emperors, sang-Danzin, and the ERDENI-YIN TOBCHI, or “Precious sum- which circulated separately. mary” (1662), by SAGHANG SECHEN. Later chronicles fall into two schools, an “eastern school” based on the Altan SOURCES AND COMPILATION tobchi, followed by the Asaragchi neretü-yin teüke (History The shared contents of the 17th-century chronicles fall of Asaragchi, composed in KHALKHA in 1667), and 18th- into three categories: 1) narrative episodes unique to the century writers such as DUKE GOMBOJAB, Rashipungsug chronicles with a strong Chinggisid emphasis; 2) material (see BOLOR ERIKHE), and Lomi; and a “western school” rep- taken from other written sources, such as the Secret His- resented by the Erdeni-yin tobchi, the Shira tughuji (Yellow, tory, collections of biligs (wise sayings) of Chinggis Khan, i.e., Imperial, tale) and later ORDOS chronicles. and Tibetan historical handbooks; and 3) king lists that The chronicles begin with the primeval king of India, gave the dates of the khans’ births, coronations, and Mahasammata, and his successors. Branches of this lin- deaths in the 12-ANIMAL CYCLE, probably with their eage move first to Tibet and then to Mongolia, becoming length of reigns and ages at coronation and death. The the ancestors of CHINGGIS KHAN as recorded in the 13th- chroniclers worked by integrating these three classes of century SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS. This text is materials with varying degrees of skill and then adding quoted extensively at least through the childhood of further materials, both scholastic and legendary. Chinggis but is followed by apocryphal material focusing The original common chronicle material concerned on Chinggis Khan’s divine mandate, his rivalry with his only the life of Chinggis Khan (1162–1227), Toghan- brothers Qasar and Belgütei, and his people’s desire for Temür’s loss of Daidu (1368), and the Mongol-Oirat con- his rule. The spatial horizon of the legendary material is flict (1392–1517). While the Chinggis Khan material limited to the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU, northwest China’s appears to be a single tradition, episodes in the Mongol- Tangut XIA DYNASTY, Inner Mongolia’s ÖNGGUD (Enggüd) Oirat conflict in the Altan tobchi and Erdeni-yin tobchi tribe, and Korea. show both extensive sharing and significant divergences. Cha’adai 81 Thus, a common body of material on the 1392–1517 rial is less reliable but still important. Finally, that on period, already in written form, must have been reworked Chinggis Khan and Toghan-Temür, while worthless as a and expanded independently by the compilers. As the lat- historical source, is of great value in explaining the est common episodes relate to BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN political and tribal issues related to the Dayan Khanid (1480?–1517?), the common chronicle material on the period. Mongol-Oirat wars must have been first written down See also EIGHT WHITE YURTS; LITERATURE. shortly after then. In addition to supplying independent Further reading: Hidehiro Okada, “Mongol Chroni- “updates” of post–Dayan Khanid material, the two early cles and Chinggisid Genealogies,” Journal6 of Asian and chronicles each incorporated historical episodes not African Studies 27 (1984): 147–154; C. Zamcarano, Mon- found in the other. That in the Altan tobchi is primarily gol Chronicles of the Seventeenth Century, trans. Rudolf CHAKHAR and KHORCHIN related, while that in the Erdeni- Loewenthal (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955). yin tobchi is Ordos related. The incorporation of written materials into these leg- Cha’adai (Chaghatai, Chaghaday) (d. 1242) Second of end cycles is illustrated by the use of Secret History mate- Chinggis Khan’s sons and founder of the Chaghatay khanate rials in the account of Chinggis Khan. The original Cha’adai was the second son of CHINGGIS KHAN’s main 16th-century stage of the chronicle tradition is docu- wife BÖRTE and his first son of indubitable paternity. He mented by the recently published Chinggis khaghan-u campaigned with his brothers JOCHI and Ögedei against altan tobchi (Golden summary of Chinggis Khan), which Inner Mongolia (1211) and Hebei and Shanxi (1213) and contains the chronicle legends of Chinggis Khan without with Ögedei against Otrar (winter 1219–20) and Urganch any Secret History materials. When the text of the Secret (April 1221). With his personal retainer, Zhang Rong History reappeared, apparently some time before 1650, (Chang Jung, 1158–1230), Cha’adai supervised the road Lubsang-Danzin incorporated the bulk of it into his Altan and bridge building for the KHORAZM campaign. Chinggis tobchi alongside the apocryphal Chinggis khaghan-u altan Khan bestowed Almaligh (near modern Huocheng) as tobchi material. Given the contradictions that resulted, Cha’adai’s summer pasture, and his winter pastures however, this was not a popular solution. An abridged ranged from Samarqand to Besh-Baligh (near modern Altan tobchi used only an abbreviated version of the Secret Qitai). Chinggis also assigned him 4,000 or 8,000 men History up to Chinggis Khan’s marriage to BÖRTE ÜJIN, a (the sources differ). Cha’adai had two main wives, solution also followed by Saghang Sechen. The Asaragchi Yisülün and Tögen, both of the QONGGIRAD clan, and neretü-yin teüke also included the tale of Börte’s kidnap- eight sons, but his favorite son, Mö’etüken, was killed at ping by the MERKID. the siege of Bamiyan (1221). Both Lubsang-Danzin and Saghang Sechen incorpo- His campaigns in North China and Central Asia won rated Tibetan material on the formation of the world, him the city of Taiyuan and his two stewards: Vajir, a Tibetan lamas at the Mongolian court, and so on. The Uighur from North China and a master of the Chinggisid Asaragchi neretü-yin teüke added a preface from the Fifth biligs (wise sayings), and Qutb-ud-Din Habash ‘Amid Dalai Lama’s (1617–82) didactic work Festival of Youth. from Otrar. Chinggis Khan praised Cha’adai’s devotion to The abbreviated Altan tobchi, however, cut most of the the Mongol JASAQ (law) and yosun (custom) but consid- Tibetan materials. ered him obstinate and narrow-minded. He appointed Interpolated king lists in the Altan tobchis date to first BO’ORCHU of the Arulad and then Köke Chos of the 1655 and 1624, and the earliest king lists used by any of Baarin to train him, yet still Cha’adai openly insulted the chroniclers must, given their documented inaccura- Jochi as being a bastard. cies and regional divergences, have been composed after Cha’adai supported ÖGEDEI KHAN’s enthronement in the death of Daraisun Khan (1548–57). 1229, and as the oldest surviving Chinggisid, he secured the empire’s stability in the crucial first post-Chinggisid HISTORICAL VALUE generation by his strict deference to the khan. He vainly Given the nature of the 17th-century chronicles, their remonstrated against Ögedei’s excessive drinking. He historical value is uneven. Material taken from Tibetan strictly prohibited Islamic ablutions and slaughtering in his or Secret History sources is obviously of no independent territory, and his anti-Islamic image influenced his descen- value, although the use made of it is of intellectual-his- dants for several generations. Cha’adai became the obvious torical interest. The king lists are useful when corrobo- kingmaker after Ögedei’s death in 1241 but soon died him- rated by Ming reports. The episodic material, both self. Yisülün accused Vajir of poisoning him and put him to common and regional, is, however, of great importance. death, setting Habash ‘Amid as steward in his stead. The The material from the period from ESEN (d. 1454) to decision of GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48) to set aside Cha’adai’s Dayan Khan can be confirmed extensively from the Chi- designated successor, Qara-Hüle’ü (d. 1252–53), and make nese sources and supplies the crucial tribal-political his alcoholic son Yisü-Möngke his heir disordered the motives and structures ignored by the Chinese frontier khanate’s succession for decades. observers. From Elbeg to Esen (1392–1454) the mate- See also CHAGHATAY KHANATE. 82 Chabchiyal Chabchiyal See JUYONGGUAN PASS, BATTLE OF. suburbs of the capital a grazing ground. During the vic- tory celebrations over the Song in 1276, she warned Chabi See CHABUI. Qubilai, “Your handmaiden has heard that from ancient times there has never been a kingdom that lasted for a thousand years. To not let our descendants reach that Chabui (Chabi) (d. 1281) The empress of Qubilai Khan point [that the Song did] will be happiness.” Chabui also and his partner in the administration of the empire tried to improve conditions for the captured Song Chabui was the daughter of Alchi Noyan of the QONGGI- empress, Madame Quan. After Chabui’s death in 1281, RAD. Since 1237 the Qonggirad had been promised that in Qubilai married her niece Nambui, to whom he every generation one of their daughters would be bequeathed Chabui’s ORDO. empress and one of their sons would receive a princess. Chabui was QUBILAI KHAN’s second wife, probably marry- ing him around 1240. Chabui bore Qubilai, then a prince Chaghan teüke (The White History) In the late 16th with little political clout, four sons: Dorji, JINGIM, the century KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI circulated a work future heir apparent (1243–85), Manggala (d. 1280), and whose full name was Arban buyantu nom-un chaghan Nomuqan (d. 1301). She soon eclipsed Qubilai’s first teükei (White history of the dharma with ten virtues), wife, and although Qubilai during her life married five which he found in Songzhou (near modern CHIFENG) and other wives and had many concubines, Chabui never attributed to QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94). The text describes faced any real rival in her husband’s esteem. Chabui was the “TWO CUSTOMS” of (Buddhist) religion (shashin) and famous for her frugality. Before Qubilai’s coronation she state (törö), which had supposedly been observed in all gave her sons both Buddhist initiations and Confucian countries and especially in Tibet and which Qubilai had educations, and as empress she supported Confucian offi- reestablished. The realization of this ideal lies in assign- cials. Thus, she once criticized LIU BINGZHONG for not ing proper titles to monks and officials, who are to per- opposing a plan of Qubilai’s KESHIG nobility to make the form tasks grouped in numbered categories (three great deeds, four great principles, six great examples, etc.) and to receive prescribed rewards or punishments for medita- tive and governmental accomplishments or moral demer- its. The realm is defined by the scheme of “five colors and four foreigners,” a mandalalike arrangement of the Kore- ans, Chinese, Turkestanis, and Tibetans around the “blue” Mongols, and a calender of Buddhist and pastoral festivals. Despite Khutugtai Sechen’s claim, the text shows no connection in language or themes to real Yuan- era documents. Significantly, the government titles closely resemble those in use at the EIGHT WHITE YURTS, the shrine of CHINGGIS KHAN, and one manuscript closes with a list of donors to the shrine. The history is likely a late 16th-century utopia, retrojected to Qubilai’s time, envisioning Buddhist reunification of Mongolia around the Eight White Yurts. Chaghatai See CHA’ADAI. Chaghatay Khanate The Chaghatay Khanate had the most turbulent history of any of the MONGOL EMPIRE’s successor states, with frequent changes of dynasty, terri- tory, and political orientation. The name Chaghatay is the Turkish form of the founder’s Mongolian name, CHA’ADAI, and is the realm’s common name in the Islamic histories that form our main source on the dynasty. FORMATION OF THE DYNASTY The roots of the Chaghatay Khanate as a separate state Empress Chabui (d. 1281), wife of Qubilai Khan, wearing a lay in CHINGGIS KHAN’s allotment to Cha’adai (d. 1242), boqta. Anonymous court painter (Courtesy of the National his second son of four (Rasid-ud-Din) or eight (the Secret Palace Museum, Taipei) History) 1,000s of subjects and the summer pastures Chaghatay Khanate 83 around Almaligh (near modern Huocheng) and Quyas attacking north into Khorazm and Otrar, part of the (east of the Ysyk Köl). Chinggis Khan did not, however, Jochid territory, and south into the Qara’una garrisons in give Cha’adai any special rights or control over the Afghanistan. His aim was to turn the small, interlocking Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) region of Samarqand and set of Cha’adai’s appanages into a large compact territorial Bukhara, although Cha’adai’s winter camp was in that realm. In this sense Alghu’s was the first attempt to make area. the Chaghatayids a real khanate. As alliance with Ariq- Chinggis Khan’s third son and successor, ÖGEDEI Böke in impoverished Mongolia was more costly and KHAN (1229–41), appointed Mahmud Yalavach governor constricting than that with Qubilai in North China, of the region from the Amu Dar’ya to Uighuristan (see Alghu betrayed Ariq-Böke around 1262 and allied with MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG). At the same time, as Qubilai. a reward for his elder brother’s support, Ögedei granted With Ariq-Böke’s fall Qubilai made the Chaghatayid him for the first time areas of Mawarannahr as his per- realm virtually a satellite of his own. Qubilai’s agent sonal property (INJE or emchü). Then and later there was Qonggiradai revised the census in 1264. After Alghu’s considerable friction between the great khans’ governors death without an heir in 1265–66, Orghina and Cha’adai’s and the ulugh ev (Turkish, great house), or Cha’adai’s old retainer Qutb-ud-Din Habash ‘Amid finally put her ORDO (palace-tent). The Chaghatayids also held son Mubarak-Shah on the throne, but Qubilai dispatched appanages in Taiyuan in North China and in Kat and another grandson of Mö’etüken, Baraq, to seize power. Khiva in KHORAZM and had representatives among the Once in control of the khanate, Baraq Khan (1266–71) TAMMACHI (garrison) soldiers in Iran and Afghanistan. continued Alghu’s policy of expanding north, fighting the The early death of Mö’etüken, Cha’adai’s second son, Ögedeid QAIDU KHAN and the Jochids. He also turned on in the siege of Bamiyan (1221) caused controversy over Qubilai, raiding the Tarim Basin. Defeated by the Jochid the succession. Cha’adai desired Mö’etüken’s son Qara- Golden Horde, Baraq in 1269 reversed his policy and Hüle’ü to succeed him after his death. When Ögedei’s son joined an alliance of Qaidu and the Golden Horde, to GÜYÜG became khan (1246–48), however, he appointed whom he had to leave one-third of Mawarannahr. The his friend, Yisü-Möngke, Cha’adai’s fifth son, head of price of his adherence was his allies’ support for his Cha’adai’s ulus. By this time the Chaghatayids had southward invasion of Khorasan (northeast Iran–north- become closely allied with the Ögedeids against the other west Afghanistan). The armies of the Mongol IL-KHANATE branches of the Chinggisid family. Thus, of the in Iran defeated Baraq at Qara-Su near Herat (July 22, Chaghatayid family only Qara-Hüle’ü and Mochi-Jebe, a 1270), and with Baraq’s untimely death the next year, concubine’s son slighted in the inheritance, attended the Qaidu secured almost complete control over the controversial general assembly or QURILTAI of 1251 that Chaghatay Khanate. Thus the second attempt to built a overthrew the Ögedeid family and elected Möngke of the strong Chaghatay Khanate again failed. Not until 1282, Toluid branch as khan. MÖNGKE KHAN gave the headship with Qaidu’s selection of Baraq’s son Du’a, was something of the Chaghatay ulus to Qara-Hüle’ü. Again, unfortu- like a stable dynasty created, and not until Qaidu’s death nately for Chaghatayid dynastic continuity, Qara-Hüle’ü’s in 1301 did the Chaghatay khans really control their own death was untimely (late 1251). His Oirat wife Orghina, realm. a daughter of Chinggis Khan’s daughter Checheyiken, carried out the execution of Yisü-Möngke and ruled with GEOGRAPHY AND FOREIGN RELATIONS Möngke’s sanction as regent for her young son, Histories frequently treat the Chaghatayid Khanate as a Mubarak-Shah. unified realm under the descendants of Cha’adai, stretch- After Möngke’s death the 1260–64 civil war between ing from China proper to the Amu Dar’ya and centered Möngke’s brothers QUBILAI KHAN and ARIQ-BÖKE again on Samarqand and Bukhara. In fact, this situation existed upset Chaghatayid dynastic continuity. Orghina fled to for only a few decades. Although the khanate achieved Ariq-Böke’s court in Mongolia, while Ariq-Böke and dominant influence over the turbulent QARA’UNAS in Qubilai tried to set their own candidates on the throne. Afghanistan as early as the 1260s they did not secure Ariq-Böke won the first round, getting his man, Alghu, to control over the Tarim Basin until 1290. The Mawaran- the Chaghatay realm first and killing Qubilai’s candidate, nahr area was actually only rarely the realm’s power cen- Abishqa, in Gansu. Meanwhile, the Muslim clergy in ter, and by 1335 the Khanate had begun to split into the Bukhara, backed by Jochid retainers in Bukhara, actively Qara’unas in Afghanistan and the Dughlats in eastern sought the intervention of the Muslim Mongol khan Xinjiang. Berke (1257–66) of the GOLDEN HORDE. Alghu Qubilai’s early grants to Alghu and Baraq describe the (1260–65/6) made his court in the Kashgar area, with 15 Chaghatay realm as stretching from the Altai to the Amu tümens (nominally 150,000), and sent another prince, Dar’ya. It thus included Zungharia (Junggar Basin) and Negübei, to Mawarannahr with 5,000 men and a staff. the Ili Valley in northern Xinjiang, modern Kyrgyzstan, While gathering as much taxes as possible, Alghu’s agents and the Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) area of Samarqand crushed the challenge from the Jochid partisans before and Bukhara, together with the neighboring steppes of Chaghatay Khanate in 1331 Alta Yangi-Kent i R Aral an S Irtysh R. Sea ge yr Dar GOLDEN HORDE Qoba ’ya q YU Emil R. R. Jand Lake Balkhash Emil Ala-Köl AN Chu Manas L. D R. Y Urganch M Ky z y l Kum N Sighnaq Qayaligh Mts. G ur bant ünggüt D es er t Alatau AZ AS R ( uni nhabi ted) Bolad Ebi Nuur ( uni nhabi t ed) TY O (u Muy ni u Qarluqs _______ Sayram KH n Besh-Baligh Kat ha Almaligh (1276) (1286) Khiva Yangi-Baligh m Otrar I l i R. Ili Baligh n bite Am Ku d ) (1269) Sayram Talas _U_i_g_h_u_rs Dughlat _ Hami u Da Tala Tokmak s R. Quyas Qara-Qocho (Qamil) r ’ya Mek Ysyk-Köl rin (Turpan) Chach M t s. an R. an afsh Tiansh Zar Fanakat F ER GH AN A HR Kucha Bukhara A NN VALLEY Özgön RA Samarqand Aksu WA Khujand . __s MA Tarim R _lu_q r Kish _ _Q_a Nakhshab (Shakhrisabz) Merv (Qarshi) T A R I M B A S I N Kashgar (1289) IL-KHANATE Ta k l i m a k a n D e s e r t Termiz ___N Sheberghan Yarkand ( uni nhabi ted) __S_HA Pamirs Balkh (by 1272) _A_K_H KHO _D_ RASA N Qonduz WAKHAN _ _________ _BA Taloqan Baghlan Khotan us h (1289) Chuqchu s u K ran R. Qara’una 6 ) i n d ( b y 12 6 H BELOR ____ Parwan Ku n l u n M t s. Bamiyan Boundary of Chaghatay Khanate Kabul Mekrin Tribal entity Peshawar Byang- thang Pl ateau Ghazni Underlined labels Kingdom or tribe under ______________ K_ A_ S YU ( uni nhabi ted) _ (by 1275) AN native ruler s H_M i DY _I _ R r _Dashed _ _ _ _underline _ _ _ _ _ Weak control R. NA e us S TY d H Bost Yarkand Dates indicate date of conquest Ind ü im g (by 1272) by Chagahtay Khanate e N al ay 0 200 miles SULTANATE OF DELHI as 0 200 km Chaghatay Khanate 85 southeastern Kazakhstan. As Baraq complained in 1269, entered this area is unclear. To the south the Qara’unas, it was a “miserable little ulus (realm),” compared to the of extremely diverse clan origins, occupied Afghanistan YUAN DYNASTY, the IL-KHANATE, or the Golden Horde, and in two broad swaths from Qonduz-Baghlan to Ghazni until 1300 the Chaghatay khans’ foreign policy was and from Qandahar to Sistan. After 1300 the Cha’adai expansionist. Since its neighbors were all Mongol realm thus had three competing power centers: the khanates, the Chaghatayids became the prime instigators Dughlad in the east, Mawarannahr and Ferghana in the of intra-Mongol divisions. After 1300, however, expansion center, and the Qara’unas in the south. Rulers generally was primarily south against India and Khorasan, and the nomadized in the east or center, appointing viceroys Chaghatay khans became conciliatory toward the Yuan. with their own guards tümen (10,000) for the other two In the early alliances and conflicts with Qubilai, areas. In several cases these tümens became permanent Kashgar, Ysyk-Köl, and Almaligh changed hands several nomadic groupings. times. The Yuan lost Almaligh to the Chaghatayids for good in 1276 and the Tarim Basin a decade later. ADMINISTRATION Uighuristan (Turpan and Hami) came under loose Lack of native Chaghatayid historical traditions has left Chaghatayid control sometime between 1295 and the internal Chaghatay administration quite obscure, but general Mongol peace of 1304. While Möngke and Qubi- bureaucratic administration seems to have been undevel- lai Khans had assigned all the land south and west of the oped compared with that in the Il-Khanate in the Middle Amu Dar’ya to the Il-Khan HÜLE’Ü (1217–65), East or the Yuan Dynasty in the East. The Mongol census Chaghatayid influence soon spread to Afghanistan, and and organization of the local population into decimal the family of Cha’adai’s eighth son, Baiju, held Ghazni units, divided into military and civilian households, con- from around 1275. The absorption of the Qara’unas gave tinued through the 14th century. Likewise, the early the Chaghatayids a frontier on India, which they raided Mongol division of the subject population into appanages from 1292 on. It also facilitated Chaghatay pressure on survived Alghu’s infringements and continued into the Khorasan, which increased after 1291. early 14th century. Cha’adai and his immediate succes- Chaghatayid relations with the Golden Horde fluctu- sors had bad relations with Mahmud Yalavach, KÖRGÜZ, ated. In the decade after Möngke Khan’s death, the Jochids and other governors implementing civilian rule. The and Chaghatayids were hostile, yet the Golden Horde regent Orghina, however, followed the advice of Mas‘ud shared the Chaghatayid’s hostility to the Il-Khanate. After Beg and Cha’adai’s old adviser Qutb-ud-Din Habash 1269 this common hostility won out, and the Golden ‘Amid to limit and regularize taxation (see MAHMUD Horde allied with Qaidu and the Chaghatayids. However, YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG). Although Alghu and Baraq when the latter became powerful in the 1280s, the continued to employ Mas‘ud Beg, both plundered Golden Horde khans dropped out of the coalition. Subse- Bukhara when the treasury required it. Mas‘ud Beg was quently, the two were sporadically allied against the Il- finally able to significantly limit such extortionate exac- Khans. After the disintegration of the Chaghatay tions only after Qaidu’s rise in 1282. Even so, civil wars Khanate, Janibeg (1342–57) briefly reasserted Jochid devastated Mawarannahr for seven years after 1275–76 dominance over the Chaghatayids. and again after Qaidu’s death in 1301. The most concrete evidence of Chaghatayid fiscal TRIBAL STRUCTURE administration is in its coinage. Local issues of coins The original Chaghatayid army was the 4,000 or 8,000 began in the Syr Dar’ya cities around 1270–72 and in men granted Cha’adai by Chinggis Khan and apparently Bukhara and Samarqand from 1281 on. Issues peaked composed of four non-Chinggisid clans: the Barulas, Aru- around 1286–87 but then declined, ceasing by 1294–95. lad, JALAYIR, and Suldus. IBN BATTUTA, who visited the Not until about 1319 did large-scale coinage resume court of Sultan Tarmashirin (1331–34), recorded how the under the khan Kebeg. The initial decline in issues after court of the Chaghatay khans was composed of the 1286–87 seems to be connected to a general Eurasian sil- KESHIG, or imperial guard, divided into day and night ver shortage, but the prolongation of this hiatus past guards, and the four commanders: the sultan’s deputy, the 1300 indicates a fiscal crisis peculiar to the Chaghatay vizier, the chamberlain, and the keeper of the al-tamgha Khanate. (red seal). In the time of TIMUR (1336?–1405) at least, these chief positions were hereditary in four clans then MILITARY residing in Mawarannahr (Jalayir, Barulas, Qa’uchin) or The Cha’adai military, despite its success in expansion in northeast Khorasan (Arulad). The Qa’uchin (old ones), both the Tarim Basin and Khorasan, is little known. The the name for hereditary army units recruited in Mawaran- Armenian knight Hetum estimated the total available mil- nahr, apparently replaced the Suldus. itary reserves, Mongol and local, available to the com- East of Ferghana the Dughlat (Dogholad), a Mongol bined Chaghatayid-Ögedeid realm under Qaidu’s son clan, eventually rose to prominence in the Almaligh- Chabar as 40 tümens, fewer than all but the Il-Khanid Ysyk Köl-Aksu area. Exactly when the Dughlat first realm. (A tümen nominally numbered 10,000.) Their 86 Chaghatay Khanate troops were considered very skillful and hardy but rela- After suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei’s descen- tively poorly equipped despite the khans’ frequent dants and driving Chapar into exile in the Yuan, Kebeg demands on armories in their appanages in Bukhara and enthroned his elder brother Esen-Buqa, newly arrived Samarqand. Baraq’s invasion of Khorasan in 1270 is said from Afghanistan, as khan (1309–18?). Esen-Buqa to have involved 90,000 men, while Kebeg’s invasion of nomadized between the Ysyk-Köl and Talas, while Kebeg 1313–14 involved four or five tümens. During the unsuc- became viceroy in Ferghana and Mawarannahr. Da’ud- cessful siege of Kusui (Afghanistan, 1295) the Chaghatay Khoja, son of Qutlugh-Khoja, replaced Esen-Buqa as armies employed 12 catapaults, 100 naphtha throwers, viceroy in Afghanistan. and a tower higher than the city walls, yet the Chaghatay Despite the conciliatory attitude of Du’a’s sons, the armies scored few, if any, successes in siege warfare. Yuan and the Il-Khans eventually attacked them. First, in 1312 the Il-Khans exploited opposition to Da’ud-Khoja to POLITICAL HISTORY win over the Qara’unas in Ghazni. Second, the Yuan in Building on earlier attempts by Alghu and Baraq, Baraq’s 1314 invaded under the Qipchaq general Chong’ur. To son Du’a built the mature Chaghatay Khanate. After secure his rear, Esen-Buqa dispatched Kebeg to invade being raised by Qaidu as the Chaghatay khan, Du’a cam- Khorasan in winter 1313–14. A shortage of provisions paigned aggressively against Qubilai Khan’s Yuan forced Kebeg to withdraw, while Chong’ur’s forces dynasty in 1285–89, forcing Yuan garrisons out of the reached as far as Chimkent (modern Shymkent) in 1315. Tarim Basin and making Uighuristan the frontier zone. The disaster was completed when Prince Töre-Temür In the south Du’a installed his eldest son, Qutlugh- deserted to the Yuan in 1315 and Prince Yasa’ur Khoja (d. 1298–99), over the Qara’unas. From 1292 (1289–1320) defected to the Il-Khanate in 1316, after Qutlugh-Khoja began regular raids on India and south- plundering Samarqand, Kish (modern Shakhrisabz), and ern Iran. From 1291 on Chaghatayid princes exploited Nakhshab (modern Qarshi), and dragooning their inhabi- the revolt of NAWROZ to invade Khorasan; in 1295 Du’a tants to Khorasan. personally occupied Mazandaran, southeast of the Kebeg (1318?–27), however, reversed this decline. Caspian Sea, for eight months. In a 1298 attack on the Yasa’ur’s revolt against the Il-Khanate in summer 1318 Yuan frontier, he captured Körgüz, a son-in-law of Qubi- drove the Il-Khan to make peace with Kebeg (June–July lai. From 1300 on, however, Du’a proposed peace with 1320), who also reestablished Chaghatay dominance over the Mongol realms to revive trade and warred against the Qara’unas of Afghanistan, appointing first Da’ud- India to fill the treasury. After Qaidu’s death in the next Khoja and then his brother Tarmashirin as viceroy. Kebeg year, Du’a enthroned Qaidu’s weak son, Chabar, while enjoyed peaceful relations with the great khans from opening peace talks with the Yuan dynasty. In autumn 1322 on, and despite Chong’ur’s reestablishment of nomi- 1304 all five lines of the Mongol Empire—Du’a of the nal Yuan control there, a 1326 document shows Kebeg Chaghatayids, Qaidu’s son Chabar, the Yuan, the Il- exercising authority in Uighuristan. While Esen-Buqa Khanate, and the Golden Horde—made peace. Mean- had adopted the Qara’una policy of government by plun- while, Du’a strengthened his dynastic position. Several der, Kebeg controlled his soldiers, winning the title of years of turbulence followed Du’a’s demotion of the “the Just.” Building a palace at Nakhshab, he transferred Ögedeids, after which several princes and their people the dynasty’s political center to Mawarannahr. Kebeg also resettled in Khorasan under the Il-Khanate. Du’a renewed the large-scale raids against India. Booty from acquired the title Du’a Sechen (Du’a the Wise), and these raids and a revival of transit trade supplied the sil- although never a Muslim, by the 16th century he was ver for renewed coinage. Kebeg’s brother Eljigidei being honored in an Islamic shrine in Yarkand. (1327–30) had even more expansive ambitions, support- Du’a’s son and successor, Könchek (1307–08), how- ing Qoshila as a candidate for the Yuan throne, while Tar- ever, became a virtual satellite of the Yuan. The mashirin, still viceroy of the Qara’unas and based in Chaghatay princes received lavish gifts from the Yuan Termiz, invaded India again (1328–29). emperor Haishan while allowing Haishan’s envoy in autumn 1308 to collect a third of Samarqand’s, Talas’s, MONGOL LIFE, RELIGION, AND and other cities’ revenues from their traditional COURT CULTURE appanages. Könchek’s death in spring 1308 reopened the The Chaghatayid Mongols retained the Mongolian lan- dormant conflict among rival Chaghatayid lines. Many guage and nomadism throughout their history as a uni- held that only Du’a’s sons were eligible, yet with Esen- fied khanate. MOGHULISTAN in the east and the Qara’unas Buqa among the Qara’unas and Du’a’s other sons too in the south preserved spoken Mongolian well into the young, Nalighu (erroneously written Taliqu, r. 1308–09), 16th century. In Mawarannahr, however, the record is less from a fraternal line of the sons of Mö’etüken, seized the clear. Ibn Battuta records both Kebeg and Tarmashirin as throne. Nalighu, a Muslim and son of a Kerman princess, speaking Turkish at court, but that hardly excludes their tried to destroy Du’a’s descendants, but a conspiracy of knowing Mongolian. The Mongol conquest also revived emirs and princes under Du’a’s son Kebeg murdered him. the use of the Uighur script for writing Turkish. Chaghatay Khanate 87 As in other Mongol realms, interaction with the patronage, yet a translation of the Alexander (Mongolian, sedentary world sparked increasing social differentiation Sulqarnai) romance and an Arabic-style divination text among the Mongols. In Mawarannahr Mongol military show Western influence was not lacking. Given Uighuris- commanders, while not farmers themselves, acquired tan’s frontier status and continued autonomy, however, it interest in agriculture and craftsmanship as lords of is unclear how typical these documents are even of east- landed estates, mills, and weaving workshops. At the ern Chaghatay culture. same time, impoverished Mongols sold themselves or their families into slavery. An Islamic waqf (pious endow- FALL OF THE DYNASTY ment) document of 1326 from Bukhara records the pur- After the brief reign of Töre-Temür (1330–31), Tar- chase of Mongol, Chinese, and Hindu slaves who were mashirin became the last of Du’a’s many sons to rule as converted and manumitted as tenants. Chaghatay khan. Tarmashirin accelerated Kebeg’s poli- In his territory around Almaligh and Quyas, Cha’adai cies, ignoring the Almaligh area, establishing a reputation built only pools to attract waterfowl, storehouses along among his Tajik subjects as a just ruler, and encouraging his nomadic routes, and a small town or village. His suc- agriculture. Perhaps to avoid opposition from his emirs, cessors, too, were not great builders. The official Mas‘ud he did not summon annual quriltais, as was the Mongol Beg built a grand madrasa (school) in Bukhara, which custom. He also ruled as a Muslim, favoring Muslim was sacked by an invading Il-Khan army in 1273, and emirs and imposing shari’a, or Islamic law. By this time, Kebeg built a palace at Nakhshab. The relatively modest many of the Mongol soldiers and emirs were already remaining Chaghatay cultural monuments, such as the Muslim, including Tarmashirin’s viceroy for the Qara’u- tomb of Buyan-Quli Khan (1348–58), have been com- nas, Burundai, but the neglect of the quriltais and the pletely overshadowed by the cultural efflorescence under Almaligh heartland caused a revolt among his nephews in the succeeding Timurid dynasty. 1334. The several short-lived D¯u’aid khans who followed Cha’adai’s legacy of loyalty to the Chinggisid JASAQ were based in Almaligh and rejected Islam; Changshi (law) retarded the spread of Islam among his descen- (1335–38) supposedly erected Buddhist idols in every dants. Until Tarmashirin (1331–34) only marginal mosque. In reaction, an Ögedeid prince, ‘Ali Sultan, princes converted to Islam, and none ruled successfully seized power and for a few months persecuted non-Mus- as a Muslim. The first well-known Muslim khan, Tar- lim religions. mashirin, was overthrown in part because of his overly The following exceedingly obscure decade saw the close identification with Islamic law as opposed to the final incorporation of Khorasan into the Chaghatayid jasaq, yet by his time perhaps 50–70 percent of the Baru- sphere after the disintegration of the Il-Khanate in 1335, las clansmen had Arabic names, generally a sign of devastating outbreaks of the BLACK DEATH beginning in Islamization. Despite the many powerful Sufi (Islamic the east in 1338–39, conflicts with the ambitious local mystic) lodges in Mawarannahr, historical records show dynasty in Herat, and the effective disintegration of the relatively little evidence of their influence on the khanate. The traveler Ibn Battuta tells of a descendant of Chaghatay Mongols. While several Muslim khans remon- Yasa’ur turned Sufi faqir (mendicant), Khalil, who on the strated against harassing the peasantry, one famous Mus- instigation of Herat rose up and defeated the non-Muslim lim prince, Yasa’ur, was a notorious practitioner of the khans in Almaligh, but this is echoed only vaguely in nomadic tradition of plunder. other sources. The election of Qazan Khan (1343?–46/7), Du’a and his sons actively patronized Buddhism. In a non-Du’aid Chaghatay prince, demonstrated the break- 1285–90 Du’a supported the ’Bri-gung (modern Zhigung) down of dynastic consensus. Finally, the Chaghatay realm Monastery in Tibet, sending an otherwise unknown disintegrated when the Qara’una emir Qazaghan over- Prince Rinchen against Qubilai in Tibet. Yuan records threw Qazan and set up an Ögedeid puppet khan. Emir also show Eljigidei (1327–30) sharing in the Yuan Dolaji of the Dughlat clan in the east thereupon set up dynasty’s patronage of Buddhist temples. Even Tughlugh- his own puppet khan in 1347, creating the foundation for Temür Khan (1347–62), known in Islamic sources as the an independent Moghulistan in the east. The later rise of one who converted the eastern Chaghatay realm to Islam, Timur (1336?–1405) from the Barulas clan in Mawaran- invited the Tibetan Buddhist INCARNATE LAMA Rol-pa’i nahr created a third contender for the mantle of the now- rDo-rje (1340–83) of the Karma-pa to his realm. divided Chaghatay realm. A Mongolian-language document trove from Turpan, dating from 1326 to 1369, offers glimpses of Mongol cul- THE IMPACT OF THE MONGOLS ON ture in eastern Turkestan. Numerous copies of both trans- CENTRAL ASIA lations and original Mongol poetry by CHOSGI-ODSIR and Mongol rule affected Central Asia deeply. The initial con- other Yuan monks and fragments in SQUARE SCRIPT illus- quest of the Tarim Basin and the cities north of the Tian- trate the tremendous influence of the Yuan Buddhist cul- shan Mountains was bloodless and that of Mawarannahr ture on Uighuristan. A decree of exemption given to a considerably less devastating than the conquest of Kho- Buddhist temple likewise demonstrates continuing royal rasan. Nevertheless, the persistence of the unreformed 88 Chahar Mongol traditions of administration, the endemic dynas- numbering 1,855,600, including 1,550,300 sheep and tic instability, and the blockage of trade caused by hostili- goats, graze the steppe there (1990 figures). Although the ties with the neighboring khanates all militated against 5,400 Chakhars in the southernmost Taipusi banner are urban recovery. When Ibn Battuta visited Mawarannahr only 2 percent of the banner’s total population, they are in 1333, he found the cities there in a half-ruined state concentrated in a single steppe district completely sur- compared with flourishing Tabriz and Khorazm. Perhaps rounded by ethnic Chinese-inhabited farmland. Virtually for this reason, the Chaghatay territory did not, with the all Mongols in these banners speak Mongolian. exception of the appended Arabic notes in Jamal Qarshi’s The three contemporary Chakhar right-flank (Qahar Persian lexicon, produce any significant historical writ- Youyi) banners now in Ulaanchab were heavily colonized ings before 1350. Even so, Timur and his successors, who by Chinese farmers after 1903. At present covering fewer built a new empire centered in Mawarannahr and than 11,000 square kilometers (4,250 square miles), their brought the area prosperity and cultural renaissance, con- total population is 683,100, of which only 19,300 (3 per- tinued to think of themselves as Chaghatays, a name cent) are Mongol. Few, if any, Mongol children here speak Western scholars later gave to the Turkish language of Mongolian fluently. poetry and history from the 14th to the 19th centuries. HISTORY See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENSUS IN THE The Chakhars first appear in the second half of the 15th MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; century as one of the Mongols’ SIX TÜMENS. At that time INDIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ISLAM IN THE MONGOL the current Chakhar territory was inhabited by the Yüng- EMPIRE; ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MONEY shiyebü tümen (partly ancestors of today’s KHARACHIN IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL Mongols), while the Chakhars themselves inhabited EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL 6 EMPIRE. modern northern Shiliin Gol. After the reign of BATU- Further reading: W. Barthold, “Caghatay Khanate,” MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?), the Chakhar tümen trans. John Andrew Boyle, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2d became the personal appanage of the Chinggisid great ed., vol. 2 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960): 3–4; Michal Biran, khans of the NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY. Under Daraisun Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Cen- Küdeng Khan (1548–57) the Chakhar moved east over tral Asia (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1997); Peter the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE into the Shara Mören (Xar Jackson, “Chaghatayid Dynasty,” in Encyclopedia Iranica, Moron) valley. vol. 5, 343–347; Kazuhide Kato, “Kebek and Yasawr: The In 1627 the princes of Chakhar’s Sönid, ÜJÜMÜCHIN, Establishment of the Caghatai-Khanate,” Memoirs of the Naiman, and Aohan OTOGs (camp districts) revolted Toyo Bunko 49 (1991): 97–118; Beatrice Forbes Manz, against the centralization of Ligdan Khan (1604–34). Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- After being attacked by the rising Manchus in 1632, Lig- versity Press, 1989). dan Khan took the remaining Chakhars and fled west to ORDOS and then Kökenuur (Qinghai). After his death his sons surrendered to the Manchus’ new QING DYNASTY Chahar See CHAKHAR. (1636–1912), and the remaining Chakhars were resettled as autonomous banners in south-central Inner Mongolia. Chakhar (Chahar, Tsakhar, Caqar, Qahar) The The rebellious otogs were resettled separately in Shiliin appanage of the last independent Mongol emperors in the Gol and JUU UDA leagues. 16th and 17th centuries, the Chakhar Mongols were In 1675 Ligdan’s grandsons Burni and Lubsang tightly controlled by China’s Qing dynasty (1636–1912). revolted against the Qing along with the prince of To the KHALKHA Mongols and BURIATS, Chakhar was long Naiman banner. After Burni and Lubsang’s defeat the a synonym for Inner Mongolians. Today the Chakhar Chakhars’ Chinggisid nobility was stripped of its preroga- dialect is the basis for standard Inner Mongolian (see tives, and the Chakhar banners were integrated into the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE). directly controlled EIGHT BANNERS system. In addition to the Eight Banners, each named by the color of its banner GEOGRAPHY (Plain Yellow, Bordered Yellow, Plain White, etc.), the Traditionally divided into left- and right-flank BANNERS, Qing court also established four “pastures” (sürüg), Chakhar today is divided between SHILIIN GOL and which supplied meat, mounts, and DAIRY PRODUCTS for ULAANCHAB leagues in China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous imperial use. The 12 Chakhar banners and pastures, Region. The three major Chakhar left-flank banners, Plain together with the DARIGANGA pastures, were all put under Blue (Zhenglan), Plain and Bordered White (Zhengxiang- the dutong, or Manchu official, stationed in Zhangjiakou bai), and Bordered Yellow (Xianghuang), cover 21,000 (Kalgan). square kilometers (8,100 square miles) in southern In the 18th and 19th centuries unofficial CHINESE Shiliin Gol and have a total population of 174,700, of COLONIZATION nibbled away steadily at the Chakhars’ which 65,700, or 38 percent, are Mongols. Livestock southern boundaries. In 1903, with the sinicizing NEW Changchun, Master 89 POLICIES, the Qing court forced the Chakhar right-flank This procedure, called “internal alchemy,” depended on banners to accept massive new colonization, which was the preservation of semen, which entailed complete further accelerated by railway construction from 1907 on. celibacy. The asceticism and eccentricity of its devotees In 1928 the Republic of China divided Inner Mongolia generated great controversy. Before Master Chongyang into provinces, with Chakhar’s right-flank banners died in 1170 he appointed Qiu Chuji, titled Master assigned to Suiyuan and the left-flank banners and pas- Changchun, his successor. Traveling North China, tures assigned to Chahar. Under the Japanese occupation Changchun’s fame grew, and the JIN DYNASTY emperor (1937–45) Chakhar officials played an important role in summoned him to an audience in 1188. With the PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB’s autonomous Mongolian emperor’s death, however, Changchun’s opponents had regime. After 1945 China’s civil war between the Com- him confined to his hometown of Qixia, yet continued munists and the Nationalists wracked the Chakhar’s left- support from the imperial family soon allowed him freer flank banners, until they were incorporated into the movement within Shandong. Communist-established Inner Mongolian Autonomous When the Mongols invaded North China, peninsular Government in 1947. The Communists occupied Suiyuan Shandong did not suffer from direct Mongol invasions. In province in 1949, which in 1954 was transferred with the 1213 widespread insurrections against Jin rule broke out, Chakhar right-flank banners into the INNER MONGOLIA and many of the insurgents went over to the SONG AUTONOMOUS REGION. In 1958 the Chakhar left-flank DYNASTY in South China. Both the Jin dynasty, which banners, previously a separate league, were transferred to moved its capital south in 1214 to Henan, and the Song Shiliin Gol league, while the right-flank banners were unsuccessfully sought Changchun’s support. transferred from the Pingdiquan district to ULAANCHAB CHINGGIS KHAN’s personal physician, Liu Zhonglu league. (Liu Wen), told the khan that Changchun was a tenggeri See also INNER MONGOLIANS; JEWELRY; MONGOLIAN möngke kü’ün, “heavenly immortal man,” aged 300 years, LANGUAGE; NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS; SAINCHOGTU, NA.; and possessing pills of immortality. More skeptical advis- WEDDINGS. ers, such as YELÜ CHUCAI, hoped that Changchun might Further reading: David Aberle, Chahar and Dagor be able to moderate the conqueror’s harsh measures. In Mongol Bureaucratic Administration (New Haven, 6 Conn.: 1219, as he was traveling west to destroy KHORAZM, HRAF Press, 1953); Henry Serruys, “The Caqar Popula- Chinggis Khan summoned Changchun to an audience. tion during the Qing,” Journal of Asian History 12 (1978): Liu Zhonglu and JABAR KHOJA delivered the message to 58–79;6 Henry Serruys, “A Study of Chinese Penetration Shandong, and Changchun quickly accepted the sum- into Caqar Territory in the Eighteenth Century,” Monu- mons. Changchun traveled through Mongolia and menta Serica 35 (1981–1983): 485–544; Herbert Harold Turkestan, making numerous observations of the natural Vreeland III, Mongol Community and Kinship Structure and human environment, including a measurement of a (New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press, 1957). lunar eclipse. He arrived at Chinggis Khan’s camp in Par- wan, Afghanistan, on May 17, 1222. Cham See TSAM. At the first interview Changchun told Chinggis Khan that he had been misinformed and that he had no pills of immortality. Renewed warfare in Afghanistan interrupted Champa See SOUTH SEAS. the instruction until October. To achieve long life Changchun recommended periodic abstention from sex- Chang Jou See ZHANG ROU. ual intercourse. He also advised Chinggis Khan to remit taxes in North China for three years. When a massive snowfall struck the imperial camp, he interpreted this as Chang-chia See JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU. heaven’s anger at the Mongols’ lack of filial piety. Later he used a hunting accident to reprove the Mongol custom of Changchun, Master (Qiu Chuji, Ch’iu Ch’u-chi) hunting as violating heaven’s love for life. Chinggis Khan (1148–1227) Taoist master of the Complete Realization approved these discourses and issued a PAIZA (tablet of sect who instructed Chinggis Khan in religious principles authority) and decree exempting Changchun’s monaster- Qiu Chuji was born in Qixia county in the Shandong ies from taxation, followed by another decree appointing peninsula, then as now a stronghold of Taoism (Daoism). him chief of all monks in China. The two parted in spring At age 18 he entered the Taoist retreat at Kunlun Moun- 1223, and Master Changchun arrived at Zhongdu (mod- tain in Ninghai (modern Mouping) and became a disciple ern Beijing) a year later, spending the rest of his life there. of Wang Zhe (Master Chongyang, 1112–70), founder of With the powers granted him by Chinggis Khan, he con- the Complete Realization (Quanzhen, Ch’üan-chen) sect verted many Buddhist monasteries to those of his Com- of Taoism. The Complete Realization school focused on plete Realization sect, destroying their Buddhist images. the achievement of immortality by transforming the Recruiting war refugees and ransoming captives, he also internal organs, with a tight control of bodily functions. enrolled 20,000 to 30,000 men in his temples. This 90 Chen-chin aggressive expansion infuriated the Buddhist Yelü Chu- Chin dynasty See JIN DYNASTY. cai, who had come to see Changchun as a corrupt fraud. Changchun died on August 22, 1227. The record of China and Mongolia Farming people of China and Changchun’s western journey written by Li Zhichang (Li pastoral nomads of Mongolia have been in contact for Chih-ch’ang; translated by Arthur Waley as Travels of an almost 3,000 years. After China’s unification in the third Alchemist) is a valuable source on Chinggis Khan and century B.C.E., the Chinese dynasties tried to channel Mongol rule in North China and Central Asia. relations with the northern nomads through the TRIBUTE See also RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SYSTEM. At times peoples of nomadic origin conquered all TAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. or part of China, culminating in the Mongol conquest of Further reading: Li Chih-ch’ang, Travels of an the 13th century. Finally, in the 17th century the Mongo- Alchemist, trans. Arthur Waley (1931; rpt., New York: lian and Chinese peoples fell under the Manchu QING AMS Press, 1979). DYNASTY (1636–1912), which melded Chinese and Inner Asian institutions. Only in the 20th century has China Chen-chin See JINGIM. been forced to recognize Mongolia as an equal sovereign nation in a multistate system. chess Mongolian chess has the same basic pieces and EARLY INTERACTIONS moves as international chess but lacks a few of the mod- From the third century B.C.E. to the 18th century, the ern rules developed to speed up the opening. Mongolian northern nomads were the chief foreign policy preoccu- chess sets label their pieces as follows: lord (noyon) for pation of China’s dynasties. The nomads themselves both the king, tiger (bars) for the queen, camels (temee) for coveted the goods of China, which their own economies bishops, horses (mori) for knights, carts (khangai or could not supply, and feared the ability of Chinese diplo- terge) for rooks, and boys (khüü) for pawns. In Mongo- macy to instigate civil wars and divisions. lian chess only the boy/pawn in front of the lord/king or Peoples of Mongolic origins several times conquered tiger/queen can move two spaces in its first move; other all or part of China. In the fourth to sixth centuries C.E., pawns can move only one space on their first move. XIANBI dynasties ruled North China. In the 10th century Castling is also not allowed. Once a boy/pawn gets to the the KITANS from Inner Mongolia conquered the area end of the board, he is turned into a tiger/queen but diag- around modern Beijing. Finally, the Mongols under onally can move only one space at a time. Other forms of CHINGGIS KHAN (1206–26) began the conquest of all chess with different boards were also played by children. China, which was completed under his grandson QUBILAI In eastern Inner Mongolia Chinese chess is played. In KHAN (1260–94). At the time of the Mongol conquest, Russia’s KALMYK REPUBLIC the current president, Kirsan N. China was already divided into three dynasties: the JIN Ilümzhinov (b. 1962), an amateur chess master, is now DYNASTY in the north and Manchuria, the XIA DYNASTY in head of the international chess association, Fédération the northwest, and the SONG DYNASTY in the south. Of Internationale des Échecs (FIDE). Chess is now a these, only the Song was founded by ethnic Chinese. required topic in all Kalmyk schools. During these conquest dynasties, the nomadic peoples and the Han (ethnic Chinese) came to live in close prox- Chifeng municipality (Ulanhad) Chifeng is a imity. “Barbarian” and Han officials served side by side in small city in southeastern Inner Mongolia with a the court, while the dominant non-Chinese military caste metropolitan population of 235,000 (1990), of which settled in landed estates and camps in the Chinese coun- 26,400 are Mongol. The name means “red peak,” or in tryside and formed garrisons in the main cities. Mongolian, Ulaankhad (Ulanhad). Since 1983 Chifeng The Mongol YUAN DYNASTY (1206/1271–1368) was municipality has also administered the seven Mongol the first nonethnic Chinese dynasty to conquer all of BANNERS and three Chinese counties of former JUU UDA China. Many Chinese generals and local strongmen sur- league. The expanded Chifeng municipality has an area rendered and served the Mongols faithfully, while others of 84,000 square kilometers (32,400 square miles) and conducted a bitter guerrilla resistance in the hills of a population of 4,105,758. Mongols number 677,012, North China. Thousands of Song loyalists killed them- or 16 percent. selves rather than surrender to the Mongols. The Mon- Chifeng city was originally established as a Chinese gols created a formal class system that divided the county in Ongni’ud Right Banner territory in 1778. From Chinese into northern and southern and put both below 1914 it was part of Rehe, and in 1935 Chifeng was the Mongols and Central and West Asian immigrants. reached by railways. In 1955 Rehe province was broken Ambitious Chinese officials responded by adopting Mon- up, and Chifeng county, along with the neighboring gol names and mores in order to pass as Mongols. While KHARACHIN banner, was assigned to Inner Mongolia as often portrayed simply as a nationalist Chinese uprising, part of Juu Uda. the insurrections from 1351 on that finally overthrew See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION. Mongol rule in China likewise came from a complex mix China and Mongolia 91 of millenarian Buddhist movements, piracy, economic Han, Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan, and Muslim. Despite the catastrophe associated with the BLACK DEATH, and ethnic new government’s weakness, the Chinese public and resentment that rallied to the cause of restoring the Song. politicians were alike committed to maintaining whatever To the end of the Yuan dynasty, ethnic Chinese were will- claim possible on all the former Qing territories. ing to fight and die for it, and the Yuan produced its share From 1912 to 1915 the Republic of China’s new pres- of loyalists who refused any association with the succeed- ident, Yuan Shikai (1859–1916), attempted to retain as ing MING DYNASTY. (On Chinese-Mongol interaction in the much control as possible over Inner and Outer Mongolia. Yuan, see BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHANGCHUN; With Outer Mongolia his task was complicated by Chi- DAIDU; DAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; EAST ASIAN nese public opinion, which demanded aggressive action SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; LI TAN’S REBELLION; LIU against Russian support for Mongolian secession, action BINGZHONG; MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL CONQUEST; that militarily was completely unrealistic. This public MUQALI; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SEMUREN; SHII opposition prevented Russo-Chinese negotiations from TIANZE; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; YAN SHI; coming to any conclusion until Yuan Shikai had sup- ZHANG ROU.) pressed the domestic opposition parties. On November 5, The succeeding Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) has 1913, he agreed to respect Outer Mongolia’s internal often been portrayed as a purely Chinese regime, yet the autonomy and meet in a trilateral conference with Russia founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, actively recruited Mongols into and Outer Mongolia. In return, Russia recognized a legiti- his armies and praised many aspects of the Yuan regime. mate Chinese claim on Outer Mongolia and pressured the Relations with the Mongols of Mongolia were again regu- Mongolian government into calling off the invasion of lated by the tribute system. A vocal group of Chinese Inner Mongolia (see SINO-MONGOLIAN WAR). The subse- literati denounced the Mongols as incurably barbaric, but quent KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY of June 1915 con- their voice was rarely heeded by the decision makers. firmed China’s full control of Inner Mongolia, and Only in the wake of the TUMU INCIDENT (1449) did the defined China’s power in Outer Mongolia as suzerainty, nationalist elements temporarily dominate the court. and allowed China to station a high commissioner in Mongolia. (On the Chinese administration in Inner Mongo- THE QING DYNASTY lia from 1911 to the present, see INNER MONGOLIA Under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) both China and AUTONOMOUS REGION and INNER MONGOLIANS.) Mongolia were taken over by the Manchu ruling family The outbreak of World War I and then the Russian that set its capital in Beijing. While seen as a Chinese Revolution weakened Russia’s strong position, and in dynasty by foreign powers, the Mongols saw the Qing as 1919 the Mongolian rulers, frightened of the chaos in the dynasty of a fellow Inner Asian people. Mongol rela- Russia, agreed to a REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY, albeit with tions with ethnic Chinese settlers and merchants were guarantees against ethnic Chinese colonization. However, generally not friendly but were sometimes mutually the general “Little” Xu Shuzheng of the pro-Japanese advantageous. In the 19th century, however, Chinese Anfu clique aimed to colonize Mongolia as a power base domination of the Mongolian economy increased. Scat- and, once stationed in Mongolia, implemented an openly tered attacks on settlers and even occasional rebellions sinicizing regime. The Mongolians in response turned to broke out in Inner Mongolia from the 1870s. In 1901 the either White Russian or Soviet support. These two war- Qing introduced the NEW POLICIES, which aimed at the ring forces together drove the Chinese out of Mongolia comprehensive sinicization of China’s Inner Asian fron- by March 1921. The Red Army then installed a new Peo- tier. This led to violent opposition from the highest to the ple’s Government in Khüriye (Ulaanbaatar). lowest levels and eventually to the 1911 RESTORATION of With the Soviet-supported 1921 REVOLUTION China Mongolian independence. (On ethnic Chinese and Mongols lost all the suzerain rights over Outer Mongolia it had in the Qing Dynasty, see BOLOR ERIKHE; CHINESE COLONIZA- been granted in the 1915 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty. While TION; CHINESE FICTION; CHINESE TRADE AND MONEYLEND- the warlords Zhang Zuolin (1875–1928) and Feng Yuxi- ING; EIGHT BANNERS; FOOD AND DRINK; INJANNASHI; LIFAN ang (1882–1942) were successively entrusted with the YUAN ZELI; NEW POLICIES.) task of recovering Mongolia militarily, Chinese diplomats aimed to use Chinese recognition of the Soviet Union to THE MONGOLIAN QUESTION, 1911–1949 win concessions in Mongolia. In May 1924 they seemed In autumn 1911 the Mongolian independence movement to have succeeded, with the Soviet Union explicitly rec- and the Chinese republican revolution against Qing rule ognizing Chinese sovereignty (i.e., full control) over broke out simultaneously. The Chinese 1911 Revolution Mongolia in return for China’s recognition, yet China as was in part a Han (ethnic Chinese) uprising against the before was unable to conquer Mongolia, and the called- Manchu rulers, yet the new republican authorities were for general conference was never held. determined to hold on to China’s Inner Asian dominions. From 1921 on Soviet agents also cultivated friendly The new Republic of China created a flag with five forces in China: the Chinese Communist Party, the stripes, each standing for one of the five races of China: Nationalist Party, and Feng Yuxiang. For all of these 92 China and Mongolia forces, at least de facto recognition of the new MONGO- Enlai asked the Soviet Union to “return” Outer Mongolia LIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC (MPR’s) legitimacy was the price to China to be united with Inner Magnolia in an of Soviet financial and military support. The more autonomous region. The appointment as China’s first respectable Chinese politicians tried to avoid publicizing ambassador to Mongolia of the Inner Mongolian revolu- this concession, and even most Communists hoped for tionary Jiyaatai (1901–68), rather than a career diplomat, some kind of postrevolutionary federal unification with exemplified the new Chinese leadership’s initial view of Mongolia. While reuniting China in 1927–28, the new Mongolia as not truly a foreign country. Nationalist Party government under Chiang Kai-shek When these reunification bids were flatly rejected, (1888–1975) turned against the Soviet Union and again Beijing turned to wooing Mongolia as an independent denounced Soviet Russia’s “red imperialism” in Mongolia. country. From 1958 the SINO-SOVIET SPLIT made the woo- The Communists, now subject to ferocious repression, ing more urgent. State visits and negotiations in the late confirmed their total alienation from legal Chinese soci- 1950s and early 1960s resolved the long-disputed border ety by vociferously supporting Mongolian and other issue, but by 1962 China’s hopes of winning Mongolia minority self-determination. Although the Japanese inva- over to an anti-Soviet position were dashed. From then sions of China from 1931 on brought about a Sino-Soviet on relations deteriorated rapidly. In 1964 the two sides rapprochement in the mid-1930s, the Nationalist govern- were publicly denouncing each other, and in 1967 Chi- ment’s categorical rejection of any Mongolian indepen- nese Red Guards attacked Mongolian diplomatic person- dence did not change. nel in Beijing. Relations continued in deep freeze until By May 1945 the Nationalist Party was evolving a the late 1980s. Meanwhile, Chinese policy in Inner Mon- more liberal position under American influence and rec- golia has been crucially influenced by its perceived ognized “high-level autonomy” for Mongolia and Tibet. rivalry with the MPR. During periods of liberalization As the Soviet Union became a world power during Inner Mongolia’s economic growth has been used to WORLD WAR II, Joseph Stalin got the United States and demonstrate the folly of Mongolian independence, while Great Britain at Yalta to formally concede Mongolian during periods of repression police measures have been independence from China before forcing Chiang Kai-shek used to crush real and imagined subversion from Mongo- in August 1945 to likewise concede full Mongolian inde- lia (see “NEW INNER MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY pendence (see PLEBISCITE ON INDEPENDENCE). Protests in PARTY” CASE). the Chinese legislature were easily overriden, showing While the Nationalist government in refuge on Tai- the purely abstract and ideological nature of Chinese wan had canceled its recognition of Mongolian indepen- claims to Outer Mongolia. Although China formally rec- dence in 1952, the People’s Republic of China’s (PRC’s) ognized Mongolian independence in February 1946, the position remained more complicated. Formally, the PRC two countries did not settle the outstanding border issues has continued to recognized Mongolia and exchange or exchange ambassadors. ambassadors. Ideologically, the PRC equally insisted that Since 1944 the MPR had cultivated the KAZAKHS and all of Mongolia was historically an inalienable part of Mongols in the northern part of China’s Xinjiang China, that the 1911 Restoration was a Russian conspir- province, where Mongolia had traditional territorial acy with “feudal upper-stratum elements,” and that the claims. In late May 1947, as China’s authorities tried to Mongolian people have always opposed all “splittist” strengthen their claims on the area and recruit Kazakhs, attempts. Nevertheless, because Lenin and Stalin had Mongolians and Chinese clashed over the ill-defined bor- blessed Mongolian independence, Maoist writers, when der at Baytik Shan (Baitag Bogd). In June Mongolian mentioning the 1921 Revolution, had to treat it favorably. troops drove the Chinese and Kazakhs south, while in Only Soviet ties with Mongolia after Stalin’s death in June–July 1948 Mongolia again attacked pro-Chinese 1952 could be criticized as manifesting continuity with Kazakhs camping in Mongolian territory. These clashes czarist policies and becoming “social imperialism” in the revived the Chinese Nationalist government’s strong hos- 1960s. tility to Mongolia. After 1989 Sino-Mongolian relations again became multifaceted and important. The decline in Soviet power SINO-MONGOLIAN FOREIGN RELATIONS facilitated the normalization of relations, while the transi- In October 1949, as the Chinese Communist armies tion from socialist to market economies in both countries swept away the Nationalist regime, the People’s Republic has transformed economic relations. Politically, China of China (PRC) under Mao Zedong recognized Mongolia. and Mongolia have returned to normal relations, with For the next 10 years Mongolia, China, and the Soviet high-level visits since 1989 leading to the April 29, 1994, Union were formally allies (see SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE). treaty on friendly relations. While criticism of post-1952 During World War II Mao Zedong had expressed his con- Mongolian foreign policy is now muted, the previous fidence that Mongolia would naturally join China after paradoxes of historical delegitimation and pragmatic the Communist victory. In 1949 and again after Stalin’s recognition still define the PRC’s official position on death in 1954 and in 1956, both Mao and Premier Zhou Mongolian independence. Even so, China’s increasing Chinese colonization 93 nationalism and ties with overseas Chinese have revived (including many white-collar workers) totaled 2,161 or in unofficial circles the idea of Mongolian independence more than half. Subsequently, however, the numbers of as illegitimate, a viewpoint expressed in the 1993 book Chinese workers in Mongolia’s principal enterprises Wai Menggu duli neimu (The inside story of Outer Mon- declined to 16.6 percent in 1932 and 5.2 percent in 1938. golian independence). After a protest from the Mongolian Large numbers of Chinese were targeted in the GREAT government, the book was banned in China. PURGE in 1937–40 and the 1948 Port Arthur Case. In For its part the Mongolian government has scrupu- 1956 the Chinese still numbered 16,200, or 1.9 percent lously distanced itself from any support of Inner Mongo- of the population but were undergoing rapid assimilation. lian independence while maintaining that it does have an The president of Mongolia from 1992 to 1997, Pun- interest in purely cultural ties with Mongols abroad. Even salmaagiin Ochirbat, had a Chinese grandfather, a fact on so, Mongolia’s periodic visits from the Dalai Lama, seen which his political opponents attempted to capitalize. in China as a Tibetan splittist, and its tolerance as a A lasting legacy of the Sino-Mongolian alliance of the democracy of the occasional protests of China’s Inner 1950s was a new population of Chinese guest workers Mongolia policy are irritants. In the immediate aftermath who settled in Ulaanbaatar near the traditional China- of Mongolia’s 1990 democratic revolution, Chinese town (Maimaching). Peaking at more than 13,000 in authorities smashed nationalist study circles in Inner 1961, the population was numbered at 6,000 in 1981. At Mongolia for circulating Mongolian democratic works. first working in construction, the remaining Chinese, Ironically, however, the long-term result of renewed con- numbering several thousand, were mostly displaced by tact between the Mongols of Inner Mongolia and Mongo- Russian and Mongolian workers in the 1960s. After 1981 lia proper has been mutual estrangement, as the two sides the Mongolian government began exiling many to west- realize how decades of separation have made them differ- ern Mongolia as antisocial elements and security risks. ent from each other. Nevertheless, Mongolia still has a After the thaw in the late 1980s these Chinese returned network of Inner Mongolian dissidents and their support- to Ulaanbaatar, where most make a living raising vegeta- ers serving as middlemen between Inner Mongolia and bles, pigs, chickens, and other goods for the market. the West. They remain mostly citizens of China. Economically, China (including Hong Kong and See also FOREIGN RELATIONS; KYAKHTA; MONGOLIA, Macao) has become Mongolia’s dominant trading partner, STATE OF; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; REVOLUTIONARY receiving 58.9 percent of Mongolia’s exports and supply- PERIOD; SELENGE PROVINCE; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. ing 20.5 percent of its imports (2000 figures). China has replaced the former Soviet Union as the buyer of Mongo- lia’s copper and molybdenum concentrates and other Chinese colonization Since the Han dynasty (202 important mineral exports. Moreover, in 2000 Chinese B.C.E.–220 C.E.) Inner Mongolia has been a border area firms were partners in one-third of Mongolia’s 1,252 joint sometimes settled by ethnic Chinese and sometimes by ventures and supplied more than 25 percent of Mongo- nomadic peoples. Under the Mongol Empire the Mongols lia’s total foreign investment, a fact that has generated themselves brought in displaced Chinese to farm as far considerable anxiety in Mongolia. Human interchange north as Tuva, but these colonies disappeared after 1368. has also increased, with Chinese businessmen and Inner After the TUMU INCIDENT in 1449 the Mongols advanced Mongolian students, artists, and translators making far south, establishing the frontier of settlement around extended stays in Mongolia and Mongolian peddlers, the line of the current Great Wall. The rebellions and tourists, students, and businessmen visiting China. wars of the early QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) devastated the Chinese population and relieved any incipient land CHINESE IN MONGOLIA pressure. As the Chinese population grew from 100–150 Mongolian independence in 1911 made the Chinese million in 1650 to 410 million in 1850, farmers began to community in Mongolia an expatriate one, made up spill over into Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, the Tibetan mostly of male traders and craftsmen concentrated in plateau, and China’s own mountain slopes and coastal Khüriye/ULAANBAATAR, KYAKHTA CITY, and SELENGE sandbars. PROVINCE. The Chinese faced considerable hostility Scattered evidence shows Chinese immigration moving from the Mongols. The 1911 government tried to keep north into Inner Mongolia by the early 18th century and Mongols and Chinese segregated, but the use of Mongo- accelerating slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. lian names and the taking of Mongolian wives acceler- The general Qing policy, announced in 1748, was to pro- ated after 1921. hibit colonization without its prior approval. At first excep- In those years Chinese and Russians were the bulk of tions were made provided the settlers returned south of the Mongolia’s tiny working class, and the Mongolian trade wall every winter, but by the 19th century such regulations unions maintained a separate Chinese section with its were no longer enforced. In southern Rehe district, own Chinese club and entertainment program. In 1924 including Josotu and southern JUU UDA leagues (land Chinese members of the Mongolian Trade Unions on both sides of the modern Inner Mongolia-Liaoning 94 Chinese colonization border), the Qing government permitted farming Mon- In southeastern Inner Mongolia Mongolian banner gov- gols, who had already divided up their banner land (a ernments in the 19th century began to collect bottom-soil very exceptional procedure), individually to hire Chi- rents by force from increasingly assertive Chinese tenants nese tenants. This policy was also later followed among and tried to restrict Chinese use of banner resources the HÖHHOT TÜMED. By 1800 the officially recognized (forests, remaining pastures, etc.). This conflict exploded Chinese settler population within modern Inner Mon- during the 1891 Jindandao (“Golden Pill Way”) rebellion golian frontiers was more than 425,000 (not including of Chinese sectarian peasants, who killed or drove north those in traditional Mongol lands now included in scores of thousands of Mongols. neighboring provinces). In 1901 with the NEW POLICIES, the Qing government Until 1901 this process of colonization had no gov- suddenly embarked on a full-scale program of coloniza- ernment sanction. Some settlements were begun by min- tion to assimilate and strengthen the frontier. New colo- ers, who had a particularly lawless reputation. While a nization commissioners, such as the notorious Yigu (d. few families of Chinese might simply show up in a likely 1926) in Suiyuan (southwest Inner Mongolia), assigned looking spot and start farming, lasting colonization was vast tracts of virgin steppe to colonization. The Qing usually arranged by land developers (dishang), who bro- exercised their right of eminent domain and appropriated kered settlements with the local banner authorities, dug for their own treasury bottom-soil rights, not only in canals, recruited tenants, and organized self-defense, unopened areas but in already colonized lands governed often through secret society organizations. The land by unofficial agreements. In Ordos the people organized development industry often grew out of trading stations, DUGUILANG, or vigilante “circles,” to resist, while in Jirim when Chinese merchants induced indebted banners and league (eastern Inner Mongolia) Mongol insurrectionists noblemen to settle the debts with a grant of land. Official armed with Russian and Japanese rifles, such as Togtakhu recognition of the fait accompli and the establishment of Taiji (1863–1922), killed government surveyors and sol- subprefectural (ting) and then county (xian) administra- diers and looted Chinese shops (see FRONT GORLOS MON- tions usually lagged decades behind the first settlement. GOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY). Rebellions broke out again in Mongolian attitudes toward colonization varied 1912–13 in coordination with Khalkha Mongolia’s decla- greatly depending on its nature and scale. Chinese land ration of independence and invasion of Inner Mongolia. practice allowed for “bottom-soil” rights, which gave the Many more colonization projects were created on paper owner a fixed rent from a plot of land without any right than were actually implemented, but even so by 1912 the to remove the renter or control use. Since banner land number of Chinese in Inner Mongolia’s current frontier was usually held in common, bottom-soil rents were was about 1,550,000, substantially outnumbering the divided among the banner members. In 1736 the ORDOS Mongols. Mongols approved colonization along the Great Wall and After 1912 the provincial warlords of the Republic of hoped to extend it to increase their bottom-soil rents. China continued government colonization programs in Renting of land or other resources was a common way to Inner Mongolia as railroad construction integrated the handle new expenses. By 1905 the government of Prince colonized areas into the national market. Now the estab- Güngsangnorbu (1871–1931) of KHARACHIN Right Ban- lishment of counties preceded the actual settlement. ner (modern Harqin Qi) in Rehe was using the leasing of Farming Mongols in eastern Inner Mongolia were fre- mines and other resources to finance new schools with- quently evicted to make way for Chinese tenants out increasing banner taxes. Transfer of land to pay debts, imported by land developers. The last great revolt, led by however, left no bottom-soil rights and was hence unpop- Gada Meiren (1893–1931), broke out in KHORCHIN Left- ular, particularly as the debts were often the private ones Flank Middle banner (Horqin Zuoyi Zhongqi) in 1929 of the banner ZASAG (ruler). Widespread corruption in against another massive colonization project. The rebel- the process of pricing, surveying, and assigning the land lion was crushed in 1931 and the Mongol farmers made the process all the more objectionable. In any case, evicted, but the actual colonization was forestalled by the colonization deals were not registered with the Qing Japanese occupation of Inner Mongolia (1931/1937–45). authorities and so bound both the Mongolian BANNERS In 1937 the Chinese population of Inner Mongolia was (appanages) and the Chinese developers in an under- already more than 3,700,000. ground economy. The Chinese Communist programs of land reform After the 1870s the frequent lawlessness of the set- applied from 1947 to 1952 canceled bottom-soil rights tlers and the dawning realization that colonization was and hurt Mongol interests in areas such as Rehe, where not a one-time event but an accelerating process pro- they rented land to Chinese immigrants. At the same time voked increasing numbers of antisettler attacks by Mon- the new Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region govern- gols. In the Hetao, for example, the first Mongol attacks ment was cautious about pushing the agricultural frontier on settlers came in 1882, which were in turn resisted by any further. Instead, Chinese were transferred into Inner the settlers led by a dynamic canal builder, land devel- Mongolia to run mines and railroads and deliver adminis- oper, and vigilante leader, Wang Tongchun (1851–1925). tration and services, building nonagricultural towns on Chinese fiction 95 the steppe. From 1958 agricultural immigration resumed, In the mid-19th century the Mongols of southeast and in 1960 alone about 1 million refugees fleeing the Inner Mongolia were also swept up in the fashion for the countrywide famine of the Great Leap Forward streamed tragically thwarted love of young lord Jia Baoyu for his into Inner Mongolia, plowing up previously untouched cousin Lin Daiyu told in Dream of the Red Chamber (Hong steppe. Yields soon declined due to the destruction of the lou meng, printed 1792). In 1847 “Khasbuu” (probably a topsoil, and in the next two years 590,000 refugees pseudonym) made an annotated and abridged translation returned to their homes. Large new strips of Chinese set- of the work. These works and the later Mongolian “con- tlement remained, however. From 1984 the Inner Mon- tinuations” written by INJANNASHI (1837–92) were golian government has tried to shift many marginal intended for like-minded readers who saw their own Chinese farming communities threatened by severe experiences in the trials of the sensitive young lovers. desertification to herding. From 1800 to 1925 manuscript translations, some- See also BAOTOU; CHAKHAR; CHIFENG MUNICIPALITY; times illustrated, of at least 80 different Chinese novels CHINA AND MONGOLIA; CHINQAI; DESERTIFICATION AND PAS- were made in Inner Mongolia and Khalkha. Popular gen- TURE DEGRADATION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FARM- res included historical dramas, supernatural combats, ING; INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER detective tales of Judge Bao and Judge Shi, romances, MONGOLIANS; QARA-QORUM; SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL adventures, and erotic melodramas. Chinese novels EMPIRE; TONGLIAO MUNICIPALITY; WUHAI. before the mid-20th century circulated in a bewildering Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “A Document con- variety of sequels, prequels, and abridged, “improved,” or cerning Chinese Farmers in Outer Mongolia in the Eigh- annotated texts, and the Mongolian translators frequently teenth Century,” Acta Orientalia 36 (1982): 47–55; Paul worked from now-obscure versions. The EIGHTH JIBZUN- Hyer, “The Chin-tan-tao Movement: A Chinese Revolt in DAMBA KHUTUGTU (1870–1924) was an eager reader, yet Mongolia (1891),” in Altaica: Proceedings of the 19th purely secular works were never printed until 1925, Annual Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistics when the KHARACHIN printer Temgetü (1887–1939) Conference, ed. Juha Janhunen (Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian printed Three Kingdoms in Beijing. Since then Mongolian Society, 1977), 105–112; G. Navaangnamjil, “A Brief translations of the most critically respected traditional Biography of the Determined Hero Togtokh,” in Mongo- Chinese novels have been regularly in print in Inner lian Heroes of the Twentieth Century, trans. Urgunge Onon Mongolia. (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 43–76; Henry Serruys, Chinese novels also circulated in performing tradi- “Two Complaints from Wang Banner, Ordos, regarding tions. Beijing opera troupes were some of the most popu- Banner Administration and Chinese Colonization lar entertainers and drew their material largely from (1905),” Monumenta Serica 34 (1979–80): 471–511. historical fiction. The Journey to the West was performed as drama in several monasteries in Khalkha. Mongolian Chinese fiction Chinese novels and short stories in minstrels (khuurchi) in eastern Inner Mongolia, eastern written translations and retold by minstrels formed a Khalkha, and Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR) performed popular and important part of Mongolian literature, as episodes of Chinese novels, particularly of the adventure they did for other countries of east and southeast Asia. and historical genres. Delivered in mixed prose and Until the 19th century the Journey to the West (Xi you ji, rhyme, these “booklet stories” (bengsen üliger) mixed first Chinese edition 1592), a magical Buddhist-Taoist motifs from Mongolian EPICS and songs and Indian tales version of the Tang monk Xuanzang’s journey to India, with a pseudohistorical Chinese background. Musical was the most widely circulated Chinese novel among the accompaniment and mime enlivened the narrative. Mongols. Translated and annotated in 1721 by Arana (d. The influence of Chinese authors on Inner Mongo- 1724), a high Mongol official in the EIGHT BANNERS sys- lian writers such as Injannashi has long been known, but tem, it was printed in CHAKHAR in 1791 and circulated as Chinese fiction also had an important impact on fiction far as Buriatia and Xinjiang. It was read as a Buddhist and drama writers of early 20th-century Mongolia proper. text, although both the original text and Arana’s com- Mongolia’s first revolutionary prime minister, BODÔ mentary were far from orthodox. Similarly, an obscure (1885–1922), penned a romance based on the Chinese Chinese versified novel about the ancient Chinese queen story of lost love “The Pearl-Sewn Shirt,” and the Zhong Wuyuan was widely copied and read as an incar- founders of modern Mongolian literature, especially nation tale of the powerful Buddhist protectress-deity BUYANNEMEKHÜ (1902–37), appreciated Chinese litera- Lhamo. The Three Kingdoms (Sanguo yanyi, printed ture in both written and performed forms. 1522) circulated in Mongolia in an imperially sponsored See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; LITERATURE; THEO- Manchu print edition but was first translated into Mon- CRATIC PERIOD. golian in the first half of the 19th century. Again, its sur- Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “The Mar- face message of loyalty and heroism guaranteed it a wide vellous Lama in Mongolia: The Phenomenology of a Cul- circulation, although a deeper reading sometimes led to tural Borrowing,” Acta Orientalia 46 (1992–93): 3–30; profound cynicism. ———. “‘Worshiping Grace’: The Language of Loyalty in 96 Chinese trade and moneylending Qing Mongolia,” Late Imperial China 21 (2000): 86–139; C. R. Bawden, “The First Systematic Translation of Hung Lou Meng: Qasbuu’s Commented Mongolian Version,” Zentralasiatische Studien 15 (1981): 241–305; Claudine Salmon, Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th–20th Centuries) (Beijing: International Culture Publishing Corp., 1987). Chinese trade and moneylending Before the sub- mission of the Mongols to the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912), trade with China was carried on through the TRIBUTE SYSTEM and regulated horse markets at the frontier towns. This trade was seen as a political conces- sion to the Mongols and, to avoid Mongolian raids, was generally conducted on favorable terms. From early in the Qing dynasty Inner Mongolian dukes and princes began attending audiences in Beijing every three years, and shops in Beijing began to cater to the Mongolian trade. Shop agents also began to accom- pany the princes back to their territories. With the sur- render of Khalkha in 1691 and the Zünghar wars, Chinese merchants served the Qing armies in Mongolia as supply agents. They also began to trade with Russian merchants at Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR) and KYAKHTA CITY, a trade regularized in the Russia-Qing treaty of 1727. Chinese merchants in Mongolia were at first tightly regulated. In 1722 the Qing authorities decreed that every Chinese merchant going to Mongol lands had to obtain a permit from Guihua (modern HÖHHOT), Zhangji- Storefront of a Chinese firm in Khüriye (modern Ulaanbaatar). akou (Kalgan), or Dolonnuur (modern Duolun) specify- Note the sign board in Chinese, Tibetan (top), Mongolian ing the merchant’s name, destination, type of goods, and (left), and Manchu (right). (From Tsedendambyn Batbayar. expected length of the journey. A quota of permits was Modern Mongolia: A Concise History [1996]) set by the LIFAN YUAN, the agency in charge of the Mon- gols. Permits were issued for only one year, and traders could reside only in a certain number of trading towns. 68,000 taels of the war debt paid out of the imperial trea- Around 1720 zarguchis (judges; see JARGHUCHI) were sta- sury, while the merchants were pressured to forgo the tioned in Khüriye and later in Kyakhta (modern Altanbu- remaining 85,700. From 1776 to 1781 Qianlong pushed lag), ULIASTAI, and KHOWD CITY. Expanding trade and the the local authorities to liquidate all official and much of limitations of the permit system made Guihua, Zhangji- the Mongols’ private debts and strictly enforce the restric- akou, and Dolonnuur major commercial centers. The tions on Chinese merchants. In 1797, however, the new number of firms trading in Mongolia located in Zhangji- emperor, Jiaqing (1796–1820), removed the restrictions akou rose from about 10 in 1662 to more than 230 in on trading in the countryside. The new ability to trade in 1820. Shanxi firms dominated the Mongolian trade, but the countryside became a tremendous advantage to Chi- those from Beijing, Huangxian in Shandong, and Leting nese merchants. In the trading towns competition was in Hebei were also active. Chinese firms separated stiff, and Mongols could drive good bargains, but in the financiers, who generally remained in China, from the countryside there was usually no competition. managers, who were shareholders and received both a The Chinese merchants purchased livestock, wool, salary and bonuses in the form of additional shares. Shop hides, furs, and deer antlers in Mongolia. The largest item assistants were paid at first in room and board and only sold was TEA, followed by cotton drill. Other items later by salary. A few able assistants rose to become share- included tobacco, flour, grain, liquor, wine, opium, pipes, holding managers. scissors, needles, thread, guns, bullets, traps, Buddhas, By the Qing’s final campaign against the ZÜNGHARS in ritual implements, glass, beads, and luxuries. Chinese 1753–57, official Khalkha debts had risen to 155,739 artisans in Guihua and elsewhere were soon making taels of silver. CHINGGÜNJAB’S REBELLION led to widespread boots, jewelry, steels and flints, bowls, and other goods in looting of Chinese shops. Qianlong (1736–96) ordered the Mongolian style, devastating local Mongolian manu- Chinggis Khan 97 factures except among the DÖRBÖD and other far western sian Revolution (1917–21) spilled over into Mongolia Mongols. Trade was conducted at first in barter, with and northeast Inner Mongolia, and when trade revived goods reckoned either in bricks of tea or sheep, but in the after 1923 Chinese firms were almost completely depen- second half of the 19th century a silver economy was dent on British and American capital. The 1928 leftist established. turn in Mongolia finally expelled Chinese firms, and the Chinese shops sold goods on credit and loaned silver. 1931–37 Japanese conquest reduced their role in Inner Qing regulations limited interest to 3 percent a month Mongolia to minor retail trade. uncompounded, or 36 percent a year, and prohibited See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; MONEY, interest from exceeding the principal, yet the great MODERN; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD; THEOCRATIC demand, both private and public, for capital broke PERIOD. through all regulations. Unscrupulous merchants in Mon- Further reading: M. Sanjdorj, Manchu Chinese Colo- golia, as in China itself, worked unwary borrowers into a nial Rule in Northern Mongolia, trans. Urgunge Onon state of inextricable debt, which finally gave the firm com- (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1980); Henry Serruys, “A plete ownership of the debtor’s herd. Chinese merchants Mongol Banner Pays Its Debt,” Monumenta Serica 36 also competed fiercely for the right to become official (1984–85): 511–544. “partners” (tüngshi, from Chinese tongshi), supplying interest-bearing loans for the cash-poor BANNERS Ch’ing See QING DYNASTY. (appanages) and LEAGUES. Even monasteries, which were the largest institutions in Mongolia, were often reduced to rolling over debts repeatedly. Private debts of banner Chingay See CHINQAI. princes were supposed to be paid by their private subjects (khamjilga) but were often imposed on the banner popu- Chinggisids See BORJIGID. lation at large. In Inner Mongolia indebted princes often sold their banner lands to the merchants, who would then Chinggis Khan (Genghis, Jenghiz, Chingiz) (1162?– organize colonization and settlement of the land by Chi- 1227) Founder of the Mongol Empire and national hero of nese tenants (see CHINESE COLONIZATION). In the mid-19th the Mongol people century 15 or so firms were capitalized at 100,000 taels or Like that of most great conquerors, the legacy of Chinggis more, and the great Dashengkui firm, tüngshi to banners Khan has been very controversial. In his day many non- all over Mongolia, was capitalized at 20,000,000 taels. Mongols called him an accursed bandit and killer des- From about 1865 Chinese trade and offtake of ani- tined for hell, while others described him as a man of mals greatly increased. In 1884 official debt of Khalkha’s tremendous gifts and charisma who had received his mis- three eastern AIMAGs and the GREAT SHABI (the Jibzun- sion of rule from God. The Mongols themselves tradition- damba Khutugtu’s estate) reached 1.8 million taels. In ally called him the “Holy Lord,” and his cult became a 1900–10 an estimated 800,000 sheep and 100,000 live cornerstone of Mongol civic and religious traditions. horses were driven from Outer Mongolia to China annu- ally, while in 1909 1.6 million boxes of tea went to Mon- CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH golia through Zhangjiakou. One growing factor was Chinggis was the son of YISÜGEI BA’ATUR and so a member China’s involvement in the world hide and wool trade. In of the Mongols’ ruling BORJIGID lineage. His birthplace of 1879 the export of camel wool from Tianjin reached Deli’ün Boldaq on the Onon River is placed sometimes in 10,000 piculs (1 picul = 133.33 lbs.), while in 1885 the Dadal Sum in Mongolia’s Khentii province and sometimes export of sheep wool reached more than 200,000 piculs, on the southern border of Aga Buriat Autonomous Area, (although roughly half of the sheep wool came from the in Russia. Yisügei himself was a grandson and nephew of Tibetan plateau). By World War I the United States had two of the first Mongol khans. When his first son by his become the final destination for most of the wool principal wife, Ö’ELÜN, was born, Yisügei was returning to exported from Mongolia, whether through Vladivostok or his camp from battle against the hostile Tatar tribe with a Tianjin. captive named Temüjin (blacksmith). Yisügei thus named In the first decade of the 20th century, as the Qing his son, the future Chinggis, Temüjin. The fact that he switched its policy to assimilation, looting of Chinese was born with a blood clot in his hand was later taken as shops and the burning of debt records became frequent. an augury of his violent rise to universal rule. When The 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence dev- Temüjin was only nine years old, his father was poisoned astated Chinese trade. Although the new theocratic gov- while at the camp of some TATARS. ernment tried to prevent violence against merchants, The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, the earliest mon- shops and records of debts were destroyed in 1912 in ument of Mongolian literature, presents the following Khowd and elsewhere. At the same time the Mongolian period as one of almost total isolation and deprivation for government encouraged direct ties with American, Yisügei’s two widows and their sons. The Persian historian British, and German merchants. The upheaval of the Rus- RASHID-UD-DIN and the SHENGWU QINZHENG LU (a Mongolian 98 Chinggis Khan chronicle preserved only in Chinese translation), however, dynasty gave Temüjin the Chinese title of Zhaotao, or imply that Yisügei’s brothers stood by their sister-in-law. “Pacification Commissioner,” and Toghril the title of ONG The sources do agree, however, that most of Yisügei’s sub- KHAN, or “Prince Khan.” ject tribesmen deserted him and that dominance over the By 1201 Temüjin had fought his way to dominance Mongols passed to the rival TAYICHI’UD clan. As a child among the Mongol clans. The Tayichi’ud and other Temüjin spent some time with Dei Sechen of the QONGGI- remaining opponents within the Mongols, with the sup- RAD and his daughter BÖRTE; before his death Yisügei and port of the Tatars, the NAIMAN, the Merkid, and other Dei Sechen had betrothed the children to each other. He tribes, elected Jamugha khan in an attempt finally to block also formed a blood brotherhood (ANDA) with JAMUGHA, Temüjin’s rise. Temüjin’s subsequent defeat of Jamugha and who later grew up to be his rival. his virtual annihilation of the Tayichi’ud made him the rec- As he entered adolescence Temüjin’s life became dan- ognized leader of the Mongol tribe, yet many disaffected gerous. Ö’elün’s older sons, Temüjin and Qasar, came into Mongols preferred to submit directly to Ong Khan rather conflict with Begter and Belgütei, the sons of Yisügei’s than acknowledge Temüjin’s rule. Together with Ong other wife. Eventually Temüjin and Qasar murdered Khan, Temüjin warred against the Tatars, the Naiman, and Begter but spared Belgütei. Temüjin faced repeated the Merkid. In 1202 Temüjin and his Mongols crushed the threats from the hostile clans and tribes, horse thieves, Tatars, whose adult population he massacred and whose and other dangers of the steppe. The rival Tayichi’ud clan children he distributed to his people as slaves. at one point imprisoned him, perhaps for his murder of Temüjin’s powerful position in the court of his ally Begter, but he escaped. Probably shortly after this episode Ong Khan eventually raised the fears of Ong Khan’s son Temüjin went to claim his betrothed bride, Börte, bring- that the Mongol planned to usurp rule over the Kereyid ing her to his camp. The MERKID tribe had long desired Khanate as well. Temüjin tried to cement their alliance by vengeance for Ö’elün, who had been stolen by Yisügei requesting Ong Khan’s daughter as a bride for his son from one of their tribesmen. Now, hearing that Temüjin Jochi and by giving his own daughter to one of Ong had a new wife, the Merkid raided his camp, kidnapping Khan’s sons. Ong Khan pretended to agree but instead Börte and Yisügei’s other wife, while Ö’elün and the planned a sudden attack on Temüjin and his troops. For- brothers fled. With the aid of Toghril Khan of the KEREYID tunately, Temüjin was warned by two herdsmen, Badai and his blood brother Jamugha, Temüjin and his brothers and Kishiliq, who heard the news from their lord and succeeded in rescuing Börte. Soon after, Börte gave birth warned him of the danger. Even so, the Kereyid and a to a son, whom Chinggis named JOCHI, or “guest.” The large part of the Mongol tribe under his command deci- name reflected Temüjin’s doubts about his son’s paternity, sively defeated Temüjin at the battle of QALAQALJID SANDS doubts that later caused family conflict. (spring 1203). Regrouping in the east, only 2,600 of Börte later gave birth to three other sons and five Temüjin’s once scores of thousands of men were left. At daughters. Chinggis had four other major wives, but of the muddy waters of Baljuna Lake he promised that these four most were childless, and only one son, Kölgen, should he regain his position, he would always honor by his second wife, Qulan, survived to adulthood. those faithful few who had shared the water with him and their descendants (see BALJUNA COVENANT). TEMÜJIN’S RISE TO POWER Before the year was out, however, Temüjin had gath- The counterattack against the Merkid, perhaps around ered new adherents among the Mongols, tricked Ong 1180, marked Temüjin’s entrance onto the larger Mongo- Khan and the Kereyid with a fake message of surrender lian stage. Toghril Khan, ruler of the Kereyid Khanate from his brother Qasar, and crushed the Kereyid forces at occupying central Mongolia, had been Yisügei’s blood the battle of Jeje’er Heights (autumn 1203). Ong Khan brother, and now he took Temüjin under his wing. Soon was killed in his flight, and the Kereyid as a whole sur- after, he and Jamugha had a falling out, after which rendered to Temüjin. Now the victories followed in rapid Temüjin’s uncles, together with a significant part of the succession. In 1204 he defeated the Naiman tribe inhabit- MONGOL TRIBE, declared Temüjin khan of the Mongols. ing the ALTAI RANGE at the battle of Keltegei Cliffs, and The details of Temüjin’s subsequent rise to chief of then he crushed the Merkid troops at Qaradal Huja’ur. the Mongol tribe are told in the Secret History of the Mon- Meanwhile, the ruler of the ÖNGGÜD, along the frontier gols, the Shengwu Qinzheng Lu, and in Rashid-ud-Din’s between Mongolia and China, had joined Temüjin and COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES. While often sharing episodes, received his daughter in marriage. With these victories they also diverge on many points, particularly chronol- Temüjin united the nomadic peoples of the Mongolian ogy, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to reconstruct a plateau for the first time in centuries. synoptic narrative of his political vicissitudes before 1201. The only incident that can be firmly dated is his THE 1206 QURILTAI AND CHINGGIS’S 1196 participation in an attack on the Tatar tribe, his NEW INSTITUTIONS hereditary enemies. This attack had been planned by the In 1206 Temüjin held a great assembly (quriltai) on the JIN DYNASTY in North China, and for his participation the ONON RIVER, where he was acclaimed as Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Khan 99 ruler of the “Great Mongol Empire.” The term Chinggis has often been interpreted as being meaning Tenggis, or “Ocean,” thus referring to Chinggis’s pretension of uni- versal rule, yet Igor de Rachewiltz’s identification of Chinggis with a Turkish word meaning “hard” or “severe” seems more probable. The name was pronounced “Chin- giz” in the Turkish and Persian languages, and a misread- ing of the Persian manuscripts by pioneering French scholars in the 18th century produced the European “Genghis” or “Jenghiz.” The 1206 assembly also founded the core institutions of the new MONGOL EMPIRE. Both the Naiman and the Kereyid had a more centralized monarchy than did the tribal Mongols, and Chinggis borrowed extensively from them. He moved his headquarters to Ong Khan’s Shira Ordo, or “Yellow Palace Tent,” and created a large impe- rial guard (KESHIG) divided into day guards and night guards on the model of the Kereyid guard. Chinggis ordered the Naiman’s chief Uighur scribe, TATAR-TONG’A, to instruct his sons and the adopted foundling SHIGI QUTUQU in the mystery of writing, thus inaugurating the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, which has remained in use up to the present. He also divided all the Mongols into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s, each with its own commander. Chinggis Khan personally appointed all the commanders of rank of chiliarch (commander of 1,000) and above. This DECIMAL ORGANIZATION, part of a long tradition in Chinggis Khan (1206–1227). Anonymous court painter Inner Asia, created a hierarchy of nested cells through (Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei) which he could easily mobilize forces of a desired size and transmit orders. Perhaps the most important measures for Chinggis members of the new ruling class. Chinggis’s relations were the rewards decreed for those who had been faithful with his brothers were not free of tension. Qasar, his full to him in his rise to power. Virtually all his uncles and brother, had often wavered in his support. Chinggis had cousins and most of the major clan heads had turned excluded his half-brother Belgütei from his intimate against him during his rise, so Chinggis found his sup- counsels for his indiscretions, and his youngest brother, porters among individual companions (NÖKÖR) often Temüge Odchigin, he considered too lazy for any serious hailing from clans of very low rank in the traditional posts. Even so, he assigned subjects and territory to all of Mongol order. Chinggis’s mother, Ö’elün, had raised them. To his sons he assigned subject peoples and advis- foundlings, discovered in the camps of defeated ers as well as chances to show themselves in battle. In Tayichi’ud, the Yürkin, and the Tatar, to be adoptive accordance with the Mongolian tradition of QUDA, or brothers for her son, and Chinggis Khan gave many of marriage alliance, the families of his sons’ wives and of them, such as Shigi Qutuqu, high position. The list of his sons-in-law (kürgen) also shared in his good fortune. these positions in the Secret History of the Mongols divides them into several categories, such as the “four steeds” CHINGGIS KHAN’S RELIGIOUS MANDATE and the “four dogs.” Chinggis expected both unwavering Before Chinggis Khan’s birth the Borjigid aristocracy loyalty and effective service from his “dogs” and “steeds,” among the Mongols had justified its rule through predes- and he received it from them virtually to a man. As a tination by “Eternal Heaven” (see TENGGERI) and legends result their clans, such as MUQALI’s JALAYIR, Boroghul’s of its divine origin from its ancestress ALAN GHO’A. Ching- Üüshin, and Chila’uns Suldus, among the “steeds,” and gis Khan himself came to see heavenly predestination in Qubilai’s Barulas, among the “dogs,” became powerful his extraordinary rise to power. A key role in this reli- aristocratic families for the next few centuries, holding gious aspect of his early rise was played by TEB TENGGERI, vast appanages and major political power in North China, a shaman and the son of “Father” Münglig, to whom Turkestan, Persia, and the Inner Asian steppe. Chinggis had granted his widowed mother, Ö’elün, in While hardly any of Chinggis’s uncles and cousins marriage. Teb Tenggeri’s visions and austerities earned even survived the brutal politics of his rise, his brothers, great influence among the Mongols, and he proclaimed sons, daughters, and sons-in-law all became powerful that Temüjin was heaven’s chosen lord of the world. It 100 Chinggis Khan was Teb Tenggeri who chose the title “Chinggis” for conflicts on the Mongolian plateau, and Chinggis Khan Temüjin. After Chinggis’s coronation the power of Teb conducted the campaign against the Jin with appalling Tenggeri and his brothers grew, and around 1210 they ruthlessness. Repeatedly defeated but refusing to submit, challenged Chinggis’s new dynasty, attacking his brothers. the Jin rulers fled south of the Huang (Yellow) River in Had Teb Tenggeri prevailed, rule over the new Mongolian 1214, abandoning their capital at Zhongdu (modern Bei- empire might well have turned into a nonhereditary, jing; see ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF). Chinggis Khan’s original charismatic succession of prophets, much like the early plan of making the Jin tributary turned into a policy of caliphate in Islamic history. Protests by Chinggis’s family, occupying and administering North China according to particularly his mother, Ö’elün, and his wife, Börte, how- Mongol norms. ever, convinced him to defend the dynastic nature of the While Muqali, Chinggis Khan’s viceroy in northern state, and he allowed his brother Temüge Odchigin to China, began a systematic destruction of remaining resis- fight back against Teb Tenggeri and kill him. tance in North China, Chinggis turned to the west. In After Teb Tenggeri’s death Chinggis Khan would per- 1204 remnants of the Naiman and Merkid had fled west sonally commune with “Eternal Heaven,” seeking his of the Altai into the QARA-KHITAI empire in Turkestan. approval before major campaigns, such as that against the The resulting turmoil and the disintegration of the Qara- Jin empire in China and against KHORAZM in the West. Khitai due to religious strife opened the way for the Mon- Chinggis Khan thus replaced Teb Tenggeri as the empire’s gols to occupy all of eastern Turkestan. In 1218–19, voice of heaven’s will. The Secret History of the Mongols Chinggis dispatched his general SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR and his detailed the repeated signs that heaven had destined him eldest son, Jochi, to pursue the refugees and conquer the for rule, from the blood clot he held in his hand at his Qara-Khitai, bringing the Mongols’ frontier up to the bor- birth to the oxen that butted Jamugha’s tent and bel- der of the new Muslim Turkish dynasty of Khorazm, then lowed, “Heaven and Earth have taken counsel: Let ruling Central Asia, Iran, and Afghanistan. Tension Temüjin be Lord of the Nation.” Contemporary stories between these two powerful states erupted into war when from people in contact with the Mongols emphasized that Sultan Muhammad executed Mongol merchants and Chinggis Khan was not just a conqueror but a Moseslike envoys in 1218–19. The result was another campaign of lawgiver and prophet for the new nation. vengeance on the part of Chinggis Khan, one that In future years, after conquering the sedentary pow- brought Central Asia, eastern Iran, and Afghanistan ers, Chinggis Khan would fashion a distinctive religious under Mongol rule. In eastern Iran and Afghanistan, in policy that saw all religions as praying to one god, or particular, the Mongols faced dogged resistance and heaven. Heaven’s will was made known primarily by suc- responded with repeated horrific massacres. cess in this life, and Chinggis expected religious figures It was in these years that a rift arose between Ching- to recognize that his extraordinary career was the direct gis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi, and his two younger broth- result of heaven’s favor and not a chance event. Despite ers, CHA’ADAI and Ögedei. Bitter at being passed over for his conflict with Teb Tenggeri, Chinggis Khan sought out Ögedei as Chinggis’s designated heir, Jochi nomadized holy men of various religions, and those who impressed with his camp and subjects to the western steppe of Kaza- him by their irreproachable conduct and wisdom would khstan and refused to see his father again until his receive tax privileges and immunities for them and their untimely death around 1225. followers. After meeting in 1222–23 with a Chinese Returning to Mongolia, Chinggis planned for his Taoist priest, Master CHANGCHUN, who urged him to final campaign against the Xia, who had refused to supply show respect for life, Chinggis Khan tried to give up troops for his western campaign. Chinggis took this hunting, encourage filial piety, and show more humanity refusal as a personal insult, and the campaign against the on his campaigns, but such resolves had no lasting effect. Xia was marked by general massacres as well as incidents of unpredictable clemency. At some point in the cam- THE FOREIGN CONQUESTS paign he fell ill, perhaps after a fall from a horse. By sum- After his coronation in 1206 Chinggis Khan strengthened mer 1227, with the Xia campaign effectively over and his new Mongol state and prepared for a final confronta- warned by astrological signs of his impending death, tion with the Jin dynasty by concluding marriage Chinggis attempted to delay the inevitable with a procla- alliances with the Siberian tribes to the north, with the mation against killing and looting. On August 25, after UIGHURS and QARLUQS, both Turkish-speaking peoples in giving his generals a final plan for the destruction of the the oases of Turkestan, and with the Tanguts’ XIA DYNASTY Jin, he died, probably at age 66. His body was buried at a in northwest China (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL site he had chosen before his death, called Kilengu, some- EMPIRE). These alliances having been secured by diplo- where in the KHENTII RANGE. Xu Ting in 1235–36 macy or force, Chinggis Khan led the Mongols into a full- described the site as surrounded by the KHERLEN RIVER scale invasion of the Jin dynasty in 1211. Before Chinggis and the mountains. His palace tents, perhaps located at the Mongols had suffered heavily from the Jin dynasty’s AWARGA, became the site for his cult that began in his son punitive expeditions and its policy of encouraging tribal ÖGEDEI KHAN’s reign. (See EIGHT WHITE YURTS.) Chinggis Khan controversy 101 CHINGGIS’S PERSONALITY AND LEGACY TO THE In the early 20th century the Mongols’ traditionally MONGOL EMPIRE religious image of CHINGGIS KHAN as a sacred ancestor Despite the obscurity of the sources on the chronology of and culture founder was replaced by one of Chinggis as a his early rise, Chinggis Khan’s personality emerges clearly military conqueror and world historical hero straddling in the historical record. The death of his father and the Europe and Asia. This new vision also drew the attention consequent turmoil left a deep impression on him, rein- of foreign powers to the possibility of using the image of forced by his mother, Ö’elün’s, repeated exhortation to Chinggis Khan to garner Mongolian support. During remember the wrong done to him by the rival Tayichi’ud their occupation of Inner Mongolia from 1931 to 1945, clan. In reaction, Chinggis grew up with an ideal of a uni- Japanese officials supported Inner Mongolian efforts to fied and harmonious society, with clear lines of authority honor Chinggis Khan, such as the construction of an and obedience, that he would eventually realize in his 822-square-meter temple to Chinggis Khan at Wang-un imperial institutions. Family loyalty was his touchstone Süme (Ulanhot). Meanwhile, China’s Nationalist govern- of worth, and disorder was anathema. ment removed the traditional cult objects of Chinggis Intensely loyal to his companions, Chinggis also took Khan in ORDOS to Gansu to prevent them from falling deep pleasure in the thorough destruction of his enemies, into the hands of the Japanese. Even the Chinese Com- thus realizing the ideals of the Mongol tribal moral code, munist leader, Mao Zedong, in a 1935 manifesto which emphasized the idea of achi qari’ulqu, or returning addressed to the INNER MONGOLIANS, exhorted them to good for good and evil for evil. Ironically for such a follow the spirit of Chinggis Khan in resisting Japan. famous conqueror, we know little of Chinggis’s tactical In Mongolia proper (Outer Mongolia) Chinggis Khan’s battle skills; indeed, the major sources, taken at face stature grew after the 1921 Revolution with the seculariza- value, suggest that his skill was not so much as a battle tion and Europeanization of Mongolian historical con- commander but as a ruler who discovered and used tal- sciousness (he was, of course, the only Mongol most ent. Part of this skill was his openness to criticism and Europeans knew). AMUR’s 1934 history of the MONGOL correction from those within his trusted circle. In the EMPIRE and TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN’s 1947 modern Mongo- court of Chinggis Khan one finds relatively little of the lian version of the long-lost SECRET HISTORY OF THE MON- constant intrigues endemic to despotic government. Per- GOLS accelerated the secularization of the image of haps due to his upbringing, Chinggis also had no diffi- Chinggis Khan. In 1940 Joseph Stalin casually agreed culty in receiving advice from the strong women around when Mongolia’s ruler, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG (r. 1936–52) him, particularly his mother, Ö’elün, and his first princi- asked about including the standard of Chinggis on Mongo- pal wife, Börte. When Börte was raped and gave birth to lia’s new seal, but the Mongols thought better of it. Jochi, he never rejected her or her son, a magnanimity With the conclusion of WORLD WAR II and the apogee unusual in his age. of Great Russian nationalism, Soviet Communist authori- All these personal characteristics would find clear ties began attacking the heroic figures, real or legendary, reflection in the empire Chinggis built. The Mongols of non-Russian peoples, such as the Mongolian epic hero impressed all who encountered them with their loyalty and GESER. In line with this trend, in 1949 the MONGOLIAN forbearance with one another and their implacable hatred PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY’s Politburo attacked toward those who defied them. Deeply aristocratic in its Chinggis Khan and his “campaigns of plunder,” demand- ethos, the MONGOL EMPIRE depended on the esprit de corps ing that their feudal and reactionary side be emphasized. shown by the Mongols as a whole and more narrowly by While attacks on epic heroes ceased after Stalin’s death, the descendants of Chinggis Khan and his companions. this anti-Chinggis line strongly influenced the first edi- See also CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY; EIGHT WHITE tion of the History of the Mongolian People’s Republic YURTS; HISTORY OF THE WORLD CONQUEROR. (1954), produced by a team of Soviet and Mongolian scholars. 6 Further reading: Igor de Rachewiltz, “The Title Cinggis qan/qaghan Re-examined,” in Gedanke und Meanwhile, in China the Communist government Wirkung, ed. Walther Heissig and Klaus Sagaster (Wies- continued the 1930s strategy of winning Mongolian sup- baden: Otto Harrossowitz, 1989), 281–298; Paul Ratch- port by honoring Chinggis Khan. On April 23, 1954, the nevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy, trans. Thomas chairman of the INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION, Nivison Haining (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991); B. Ya. ULANFU, presided over sacrifices to celebrate the return of Vladimirtsov, The Life of Chingis-Khan, trans. Prince D. S. Chinggis Khan’s cult objects to Ejen-Khoroo, and in 1956 Mirsky (London: Routledge and Sons, 1930). the relics were housed in a 1,500-square-meter mau- soleum built with state funds. Even the Japanese-spon- sored Temple of Chinggis Khan in Ulaankhota (Ulanhot) Chinggis Khan controversy From 1949 the assess- was restored and honored. ment of Chinggis Khan’s historical role became a sensi- With the 800th anniversary of Chinggis Khan’s birth tive issue between Mongolia and the Soviet Union and approaching in 1962, members of Mongolia’s party lead- between the Soviet Union and Maoist China. ership proposed to rethink the 1949 resolutions and 102 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion allow historians in the Mongolian ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Chinggünjab’s Rebellion (Chingünjav) This ill- to discuss the issue. Although the top leader, YUMJAAGIIN coordinated and unsuccessful rebellion of 1756–57 TSEDENBAL, expressed reservations, commemorative marked the depth of Khalkha Mongol frustration with stamps were issued, and a front-page editorial in the QING DYNASTY (1636–12) controls and weariness with the party daily, Ünen (Truth), on May 31, 1962, offered a Zünghar wars. After many years of war between the Qing mostly favorable appraisal, as did an academic confer- Dynasty and the OIRATS mostly fought on Khalkha soil, ence. An 11 meter (36 foot) high stone monument with a 1753–55 were particularly difficult years. In 1753, when carved portrait of Chinggis Khan was erected near the the DÖRBÖD tribe of the Oirats surrendered, livestock and khan’s presumed birthplace of Gurwan Nuur in Dadal pasture were purchased from the Khalkha Mongols at Sum, Khentii province. Informed of the conference, state-dictated prices to aid them, and in 1754–55 a diffi- Soviet historians had been strongly critical, while Chi- cult winter caused great hardship. Meanwhile, by 1755 nese scholars were either critical or praised Chinggis as a the Oirat chief AMURSANAA (1722?–57), serving with an unifying figure in Chinese history. When in spring 1962 army of Khalkhas, Inner Mongols, Oirats, and Chinese in the Inner Mongolians held their own celebrations, this the pacification of the Züngharia, became dissatisfied focus, with an implicit reference to bringing Mongolia with his rewards and plotted rebellion against the Qing back within China, was the theme. The Soviet embassy with Sebdenbaljur of the Inner Mongolian KHORCHIN, soon attacked the Mongolian academics, claiming they Tsebdenjab, high-ranking prince of Khalkha’s Sain Noyan had belittled Russia’s contribution to Mongolian indepen- AIMAG, and Chinggünjab (1710–57). Tsebdenjab revealed dence and had criticized Soviet historians by name. On the disaffection to the expedition’s overall commander, September 10, 1962, at a special Politburo meeting, Bandi, who separated the conspirators, sending Ching- Tsedenbal saddled the regime’s chief theoretician, günjab to pacify the “Uriyangkhai” (Altayan Turks) on DARAMYN TÖMÖR-OCHIR, with responsibility for the deba- the Katun’ (Upper Ob’) River and recalling Amursanaa to cle, and he was dismissed. Beijing. Amursanaa’s escorting officer, a high-ranking After Sino-Soviet relations deteriorated into violent Khalkha prince, Erinchindorji, allowed him to escape polemics in 1963–64, Soviet spokesmen denounced some with 300 Oirat soldiers, and Amursanaa launched his favorable articles on Chinggis Khan published in China rebellion that autumn. In spring 1756 the emperor Qian- from 1961 to 1964. In this way Chinggis Khan became a long (1736–96) executed Erinchindorji, despite his being minor issue in the SINO-SOVIET SPLIT. In fact, the Chinese a son of a Manchu princess and half-brother of the Mon- Communists had little interest in Chinggis Khan. During golia’s supreme lama, the SECOND JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976 many Inner Discontent over this execution became rife. Mongolians were persecuted for supposedly venerating Unaware of these events, Chinggünjab was unable to Chinggis Khan above Chairman Mao, and both the Ejen join Amursanaa’s rebellion. As the senior prince of the Khoroo mausoleum and the Ulaankhota temple were gut- KHOTOGHOID Khalkha, Chinggünjab was originally high ted; restoration was completed at the sites only in 1984 in rank among the Zasagtu Khan princes. Repeated and 1987, respectively. In 1975, however, the Mongolian breaches of discipline had lost him his position until it ruler Tsedenbal again accused the Chinese of “making a was restored in 1754. In summer 1756 he was ordered fetish” of Chinggis Khan to justify their expansionist with 800 men to pursue Amursanaa. Instead, he wrote a aims, thus strangely linking contempt for Chinggis Khan letter denouncing the emperor’s cruelty and burdensome with defense of Mongolian independence. In the late requisitions before moving into the Khöwsgöl area on the 1980s ideological pressure against the Mongolians’ vener- Shishigt River and sending letters claiming the Jibzun- ation of Chinggis Khan was removed. In 1992 Lenin damba Khutugtu supported his opposition. The effect of Avenue in ULAANBAATAR was renamed Chinggis Khan Chinggünjab’s missives were immediate. By September 14 Avenue. the border guards and postroads had virtually all been See also CHINA AND MONGOLIA; EIGHT WHITE YURTS; abandoned. Bands sometimes numbering in the hundreds JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; SOVIET UNION AND looted Chinese shops, occupied Mongolian KYAKHTA MONGOLIA. (modern Altanbulag), and rioted in Khüriye (see ULAAN- Further reading: J. Boldbaatar, “The Eight-Hun- BAATAR), yet Chinggünjab failed either to arrest the main dredth Anniversary of Chinggis Khan: The Revival and loyalist princes or to recruit an army. Suppression of Mongolian National Consciousness,” in Initial enthusiasm did not translate into organization Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cos- or staying power. Prompted by the Qing court, the sec- mopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman ond Jibzundamba Khutugtu disavowed the rebellion in (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 237–246; Paul letters and assemblies. The Qing brought up Inner Mon- Hyer, “The Chinggis Khan Shrine in Eastern Inner Mon- golians to man the postroads and border guards before golia,” in The Chinggis Khan Symposium in Memory of calling up soldiers from the Khalkha aimags. In Setsen Gombojab Hangin (Ulaanbaatar: Mongol Sudlal Hevlel, Khan famine blocked the call-up, and in Tüshiyetü Khan 2001), 113–138. the khan Yampildorji was either unable or unwilling to Choibalsang, Marshal 103 6 implement the order. The Zasagtu Khan and Sain Noyan Further reading: P. D. Buell, “Cinqai,” in In the Service aimags, however, eventually called up their troops, and of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan most of the Khalkha jasags (ruling nobility) reported for Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. (Wies- duty. Tsenggünjab (d. 1771), brother of the repentant baden: Otto Harrossowitz, 1993), 95–111. conspirator Tsebdenjab, set out in November to capture the rebel leader. Chinggünjab retreated toward the Rus- Ch’iu Ch’u-chi See CHANGCHUN, MASTER. sian frontier while desperately trying to contact either Amursanaa or the Jibzundamba Khutugtu as his support- ers fell away. Chinggünjab was captured in mid-January Choibalsang, Marshal (Khorloogiin Choibalsan, 1757 and executed on March 11 in Beijing. In the suc- Choybalsan) (1895–1952) One of the “first seven” revolu- ceeding repressions probably hundreds of rebels and riot- tionaries of 1921 chosen by Stalin as Mongolia’s supreme ers were executed and their families enslaved to loyalist dictator in 1936 nobles. A succeeding smallpox epidemic of winter Choibalsang remains one of the most controversial fig- 1757–58 added to the Khalkhas’ suffering. ures in Mongolian history. Set up as ruler of Mongolia by Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “The Mongol Rebel- Stalin’s decree, he later showed unexpected nationalist lion of 1756–1757,” Journal of Asian History 2 (1968): tendencies. While Mongolia began to achieve its often- 1–31; ———, “Some Documents concerning the Rebel- thwarted goal of internationally recognized independence lion of 1756 in Outer Mongolia,” Bulletin of the Institute of under his rule, Choibalsang came to power through the China Border Area Studies 1 (1970): 1–23. murder of tens of thousands of his fellow citizens and the virtual annihilation of Mongolian Buddhism. Chingünjav See CHINGGÜNJAB’S REBELLION. CHILDHOOD Choibalsang was the youngest of four children of the Chinkai See CHINQAI. woman Korlô (Khorloo, d. 1915), a shabi (lay disciple, or subject) of an INCARNATE LAMA living in the territory of Chinqai (Chinkai, Chingay, Zhenhai) (1169–1252) Achitu Zasag banner, near Sang Beise-yin Khüriye Early adherent of Chinggis Khan and chief scribe under Monastery (modern Choibalsang city, EASTERN Ögedei Khan and Güyüg Khan PROVINCE). Korlô was a poor, devout, and hard-working Ethnically a Turk of Uighur origin, Chinqai had a Chi- woman whose foul temper always broke up her relations nese name (True Ocean, pronounced today Zhenhai), with men. Her liaison with Choibalsang’s father, a Daur and his religion was Christian. A wealthy caravaneer, he from Inner Mongolia named Jamsu, ended before his was familiar with both the Mongolian plateau and with birth, and Korlô had the boy, originally named Dugar, North China. He joined CHINGGIS KHAN early, participat- raised first by an old woman in the neighborhood and ing in his campaign against the TATARS (1202) and in the then by her eldest daughter. Choibalsang claimed not to BALJUNA COVENANT of 1203. He won merit in subsequent know who his father was, but Korlô’s liaison with the campaigns against the XIA DYNASTY and the JIN DYNASTY Daur was well known locally. It is possible this fact influ- in North China. Chinggis Khan ordered him to settle enced his attitude toward Inner Mongolia, which com- 10,000 Chinese prisoners of war on a state farm in Mon- bined pan-Mongolism with contempt for Inner Mongolian golia named Chinqai City. Under ÖGEDEI KHAN (r. expatriates. 1229–41) Chinqai served as one of the three chief At age 12 he began living at a temple, where he was scribes along with YELÜ CHUCAI in North China and given the monastic name Choibalsang. At age 16 he ran Mahmud Yalavach in Turkestan (see MAHMUD YALAVACH away with another novice to the capital Khüriye (mod- AND MAS‘UD BEG). Closest to the khan, Chinqai counter- ern ULAANBAATAR). Although the authorities picked up signed all documents issued by the other two. After his trail to Khüriye, a Buriat teacher, Nikolai T. Danchi- Ögedei’s death his widow, TÖREGENE, pursued her nov (1886–1916), arranged his enrollment in the Rus- grudges against the regular officials, and Chinqai fled to sian-Mongolian Translators’ School, which prevented the court of her son, Prince KÖTEN, in Northwest China. his deportation back to the monastery. After a year of When Töregene’s son GÜYÜG became khan (1246–48), he studying, he was enrolled in a gymnasium in Irkutsk restored Chinqai and made him more powerful than until 1917. Choibalsang learned serviceable conversa- ever. After Güyüg’s death Chinqai supported Güyüg’s tional Russian but did not read or write it well and widow OGHUL-QAIMISH as regent and opposed the elec- never became familiar with Russian or European high tion of Möngke as khan. When MÖNGKE KHAN proved culture. victorious, Chinqai was executed in November–Decem- ber 1252. Recent archaeological surveys have tentatively IN THE 1921 REVOLUTION identified ruins in Sharga Sum (Gobi-Altai province) as From 1917 Choibalsang worked as a translator at the the medieval Chinqai City. Khüriye telegraph office and lived in the house of BODÔ, 104 Choibalsang, Marshal his former teacher at the Translators’ School. With the Russian. During the LEFTIST PERIOD (1929–32) Choibal- Chinese REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY in 1919–20, Choibal- sang was “kicked upstairs” to become chairman of the sang was drawn into Bodô’s anti-Chinese group, inter- Little Khural (i.e., titular head of state). Despite his work preting for him at occasional meetings with local Russian as chairman of the commission on confiscating the prop- radicals. In late June 1920, after Bodô’s group merged erty of feudals, he never became part of the leftists’ inner with another to form the Outer Mongolian People’s Party, circle. In 1930 he was made foreign minister and then Choibalsang accompanied a party leader, DANZIN, to demoted to head of Mongolia’s museum before becoming Soviet Russia to ask for aid to overthrow the Chinese. minister of agriculture. Eventually seven members (the famous “first seven”), including Choibalsang’s mentor, Bodô, gathered in THE PURGES Irkutsk. From August Choibalsang stayed in Irkutsk with In 1933 Choibalsang’s name came up in the LHÜMBE CASE, the seven’s only military man, SÜKHEBAATUR, and in just as it had in the Bodô case, yet Choibalsang avoided November he accompanied Sükhebaatur back to Troit- implication this time through high-level Soviet interven- skosavsk (in modern KYAKHTA) to recruit soldiers along tion. In December 1934 he was at Stalin’s advice pro- the border. Although Sükhebaatur and Bodô did not get moted to deputy prime minister under Gendün. The next along, Sükhebaatur became Choibalsang’s second mentor. year Stalin personally presented 20 GAZ automobiles to In the ensuing military operations Choibalsang executed Choibalsang as a sign of his favor. several important assignments well and on May 20, 1921, In 1935 Borotologai requested a divorce, fearing that became deputy to the newly appointed General Sükhe- a plain Buddhist wife such as she would impede his rise. baatur. He was assigned to fight the White Russians in Choibalsang married a modern woman, B. Gündegmaa. western Mongolia. Choibalsang had no children by either of his wives. In 1937 he adopted a boy, named Nergüi, of one of his Inte- OFFICIAL IN THE NEW REGIME rior Ministry subordinates. Rumors claim that Nergüi was Once the People’s Party was established in Khüriye as the in fact Choibalsang’s illegitimate son. Later Gündegmaa new government, Choibalsang continued as Sükhe- adopted a girl, Suwd. baatur’s deputy. During Sükhebaatur and Danzin’s In February 1936, again on Soviet direction, Choibal- absence in Russia (September 29 to December 22, 1921), sang became head of the Interior Ministry, the new security however, Choibalsang came under the prime minister organ, and received the title of marshal. From that time on Bodô’s influence again, supporting several of his contro- the Interior Ministry began the final liquidation of the versial leftist moves. Remaining loyal to his first mentor, monasteries. In August 1937, with the mysterious death of Choibalsang lost his full party membership and deputy the commander in chief, MARSHAL DEMID, whose fame commandership as a result of Bodô’s resignation and Choibalsang always resented, and the arrival of the Soviet eventual execution. Nevertheless, protected by his second security chief M. P. Frinovskii, the preparations for the mentor, Sükhebaatur, Choibalsang avoided execution and complete purge of the party leadership were complete. by the end of 1922 was again holding responsible military From September 1937 to the end of 1939, Choibal- positions. After Sükhebaatur’s premature death, Choibal- sang effected an almost complete annihilation of the sang went for military training in Moscow in August existing Mongolian elite. By official records, certainly 1923. On his return in summer 1924, he supported the incomplete, Choibalsang through his special purge com- execution of Danzin, Sükhebaatur’s successor as com- mission personally approved the execution of 20,099 mander in chief, at the People’s Party’s Third Congress. “counterrevolutionaries” and the imprisonment of 5,739 As a reward, Choibalsang became party presidium mem- more. His own notes speak of 56,938 arrests and 20,356 ber and the next commander in chief. lamas liquidated (how much overlap there is between In 1921 Choibalsang married Borotologai, a devout these and the commission victims is unclear). Through- Buddhist and seamstress in the household of the Bogda out the purge process Choibalsang followed the lead of (Holy One, Mongolia’s theocratic ruler until 1924). In the his Soviet trainers. At times Choibalsang seemed to have 1920s Choibalsang, despite being an avid hunter and tar- been helpless to save his friends, and the second half of get shooter, was one of the few leaders openly to keep a 1938 he spent in Russia consulting with Stalin and recov- Buddhist altar in his house. Around 1929 Choibalsang’s ering from stress. Even so, Choibalsang certainly guided affair with the actress Diwa (Dewee) poisoned his home the purges, making sure that Borotologai and her Tibetan life to the point that he donated his yurt-courtyard to the lover survived, for example. In March 1939 a new team of party and lived in his office. One colleague saw him Soviet intelligence operatives arrived headed by Ivan A. weeping at the grave of Sükhebaatur about his loneliness. Ivanov (1906–48), the new “political representative” Still, Choibalsang and Borotologai did not divorce. (ambassador), who became Choibalsang’s ever-present Russian observers and agents at the time analyzed shadow. Choibalsang as a “rightist” (i.e., supporter of the party The arrest of the last two remaining members of the chief DAMBADORJI), but weak, unstable, and more pro- “first seven” in 1939 and the extermination of the old Choinom, Rentsenii 105 elite cleared the way for a new mythological history in In winter 1951 Choibalsang went to Moscow for which Sükhebaatur and Choibalsang created the People’s medical treatment, where he died of kidney cancer on Party and led the revolution. In 1941 the town of Bayan- January 28, 1952. A national day of mourning was tümen (former Sang Beise-yin Khüriye) and EASTERN decreed for January 29, the first day of the WHITE MONTH PROVINCE were both renamed Choibalsang. Mongolia’s (lunar new year), beginning the new leadership’s cam- first major factory, the Industrial Combine in Ulaan- paign against that traditional holiday. baatar, was also renamed after him. LEGACY THE MARSHAL The Choibalsang cult remained intact until Soviet ruler After 1940 Choibalsang was the unquestioned lord of the Nikita Khrushchev’s 1956 speech on de-Stalinization. new government. In winter 1939–40 he promoted 3,000 Criticism of the Choibalsang cult was carried further in new cadres to high positions, creating virtually a whole 1963, when Choibalsang province and the Industrial new ruling elite overnight. Holding until his death, or Combine were renamed. Despite these criticisms, the nearly so, the rank of marshal and positions of premier, fundamental distortions of 1921 revolutionary history foreign minister, army minister, and commander in chief, lasted until democratization in 1990. Even so, while his in 1940 he gave up the position of interior minister to his victims have now been exonerated, Choibalsang still has protegé, B. Shagdarjaw, and made the newly minted many defenders in Mongolia, who honor him for his economist YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL (1916–91) the party’s nationalism and blame the purges and the destruction of general secretary. Only G. Bumtsend, a kindly old parti- the monasteries on either Soviet pressure and/or the san from 1921 and a political nonentity who had been needs of the time. Choibalsang city is still named after chosen as titular head of state, and Sükhebaatur’s widow, him, and his statue remains in front of Mongolia’s S. Yanjmaa, now a party Politburo member, dared treat National University. “the marshal” familiarly. While usually friendly and down See also BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST; GREAT PURGE; to earth, the marshal’s occasional outbursts of rage terri- MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS OF; 1921 fied his entourage. REVOLUTION; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. After the final cases in 1940 to clean up witnesses, terror was no longer a mass phenomenon. Torture was Choijung Lama Temple (Choijin) This temple still standard procedure in political cases, however, and housed the official oracle of the Eighth Bogda (Holy was formally approved in a secret Politburo decision in One), or Jibzundamba Khutugtu (1870–1924). In 1943. Incidents such as the 1948 “Port Arthur Case,” a 1883–84 the Eighth Bogda’s tutor, Yonzin Khambo (Yon- supposed plot to kill Choibalsang that led to 80 arrests zon Khamba), diagnosed the fainting spells of the Bogda’s and 42 executions among Mongolia’s Chinese residents, younger brother, Lubsangkhaidub (1872–1918), as being seemed minor only in relation to the wholesale slaughters possession by Choijung-Setab (Tibetan, Chos-skyungs of 1937–40. bSe-khrab), an oracle deity. In 1884 the deity was for- Choibalsang always felt his lack of education and mally invited from Tibet, and Lubsangkhaidub was after 1940 arranged regular private tutoring from Soviet eventually able to channel three forms: Naichung advisers and Soviet-educated Mongolians on topics of (gNas-’chung), Dizimur (rTse-ma-ra), and Dorji-Shug- history and economics. From 1934 his key policy deci- dan (rDo-rje Shugs-ldan). The temple was built in sions were always approved in his regular meetings with 1899–1901 by local Chinese contractors, while the main Stalin in Moscow. Even on minor matters Choibalsang images were made by Mongolian sculptors. It received never felt comfortable about any decision until he knew imperial recognition in 1906. The “Speaker Lama,” Lub- that Soviet advisers had approved it. His reliance on sangpeljai, who interpreted Lubsangkhaidub’s sounds, Soviet advice led to the 1941–46 switch from the tradi- managed the temple. From 1916 a distinctive TSAM tional UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT to CYRILLIC-SCRIPT dance was performed there. In 1938 the temple was MONGOLIAN. closed down, and in 1941 it became a museum. Despite this dependence, however, Choibalsang did See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH; THEO- not loose all national feeling. In 1945, with Mongolian CRATIC PERIOD. participation in WORLD WAR II, Choibalsang let loose a brief wave of pan-Mongolist nationalism through the press, calling for unification of Inner Mongolia with the Choinom, Rentsenii (1936–1979) A poet jailed for MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. The Sino-Soviet treaty of lamenting the humiliation of the Mongol heritage in the August 1945 blocked this unification and temporarily smug conformity of the socialist regime embittered his relations with Stalin. In 1950, when his Born in 1936 into a Buriat herding family in Khentii young protegés proposed that Mongolia follow the exam- province’s Darkhan Sum, Choinom attended school for ple of Tuva and join the Soviet Union, Choibalsang gave four years until his father’s death in 1950 forced him to them a severe dressing-down. withdraw. In 1953, however, he took a job as copyist, 106 Choir city typesetter, and printer. Painfully shy as a child, he was relatively dry in climate (196.5 millimeters, or 7.74 very interested in drawing and technology. In 1955 he inches, of precipitation annually). was imprisoned for nine months for stealing 1,000 tögrögs from his workplace. In 1956 he contracted Chormaghun See CHORMAQAN. tuberculosis and after treatment in 1957 began working as an artist. Until January 1967 he alternated stints as an artist with treatment for bone tuberculosis and periods Chormaqan (Chormaghun) (fl. 1221–1241) Mongol of writing poems. commander and conqueror of western Iran, Armenia, and Having begun writing poems by 1954, in 1961 he Georgia wrote his epic (nairaglal) Altai, inspired by the Kazakh Under CHINGGIS KHAN Chormaqan of the Sönid clan national author Abay Kunanbayev. He also published a served as quiver bearer in the KESHIG (imperial guard). In verse novel, Khün (Man), in 1964. Subsequently, he was 1229 the newly elected ÖGEDEI KHAN sent him to conquer able to publish only a few scattered poems. He married the Middle East west of the Amu Dar’ya River and to sup- his first wife, Lhagwajaw, in 1962; they had one child and press Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi, the fugitive sultan of divorced after two years. In 1965 he married a second KHORAZM. Ögedei gave him three tümens (10,000s) of wife, Nina, and had two children, but his in-laws forced a TAMMACHI (garrison) troops, partly Mongol and partly divorce because of his alcoholism in 1967. With the Central Asian. Chormaqan was to settle permanently in divorce, the inability to publish his poems and his recur- the area and appoint all the overseers (DARUGHACHI) in ring bone tuberculosis, he began drinking heavily. Mean- his territory. Chormaqan passed rapidly through Kho- while, his unpublished notebooks included melancholy rasan (northeast Iran), racing to capture Jalal-ud-Din by paeans to alcohol and to himself as a poet, bittersweet surprise. In August 1231 his troops raided Jalal-ud-Din’s love lyrics to Nina, praises of the glories of the Mongol camp, in Kurdistan and the sultan fled to the hills, where past destroyed by a philistine government, poetic accusa- a local Kurd killed him. Meanwhile, Fars and Kerman in tions, and sarcastic barbs about the party-state: “Since southern Iran submitted voluntarily. From 1232 on Chor- they butchered in the thirties / Brilliant minds as reac- maqan wintered in the Mughan steppe on the Azerbaijan- tionaries / Cattle numbers just shoot higher / Yes, our Iran border and sent out annual expeditions against the party’s wisdom does not tire.” Investigated for rumored remaining citadels in Azerbaijan, KURDISTAN, Armenia, antisocial poetry, he was imprisoned in a labor colony and GEORGIA. The Armenian and Georgian nobility even- from 1969 to 1973, yet he continued writing and return- tually agreed to pay an annual tribute, supply the army’s ing to the theme of the great past and tortured present of needs, and accompany Chormaqan’s army on campaign. the Mongols as well as of the BURIATS, as expressed in his Chormaqan led the sack of Amid (Diyarbakır) in 1241, 1973 long poem Buriat. but soon after he became deaf; his wife, Elteni, then After his release he was kept under strict surveillance shared command with his successor, BAIJU. Armenians until his death in late May 1979 at the house of an artist generally saw Chormaqan and his Christian wife, Elteni, friend, Demberel. In 1989 Choinom’s works were first as protectors from the crueler elements of the Mongol publicly praised, and the reprinting of his surviving army. poems began. See also LITERATURE; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. Chosgi-Odsir (Chos-kyi ’Od-ser, Choiji-Odser) (fl. 1307–1321) Translator and poet who first rendered many 6 classic Buddhist texts into Mongolian Choir city (Choyr, Cojr) During the Soviet buildup Chosgi-Odsir, called a “Western monk” in the YUAN SHI after 1966, Choir, along the TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAILWAY, (History of the Yuan, 1370), was probably of Uighur ori- became the largest Soviet airbase in Mongolia. With the gin. Trained in the Sa-skya school of Tibetan Buddhism, withdrawal of Soviet troops from Mongolia in 1989–91, he thoroughly mastered both the Tibetan and the Mongo- the Mongolian government hoped to use its facilities, lian languages. including 259 buildings and Mongolia’s longest airstrip, By command of Emperor Haishan (1307–11), as an economic attraction. The area was made a directly Chosgi-Odsir translated Shantideva’s guide to the administered city in 1991 and a free trade zone in 1992. Mahayana path, the Bodhicaryavatara, and wrote an origi- In 1994 the city and its surrounding Sümber Sum were nal Mongolian commentary. In 1312 Haishan’s brother separated from EAST GOBI PROVINCE and made Gobi-Süm- and successor Emperor Ayurbarwada (1311–20) had the ber province. To date, however, significant development translation and commentary printed in 1,000 copies at has not materialized. Unemployment reached 8.3 percent Baitasi (Monastery of the White Pagoda) in DAIDU (mod- in 1995, and emigration reduced the province’s popula- ern Beijing). tion from 13,000 in 1995 to 12,200 in 2000, of whom The court rewarded Chosgi-Odsir with 10,000 ding 9,000 lived in Choir city. Its territory of 5,540 square (yastuq) in paper currency in 1313 and in 1321 assigned kilometers (2,140 square miles) is steppe in terrain and him an honor guard in his monastery at the capital. Christianity in the Mongol Empire 107 Chosgi-Odsir also assisted Asanga (son of ANIGA) in 1206–27) conquered these peoples, his family intermar- designing Buddhist iconography. Even so, when Chosgi- ried extensively with the royal families of the Kereyid and Odsir appealed for clemency for a disgraced official, Önggüd. Conquest later brought them in contact with the Ayurbarwada silenced him by interjecting, “Monks Armenian, Georgian, Russian, and Ossetian Christian should chant the scriptures—why should they participate churches. The Mongols included Christians, whom they in government business?” called erke’ün (plural erke’üd), as one of the four favored Chosgi-Odsir’s other extant works include the religions—also Buddhism, Taoism, and Islam—of the Tibetan Twelve Deeds of the Buddha, digested from Ash- empire, whose clergy received tax exemptions and a mea- vaghosha’s classic biography and later translated into sure of patronage in return for their prayers. Mongolian by his disciple Shirab Singgi, and a versified The Church of the East, accustomed to Mongol ways, Mongolian hymn to the four-armed Mahakali, protectress saw the empire as a great blessing. Other Christians, deity of the Sa-skya order. None is, however, complete. however, were disgusted by Mongol food and marriage The translation of the mantra collection entitled Pancar- customs and viewed the conquest as punishment for their aksha (“Five Amulets”), traditionally ascribed to Chosgi- sins. Armenian writers identified the Mongols as the Odsir, was actually the work of his disciple Shirab-Singgi. “Nation of the Archers,” whose coming foretold the While the Mongolian grammar Jirükhen-ü tolta (Aorta of approaching end of the world. The Russian church the heart) is traditionally ascribed to Chosgi-Odsir, no declared that fermented mare’s milk was unclean, so that Middle Mongolian text of it is extant, and the known any priest who lived with the Mongols was disqualified “commentaries” all date from the 17th century or later. from holding the Eucharist. Even as Armenians and See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; EDUCA- Georgians hoped for Mongol assistance against Muslim TION, TRADITIONAL; LITERATURE. rulers, nobles and people alike resented court intrigues, tax collectors, and undisciplined soldiery, while the Chovd See KHOWD CITY. clergy impotently opposed political marriages with the alien conquerors. Many third-generation Mongol princes raised by Chövsgöl See KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE. Christian mothers and tutors, such as Sartaq in CRIMEA, HÜLE’Ü (1216–65) in Iran, and GÜYÜG as great khan Choybalsan, Horloogiin See CHOIBALSANG, MARSHAL. (1246–48), showed favor to the Church of the East, employing its adherents as scribes, physicians, and astrologers and keeping Christian priests at their ORDOs, Choyr See CHOIR CITY. or palace-tents. At court Assyrian Christian clergy often linked up with Buddhist monks to oppose Muslim influ- Christianity in the Mongol Empire Despite its early ence. Christian writers sincerely praised Mongol Chris- influence in Mongolia, Christianity never achieved a tian women such as Eltani (Chormaqan’s wife, fl. c. 1240) leading position in the MONGOL EMPIRE and virtually dis- and Hüle’ü’s wife, TOGHUS KHATUN (d. 1265), yet Mongol appeared in Inner Asia with the empire’s fall. The terri- men at this point typically refused baptism. tory of the Mongol Empire contained the lands of several In the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China, the Buddhist Christian churches: the Georgian, Ossetian (Alan), and QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) treated Christianity favorably. Russian branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the The Önggüd and Uighurs formed the main body of Armenian Apostolic Church, and the Assyrian Church of Christian people, together with thousands of deported the East, called the “Nestorians” by outsiders. The latter OSSETES and Russians and occasional Assyrian, Arme- church, seated in Baghdad and using the Syriac language nian, and European merchants. Christians formed part of in its liturgy, had early made converts in Central Asia, the SEMUREN, or “various sorts,” the second class in the forming Christian communities among the largely Bud- Yuan structure, below the Mongols but above the native dhist UIGHURS of Turfan. Chinese. The Church of the East appointed new In 1007 a khan of the KEREYID tribe in central Mon- metropolitans for DAIDU (modern Beijing), Tangut golia received baptism with 200,000 of his subjects. The (northwest China), and Uighuristan. Assyrian immi- Assyrian metropolitan of Merv (Mary), Abdisho, granted grants such as ‘Isa (Aixie, fl. 1248–1312) served Qubilai special dispensations for these new nomadic Christians: with astronomical and medical skills, while the Yuan Lenten diet could include milk, and the Eucharist was government supervised the Christian church through the offered with no bread and KOUMISS for wine. By 1200 “Commission for the Promotion of Religion” (Chong- Christianity of the Assyrian Church of the East domi- fusi), headed by ‘Isa and later by his son Ilya (d. 1330). nated the ÖNGGÜD of Inner Mongolia and influenced the In the Chinese-Mongol Confucian reaction to the reign Kereyid and NAIMAN. An undated Syriac inscription in of Yisün-Temür (titled Taidingdi, 1323–28), under which western Mongolia testifies to a Christian presence in semuren had dominated, Ilya was executed for sedition Naiman territory. After CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, and witchcraft. 108 Christian sources on the Mongol Empire In the Chaghatayid Khanate of Central Asia, the the poll tax and degrading badges until 1318. Irinjin’s Church of the East created new metropolitanates in execution in 1319 by Abu-Sa‘id (1317–35) deprived Samarqand, Kashghar, and Almaligh. Excavations at a Christianity of its last patron. Christian cemetery in Ysyk-Köl (Kyrgyzstan), dating During the late 13th century eastern trade between from 1249 to 1345, demonstrate a sizable community China and the Mediterranean and Black Sea ports abetted near the capital of the Chaghatayid realm. Tarmashirin a network of Catholic missions in Soltaniyeh, Saray, Khan’s (1331–34) conversion to Islam led to a Mongol Almaligh, and Daidu (modern Beijing). Except in China, reaction favoring Christianity under his immediate suc- where they served the Ossetian and Armenian popula- cessors. This in turn led in 1338 to a bout of persecution tion, missionaries focused on the Mongol elite, although of the church. without lasting success. The Russian church began to recover from the con- Despite the Christian sympathies of the early Il- quest by 1249–50, when the new metropolitan Cyril Khans and Chaghatayids, the Mongol conquests in the arrived from investiture in Byzantium. Taking up resi- Middle East and Turkestan expanded pastoralism at the dence not in ruined Kiev, but in Vladimir (near Moscow), expense of agriculture, which furthered the displacement he strongly supported cooperation with the Mongols of of sedentary Assyrian, Armenian, and Greek Christians the GOLDEN HORDE and resistance to the Catholic by nomadic Muslims, such as the Turks and Kurds. The advance. The declaration of the Russian church’s com- crisis of the mid-14th century destroyed both the old net- plete tax exemption by Mengü-Temür Khan (1267–80) work of the Church of the East and the new Roman began a great increase in church wealth. Metropolitan Catholic network. Persecution under Ulugh-Beg Peter’s (d. 1342) close association with Moscow and the (1393–1447) finally destroyed Christianity in Samarqand mid-14th-century monastic revival sparked by St. Sergius (see TIMUR). A small population of erke’üd (Christians) (d. 1392) shaped the classic Russian Orthodox church. In survived among the Mongols of ORDOS, Inner Mongolia, the GOLDEN HORDE steppe, Cyril had created a bishopric and they even preserved their tax exemption to 1920 but of Saray. After the Golden Horde’s conversion to Islam retained few traces of Christian beliefs. under ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41), however, Christian influ- See also BUQA; BYZANTIUM AND BULGARIA; CHRISTIAN ence among the QIPCHAQS, OSSETES, and other steppe peo- SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; GEORGIA; KED-BUQA; ples rapidly declined, producing by 1400 a clear division KURDISTAN; LESSER ARMENIA; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE between Christian forest and Muslim steppe. MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SARAY After Hüle’ü’s conquest of Baghdad, the Assyrian AND NEW SARAY. church received the former palace of the caliph as a Further reading: Erica C. D. Hunter, “The Conver- church and built new monasteries in the capital, sion of the Kerait to Christianity in A.D. 1007,” Zen- Maragheh (see BAGHDAD, SIEGE OF). Despite periodic tralasiatische Studien 22 (1989/1991): 142–163; Samuel Muslim riots up to 1295, Assyrian and Uighur Christians Hugh Moffet, A History of Christianity in Asia, vol. 1, generally held the governorship in Assyria (northeast Beginnings to 1500 (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1992), Iraq), while others served as privileged ORTOQ merchants 399–517. and ambassadors to the European powers. Mongol patrons in the Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE frequently allied with local Christians during communal tensions, Christian sources on the Mongol Empire While and in 1281 the Church of the East elected an Önggüd never possessing the insider access of Mongolian, Chi- catholicos (patriarch), MAR YAHBH-ALLAHA (1244–1317), nese, and Islamic sources, Christian chroniclers of Russia for his familiarity with Mongol language and customs. and the Middle East and travelers from Latin Christen- Although several queens and princes of the blood, dom add an important alternative perspective. including Abagha Khan (1265–81), were baptized, as At the time of the Mongol conquest, Russia and adults the princes frequently preferred Buddhism or Armenia had a flourishing historical tradition. In addition Islam. After putting GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) on the to their terse references to particular incidents, the Rus- throne, the Muslim Mongol NAWROZ instigated massive sian chronicles contain discrete “tales” (povest’) on the pogroms against non-Islamic faiths, costing the Church Mongol conquest, such as that on the Kalka River battle of the East vast sums of money and many lives and (1223; see KALKA RIVER, BATTLE OF), Mongol sack of churches in Iran and Assyria. With the fall in Nawroz in Ryazan’ (1237), and the oppressive DARUGHACHI (basqaq) 1297, however, Ghazan Khan strongly repudiated anti- Ahmad (1284). Certain tales circulated separately, such as Christian persecution and showed favor to Mar Yahbh- the 14th-century Tale of the Destruction of Ryazan’. The Allaha. Sultan Öljeitü (1304–17), once baptized by Mar 1380 defeat of the Mongols by Dmitrii Donskoi of Yahbh-Allaha but now a Muslim, protected church prop- Moscow created a famous epic, Sofony of Ryazan’s Zadon- erties but ceased royal patronage. Öljeitü’s Kereyid father- shchina (see KULIKOVO POLE, BATTLE OF). The sense of in-law, Irinjin, however, interceded for Christian opened horizons found in many Islamic histories and in interests, staving off attempts by Islamic jurists to impose Chinese and European travel accounts, however, is com- Chuban 109 pletely absent from the Russian chronicles. The Russian miserabile on the destruction of Hungary. Friars involved chronicles treat the Mongol conquest as a series of iso- in Roman Catholic missions of 1294 in the Mongol suc- lated episodes of oppression, assimilating them to biblical cessor states also left letters and reports: John of Monte or apocalyptic categories or previous nomadic raids. Corvino (1246–1328), Odoric of Pordenone (1286–1331), Armenian sources, while also using familiar biblical, and John of Marignolli (fl. 1338–57). The merchant apocalyptic, and historical categories, show far more handbook La Pratica della Mercatura (1340) of the Flo- interest in the MONGOL EMPIRE itself. The second half of rentine Francesco Balducci Pegolotti describes trade in the History of the Armenians (1266–67) by the monk the Mongol world on the eve of its collapse in the wake Kirakos of Gandzak (c. 1205–71/2) is a vivid and well- of the BLACK DEATH. informed account of Mongol conquest and rule. Captured See also CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS; CHRIS- and briefly held prisoner by the Mongols as a scribe, TIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL Kirakos was familiar with the Mongolian language and EMPIRE; WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. leaders. Shorter and less personal is the History of the Further reading: Robert Bedrosian, Kirakos Gandza- Nation of the Archers (1271) by Grigor of Akants’. Both kets’i’s History of the Armenians (New York: Sources of the authors also give considerable information on the Mon- Armenian Tradition, 1986); Robert F. Blake and Richard gols in GEORGIA. The rulers of LESSER ARMENIA, Constable N. Frye, “History of the Nation of the Archers (the Mon- Smbat and King Het’um I (1230–69), left records of their gols),” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 12 (1949): dealings with the Mongols. The Les Flor des estoires de la 269–399; E. A. Wallis Budge, trans., Chronography of Gre- terre d’Orient (1307) of the knight-turned-monk Hayton gory Abu’l Faraj 1225–1286 (1932; rpt., Amsterdam: APA, (Het’um), dictated in French at Poitiers, gave Europe one 1976); E. A. Wallis Budge, The Monks of Kublai Khan, of the most accurate accounts of the geography and his- Emperor of China (1928; rpt., New York: Ams Press, tory of the Middle East, together with an account drawn 1973); Charles J. Halperin, Tatar Yoke (Columbus, Ohio: from personal knowledge of the campaigns of the Il- Slavica, 1985); Hetoum, A Lytell Cronycle: Richard Pynson’s Khans against MAMLUK EGYPT. The only significant Geor- Translation (c. 1520) of La Fleur des histories de la terre gian source, The Georgian Chronicle, while important for d’orient (c. 1307) (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, the later reigns of the Mongol Il-Khan dynasty 1988); Robert Michell and Nevill Forbes, trans., Chronicle (1256–1335), lacks the broader vision of the Armenian of Novgorod, 1016–1471 (London: Offices of the Society histories. 1914); George A. Perfecky, trans., The Galician-Volynian Among monuments of Syriac literature, the Yish‘iata Chronicle (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1973); Robert W. demar Yahbaladha vderaban Sauma (History of the MAR Thomson, “The Historical Compilation of Vardan YAHBH-ALLAHA and of Rabban Sauma, translated as Monks Arewelc‘i,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 43 (1989): 125–226. of Kublai Khan, c. 1318) is a hagiography of the ÖNGGÜD Christian clerics Mar Yahbh-Allaha and Rabban Sauma. Originally in Persian but extant only in Syriac translation, Chuban (Chopan, Chupan, Jupan) (d. 1327) Chief this work illustrates the Church of the East’s ties with the commander under the last Il-Khan reigns Il-Khans. In his Chronography (Makhtebhanuth zabhne), Descendant of Chila’un of the Suldus, one of CHINGGIS Gregory Abu’l-Faraj Bar Hebraeus (1225–86), maphrian KHAN’s “four steeds,” Chuban first supported Geikhatu as (primate) of the East for the Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) khan (1291–95) and in August 1295 deserted Baidu Khan Church, used oral and written sources (he praises for GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304). Chuban was an able com- ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI highly, for example) for his mander, winning credit at the otherwise disastrous Syrian history of the Mongols. Unencumbered by official posi- (1303) and Gilan (1307) campaigns. Ghazan’s brother, Sul- tion, Bar Hebraeus was free to focus his informed good tan Öljeitü (1304–16), made him commander in chief sense on communal riots, tribal turbulence, and other (beglerbegi) and granted him his daughter, Dowlandi (d. phenomena that official chroniclers such as RASHID-UD- 1314). Chuban rejected, however, Öljeitü’s Shi‘ite faith. DIN tried to bury. His church history section is also a Under Öljeitü’s son, Abu-Sa‘id (1317–35), Chuban married main source on the early conversion of the KEREYID to Öljeitü’s other daughter, Sati Beg. In 1318 Chuban’s client Christianity. A continuator brought his political history Taj-ud-Din ‘Alishah successfully plotted RASHID-UD-DIN’s forward to 1297. execution and become vizier himself, while Chuban fero- Apart from the famous accounts of the papal envoy ciously suppressed a 1319 rebellion against his regency. JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI, the missionary WILLIAM OF Chuban was a dedicated Sunni Muslim and followed RUBRUCK, and the merchant MARCO POLO, a number of up this victory with attacks on churches, brothels, and other Latin Christian sources exist. Simon of St. Quentin wineries. He was also friendly to the Il-Khans’ traditional recorded the 1247 embassy to BAIJU. Latin works from opponents in MAMLUK EGYPT, and after arranging peace in Poland and Hungary included the travelogue of Friar 1323 he funded a school and tomb for himself in Egyptian- Julian, who visited the Bashkirs (Bashkort) just as the controlled Medina. He also received high titles from the Mongols were invading, and the narrative poem Carmen YUAN DYNASTY for his promotion of intra-Mongol harmony. 110 Chung-tu Eventually, the arrogance of Chuban’s sons Temür- QONGGIRAD, and so on; 2) the tribes on the Mongolian tash and Dimashq-Khoja alienated the khan. Abu-Sa‘id’s plateau or southern Siberia, which were conquered by the thwarted desire for Chuban’s daughter Baghdad Khatun, Mongols: MERKID/Merged, KEREYID, NAIMAN, and so on; wife of the JALAYIR emir “Big” Hasan (Hasan Buzurg), also while all these tribes were originally divided into clans, poisoned their relationship. In August 1327, while these subdivisions fell into disuse after their incorporation Chuban was campaigning in Khorasan, Abu-Sa‘id exe- into the Mongol realm; 3) fragments of conquered peoples cuted Dimashq-Khoja. Chuban marched in a rage against assimilated into the Mongols: Sartuul (Turkestani Mus- Abu-Sa‘id but was deserted by his emirs. He fled to Herat, lims), Tangut (see XIA DYNASTY), Asud (OSSETES), and so whose governor killed him in December 1327. Temürtash on; 4) clans formed by groups performing functions at fled to Egypt, where he was executed in 1328. court: KHARACHIN (“black” KOUMISS distillers of Qipchaq Abu-Sa‘id married Baghdad Khatun, who protected origin), Urad (craftsmen), Khali’uchin (otter hunters), and Chuban’s surviving relatives and possibly poisoned the so on. Ruling all of these was the Borjigid clan, composed khan. In the chaos after Abu-Sa‘id’s death, Temürtash’s of the descendants of Chinggis Khan and his brothers. son, “Little” Hasan (Hasan Küchek) raised the Suldus A similar clan name need not mean common origin. banner, defeated “Big” Hasan’s Jalayirs in 1338, and estab- Many clan names—dörben/dörbed/dörböd, “the four,” lished a Suldus regime that controlled Azerbaijan to bayad/baya’ud, “the rich ones,” ikires/ekhired “twins,” 1357. bulaghachin/bulagad, “sable hunters”—appear to have Further reading: Charles Melville, “Wolf or Shep- arisen more than once independently as clan names in herd? Amir Chupan’s Attitude to Government,” in Court Inner Asia. In other cases common names have been used of the Il-Khans, 1290–1340, ed. Julian Raby and Teresa for groups that are geographically and socially distinct. Fitzherbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), Ethnographic research from the 18th century on has 79–93; ———, “Abu Sa‘id and the Revolt of the Amirs in vastly increased the number and type of Mongol clan 1319,” in Iran face à la domination mongole, ed. Denise names known, particularly among the OIRATS (West Mon- Aigle (Tehran: 1997), 89–120. gols) and the northern forest Mongols, such as the DAR- KHAD and BURIATS. Some are names of Siberian peoples, Chung-tu See ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF. often originally Turkic speaking, who became incorpo- rated into the Oirats or northwestern Mongols. From the 18th century genealogical knowledge declined sharply Chü-yung-kuan Pass See JUYONGGUAN PASS, BATTLE OF. among the Khalkha and Inner Mongolians. Only the TAIJI (nobility) emphasized genealogical knowledge. In some clan names Patrilineal clan names remained important areas, however, new commoner clans, named after their among the Mongols from their earliest recorded history in apical ancestor and sometimes matrilineal, formed on the the 12th century through the 18th century. After that time ruins of forgotten clan identities (see MATRILINEAL CLANS). clan names began to decline among those Mongols ruled Some clans took their names from the colors of the by the BORJIGID (Chinggisid) aristocracy. New clanlike for- horses they dedicated to the clan protector deity, such mations took their names from a particular ancestor or a as Sharanuud, “yellows,” Kharanuud, “blacks,” and guardian deity. The Borjigid clan identity was attacked in Khuanuud, “bays” (see RELIGION). the revolutionary period as a bulwark of feudalism, but in When surnames were introduced among the Buriats recent decades interest in clan names has revived. and KALMYKS of Russia in the 19th century, PATRONYMICS Mongol lineage or clan names were not historically (names based on one’s father’s name), not clan names, fixed. From their earliest known history the Mongol and were used. The same was also true in 20th-century Mon- Oirat (West Mongol) tribes and their component clans golia, where the rule of the Borjigid clan was attacked in (including up to several thousand people in one territory the REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. In Inner Mongolia no official under common rule) were composed of lineage branches patronymic or clan name system has been introduced, and individual families drawn from many ancestries but the BARGA and the Daurs still frequently use their clan (“bones”). Among them was usually one dominant lin- names. In 1997 the Mongolian government decided to eage that gave its name to the clan or tribe as a whole. introduce clan names again to reduce the number of peo- Thus, clan names actually in use could be of one’s clan, of ple with identical names but this has been stymied by the the lineage fragment, or “bone,” within that clan, or of general ignorance in the populace about their actual clan one’s whole tribe, depending on one’s social context. identity. Moreover, new families drafted by rulers to perform spe- See also KINSHIP SYSTEM; NAMES, PERSONAL. cial functions usually acquired a clan name and identity from that function. clear script The clear script (originally todorkhoi üzüg; From the 13th to the 17th century many clan names tod üzg in modern Kalmyk; tod üseg in modern Mongolian) of differing origin appear in history: 1) the original 35 or was created in winter 1648–49 by ZAYA PANDITA NAMKHAI- so clans of the MONGOL TRIBE: the JALAYIR, MANGGHUD, JAMTSU among the OIRATS. Based on a modification and climate 111 refinement of the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, it was long Manchu and Uighur-Mongolian, and under its influence the main script of the Oirats and is still used in Xinjiang. the clear script began to recede in official use, although it By the 17th century with the spread of literacy a was still used for histories, epics, and nonofficial writings. number of devices had arisen to resolve the ambiguities In Kalmykia the clear script was replaced in 1925 of the old, unreformed Uighur-Mongolian script. Single with a newly designed Cyrillic script. It is, however, still dots were used to mark “n” from the vowels “a” and “e,” studied by scholars and KALMYKS interested in their liter- double dots were used to distinguish “gh” and “kh” from ary heritage. With Mongolia’s independence in 1912 the each other, a pointed versus rounded distinction in the clear script was discouraged as a sign of Oirat separatism. form of the “ch” distinguished ch and j, and so on. Zaya Scholarly interest in and small-scale reprinting of clear Pandita made use of these devices as well as many others script manuscripts revived in the 1960s. In China the of his own invention. clear script remained in official use among the Oirat The Mongols did not pursue a thought-out reform of Mongols of Xinjiang through the 20th century. Further the Uighur-Mongolian script or eliminate all its ambigui- diacriticals were introduced, distinguishing “ts” from ties, but the Manchus and Oirats did. Manchu script “ch” and “z” from “j”; this distinction in Mongolian reformers in 1623–33 preserved the cursive character and words is based on the succeeding vowel and hence not “look” of the Uighur-Mongolian but made extensive use strictly necessary. With the explosion in minority-lan- of added dots and circles. Zaya Pandita adopted a more guage publishing after 1979, the script was used for radical approach, changing letter forms to virtually elimi- newspapers, the academic journal Khaan tenggeri, school nate the differing initial, medial, and final forms of the textbooks, and humanistic works. The small number of letters. He also modernized the orthography. He invented Xinjiang Oirads (fewer than 150,000), however, meant a a mark below the vowel to indicate long vowels, eliminat- growing influence of Inner Mongolian books and culture. ing the Uighur-Mongolian silent “g”/“gh.” Suffixes were This led in 1981 to a decision to replace the clear script sometimes written in classical forms and sometimes in gradually from 1982 to 1990 with the Uighur-Mongolian forms closer to those of the spoken language. script used in Inner Mongolia. Publications in the clear As it happened, Zaya Pandita frequently adopted script continued, however, at least into the 1990s. opposite distinctions for his clear script from those that See also KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS; XIN- became current in the reformed Uighur-Mongolian script. JIANG MONGOLS. Thus, while in the reformed Uighur-Mongolian script “j” Further reading: György Kara, “The ‘Clear Script,’” was indicated by a rounded form and “ch” by an angular in The World’s Writing System, ed. Peter Daniels and form, in the clear script it is the opposite. Similarly, the William Bright (New York: Oxford University Press, double dot marks the “gh” in Uighur-Mongolian but the 1996), 548–550; Attila Rakos, Written Oirat (Munich: “kh” in the clear script. Lincom Europa, 2002). The clear script was first used for Buddhist transla- tions, of which Zaya Pandita and his disciples had com- pleted 214 by 1690. The first original work written in the climate Deep in Asia, the climate of Mongolia is dry script was the Sarayin gerel (Light of the Moon), a biogra- and extremely continental, with ranges of 40°C (72°F) phy of Zaya Pandita by his disciple Ratnabhadra written and more between summer and winter average tempera- around 1690. The script became the official script of the tures. The climate throughout the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU Zünghar and Kalmyk Oirats and was used for the full (including Mongolia and neighboring areas of Trans- range of writings: official documents, legal texts, personal baikalia and Inner Mongolia) is generally governed by the letters, histories, hagiographies, prayers and devotional Asiatic high pressure region centered on the LAKE UWS texts to Buddhist and native deities, and EPICS. The fall of region. This extreme high pressure system is responsible the Zünghars and their annihilation by the Qing caused for the sparse cloud cover, giving Mongolia 200 to 500 many manuscripts to be destroyed, yet under the Qing the more hours of sunshine annually than other areas at the script continued to be used for official and private pur- same latitude. It also creates a steady prevailing wind poses by the Torghud and Khoshud refugees from the from the north and west over most of the plateau, which Volga who resettled in Xinjiang. The QING DYNASTY’s LIFAN in the spring causes vast duststorms that deposit fine YUAN (Court of Dependencies) accordingly maintained a loess soil in North China. Mongolia is not directly school in the clear script to train central government offi- reached by the monsoon rains, but weather patterns con- cials to handle this alphabet. The Oirats in western Mon- centrate 65–75 percent of precipitation in the three sum- golia (modern KHOWD PROVINCE and UWS PROVINCE) at mer months, while only 8–10 percent falls in the cold first used only the clear script. In 1768 the Qing dynasty season. Thus, the lowlands generally lack permanent established a clerical school in KHOWD CITY that enrolled snow cover, particularly in the south. Since the first frosts 20 new students each year (three DÖRBÖDS, four ALTAI come in the first week of September, crops and vegetation URIYANGKHAIS, and two each from the TORGHUD, ÖÖLÖD, must begin growing without the benefit of extensive ZAKHACHIN, and MINGGHAD banners). The school taught runoff or spring rains. 112 clothing and dress The line of average annual temperature below freez- clothing and dress Until the 20th century Mongolian ing passes through the middle of Mongolia’s eastern plain clothing for both men and women was based on a long and steppe zone, between the GOBI DESERT and the north- caftan, or deel (Buriat, degel; Kalmyk, lawshg), fastened ern ranges. Except around LAKE BAIKAL, whose waters under the right shoulder and bound by men with a belt delay the onset of the seasons, the Mongolian plateau is or cloth sash. (Since married women did not wear a sash warmest in July and coldest in January. In the lowlands [büs], adult women came to be called büsgüi, meaning average January temperatures range from –12°C (10°F) in “beltless.”) Fastenings were made of knots or metal but- ALASHAN to –26°C (–15°F) in Barguzin in northern Buria- tons hooked into loops. Often an overcaftan or waistcoat tia (with an average nighttime low of –33°C, or –27°F), was worn over the deel. Underneath the deel Mongols while average July temperatures range from 26°C (79°F) always wore trousers. From the 16th century dress in Alashan to 14°C (57°F) in Barguzin. In ULAANBAATAR became more elaborate and distinctive, until the revolu- average temperatures in January range between a daytime tionary movements of the 20th century again promoted a high of –19°C (–2°F) and a nighttime low of –32°C simple style. (–26°F). In July daytime highs average 22°C (72°F), The Mongols did not weave, and so native materials while nights average 11°C (52°F). were restricted to furs, leather, and felt. Mongolian The overall amount of precipitation generally women did, however, skillfully sew clothes from increases toward the east but is heavily dependent on alti- imported fabrics, particularly cotton, silk, and especially tude. In most of the ranges precipitation is about 300–500 silk brocade. During the empire period they sewed with millimeters (12–20 inches), and the core of the Sayan and threads of wound tendons, but later with cotton and silk KHENTII RANGEs receive more than 500 millimeters (20 thread. Linings in the winter were of silk stuffing for the inches) of average annual precipitation. Lake Baikal moist- ens the neighboring ranges, giving the Khamar-Daban, Ulan-Burgasy, and Barguzin Ranges areas with more than 1,000 millimeters (39 inches) of average annual precipita- tion. In the steppe near the ranges, on the eastern plain, and in the valleys of Transbaikalia, precipitation is around 200–300 millimeters (8–12 inches). In the Gobi Desert and the GREAT LAKES BASIN precipitation is generally less than 150 millimeters (6 inches), and it drops below 50 millimeters (2 inches) in much of Alashan. Climate change in Mongolia can be directly mea- sured only since about 1940, but tree-ring research is extending this record back many centuries. Trends are similar to those elsewhere in the northern hemisphere, showing a few extremely cold years around 1600–05 brought on by the Huanyaputina eruption in the Andes and another milder cooling period in 1625–75 followed by a steady warming trend to around 1780. This was fol- lowed by a period of prolonged cooling from then to about 1870, followed by a rapid climb in temperature since then. From 1940 to 1995 average winter tempera- ture has risen from around –21°C (–6°F) to above –18°C (0°F), while average summer temperatures cooled from about 16.5°C (61.7°F) to about 15.8°C (60.4°F). (The fig- ures on local temperatures given in the first part of the article are from the 1980s.) Precipitation shows much less clear trends, although it has recently been increasing, particularly in summer. See also HÖHHOT; KALMYK REPUBLIC; ULAN-UDE; UST’- ORDA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA. Further reading: Academy of Sciences, MPR, Infor- mation Mongolia (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990), 22–26; G. C. Jacoby, R. D. D’Arrigo, N. Pederson, B. M. Buckley. Deel (or caftan) from a Yuan-era tomb excavated on the Ch. Dugarjav, and R. Mijiddorj, “Temperature and Precip- Onon River in the Chita region, southern Siberia. Silk lined itation in Mongolia Based on Dendroclimatic Investiga- with skins (From Dowdoin Bayar, Altan urgiin yazguurtny tions,” IAWA Journal 20 (3): 339–350. negen bulshiig sudalsan ni [2000]) clothing and dress 113 very rich or cotton stuffing, fine raw wool, or sheep- and goatskins for the ordinary Mongols. Trimmings were of sable, ermine, squirrel, fox, and other furs. Traditionally, the Mongols did not wash their clothes or bodies, as it was feared that polluting the water would anger the dragons that control the water cycle and bring thunderstorms. Except for holidays, clothes were not changed until they fell apart. The smell attached to these constantly worn unwashed clothes was seen as a pre- cious memento of the wearer. Thus, a gift of clothes actually worn by a khan and carrying his smell was a high honor. CLOTHING IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE In the empire the caftan most often had a collar slanting from the neck to the underarm, like a bathrobe. Some Leather belts and pouches decorated with silver plaques from men’s caftans, as seen in a portrait of ÖGEDEI KHAN, had a a Yuan-era tomb in the Chita region (From Dowdoin Bayar, square collar. The skirt of the caftan was usually sewn on Altan urgiin vazguurtny negen bulshiig sudalsan ni [2000]) separately with ruffles. Frequently, the caftan was tied with both a thin leather belt passing below the belly and a broad sash covering the belly. Upon marriage women no longer wore their sashes sashes, never leather belts, were now worn by men and and wore a very full caftan with a slanting collar, sometimes unmarried girls. The sleeves for men and women were with a short-sleeved jacket opening down the front. While narrow and ended in distinctive horse-hoof cuffs. This most women wore caftans overlapping on their right, they style was also used among the rising Manchus and with a sometimes wore caftans overlapping on their left. Women’s little modification became the basis for QING DYNASTY caftans often were decorated with a thick border of brocade (1636–1912) court dress, worn by the Mongolian nobility along the overlapping collar. Great ladies wore caftans with at audiences with the Qing emperor. The court deel, or very full sleeves and a train held by servants. caftan, was embroidered with dragons and clouds and at Materials varied greatly according to the status of the the lower border with the world mountain, Sümber (Mt. wearer. The most favored materials in the summer were Meru in Sanskrit), surrounded by waves and diagonal Middle Eastern silk and gold brocades called nashish lines in colors symbolizing the five directions. The court (from Arabic nasij) and nakh. Middle Eastern brocade overcaftan (Mongolian, uuj) was long-sleeved for lords weavers were deported to China in settlements to supply and sleeveless for ladies. It was plainer in appearance but the needs of the Mongol court in the east. Valuable furs, also embroidered with dragons. The form and number of especially sable and ermine, were worn in winter. One dragons were governed by sumptuary laws. Lords wore prince, NOQAI (d. 1299), even proudly wore dog skins as large rosaries as necklaces. a sign of his adherence to old Mongol ways. In winter the Like the Chinese, Mongols saw fastening caftans on underlayers were made of skin with the fur inmost, while the right as a sign of civilization. When the KHALKHA with the outer layer the fur faced out, at least on the were debating in 1689 whether to rely on the Russians or upper part. the Manchu Qing dynasty, the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA During the great assemblies (QURILTAI) the khans KHUTUGTU noted that since the czar was not Buddhist bestowed on their courtiers clothing of set colors. Such and “moreover the edge of his garment is wrongly court clothes were called jisün, “color,” from the designa- turned, it is not acceptable,” while the “garment of the tion of a special color for each day. During the WHITE emperor of the Manchus is like the garment of a god.” MONTH all present wore white silk, while in the great In later Qing-era regional dress among the Mongols, summer quriltais all those attending wore a different the distinctions of status, sex, and region became strik- color each day. Unauthorized use of these jisün robes was ing. Outside court men no longer wore the sleeved over- strictly punished. caftan over the deel, only a sleeveless waistcoat (Mongolian, khantaaz; Buriat, khantuuza) overlapping SIXTEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES and buttoning to their right. Women also frequently wore By the late 16th century the Mongol nobility wore over the waistcoat, or khantaaz, over the deel, either alone or the caftan a long sleeveless or short-sleeved overcaftan under an uuj. Among women the sleeveless uuj was buttoned down the center of the chest and open below restricted to the wives of the TAIJI (nobility). The increas- the waist. A detachable tippet (zaam) of brocade or fur ingly elaborate brocade used to border women’s deel, uuj, attached to the caftan was worn around the neck. Only and khantaaz accentuated the differences of the sexes. 114 clothing and dress Regional distinctions among Mongol dress became embroidered cloth shoes. By the 19th century Chinese very clear in this period. The KALMYKS and the OIRATS of craftsmen in HÖHHOT and elsewhere made most of the western Mongolia, such as the Dörböd, Bayad, and Mongolian boots following local preferences. Uriyangkhai, shared a distinctive broad-shouldered uuj, and the Oirats of western Mongolia retained the flat tip- HAIRSTYLES AND HEADGEAR pet, or collar, on the shoulders. Among most of the Mon- In Inner Asia men’s hair was partly shaven and partly gols proper (Khalkha and INNER MONGOLIANS) and braided. In the empire period Mongol men shaved most BURIATS, the tippet changed into a distinctive standing col- of the top of the head, leaving only a small forelock. The lar sewn to the deel. Among the ÜJÜMÜCHIN and hair was grown long and tied in braids, often hooked up Kheshigten of Inner Mongolia and among the Kalmyks, it behind the ears. The Manchu Qing dynasty imposed on formed a folded-down collar. While the caftan was usually Mongol men their own style of shaving the front half of made of one piece among the Mongols and Oirats, in the the head and putting the hair in a single braid down the Buriat women’s degel the upper part was always made sep- back. arately from the pleated skirt and lower sleeves. Facings of The most common men’s winter hat in the empire colored cloth or brocade highlighted the seams between was a skin “falcon” hat with the brim short and upturned the upper part and the skirt and between the lower and in front and covering the neck in back. Similar to this upper sleeves. The overlap of Buriat men’s caftans was was a kind of helmet with a brim projecting all around, a bordered by colored bands. Buriat women’s degels had knob on the top, and a hanging flap of leather protecting puffy shoulders, an innovation adopted in greatly exagger- the neck. The summer hat was conical and made of wood ated form in Khalkha. The Buriats were also the only with tassels hanging down from the pointed top. Mongolian peoples still to use leather belts. Among the By the 16th century the men’s winter hat was perfectly KHORCHIN, Daurs, and other eastern Inner Mongolians, circular, with the brim raised in the back as well. Tassels women’s caftans were modeled on Manchu styles, with were often attached to the center of the crown, and a strip wide sleeves and no horse-hoof cuffs. These robes were of cloth was always hung from the top down the wearer’s decorated with less brocade and more flower embroidery. back. In the Qing dynasty the winter hat with the upturned Accessories were hung either from the sash (men) or circular brim and the bamboo conical hat became the offi- from long cords attached to loops sewed onto the armpits cial court winter and summer hats. As such, they were sur- of the uuj (women). Men’s accessories included a knife, mounted by buttons of various semiprecious stones sometimes with chopsticks, a flint and striker, and a cloth according to the wearer’s rank. Instead of a cloth strip pea- pouch holding a snuff bottle. Women’s accessories, usu- cock feathers were attached to the top of the court hat. ally hung from a metal wheel, butterfly, or similar object, Informal variants of the winter hat with the upturned included pouches for aromatic herbs, nail cleaners, brim were made with differing widths of the brim and tweezers, toothpicks, and earpicks. Women also some- height and steepness of the crown. Another type of hat, times attached colored scarves to the armpits of the uuj. today called the jangjin malgai, or “general’s hat,” from Pockets were not necessary, as the caftan’s loose fit and General Sükhebaatar, has a bell-shaped crown and a brim the tight sash created ample area in the chest. in four folded-up flaps. The Khori Buriats wore a pointed hat sewn from two roughly diamond-shaped pieces with FOOTWEAR the bottom point functioning as earflaps to be tied under Traditional boots among the Mongols were similar to the chin or behind the head. those elsewhere in East Asia, with no heel and no distinc- In the empire period married women wore the dis- tion of right and left. Whether made of leather, cotton, or tinctive high BOQTA hat, described with admiration by silk, the boots were sewn out of multilayered flat soles travelers from every county. The hair was kept in a bun and separate uppers and legs, each divided into right and under the boqta. By the end of the 16th century the boqta left sides. The preferred color scheme was dark legs and was no longer worn, and the hair was now kept in two uppers, with light soles and light leather strips along the braids down the front of the chest. Women wore hats seams. Boots were worn over cotton or felt stockings similar in style to those of men. From the 17th century depending on the weather. JEWELRY worn on the head became very expensive and While boots in the empire period were sometimes complicated. Among the western Buriats and Kalmyks, pointed or slightly upturned, the distinctive Mongolian however, braids were worn under a cylindrical skullcap riding boots with their highly upturned “pig-snout” front (khalwng, in Kalmyk). Among Kalmyk women skullcaps first appear in the 16th century, although they may have were lavishly decorated with gold thread embroidery and existed earlier. Painted leather appliqués enlivened these brocade and capped with tufts of silk thread. boots both for men and women. Court-dress boots were made of cloth, not leather, and did not have the upturned MODERN CHANGES front. Buriat boots also did not have the upturned front. By 1900 Mongolian clothing and jewelry, particularly in In eastern Inner Mongolia women wore Chinese-style Khalkha, had become very elaborate. The high-brimmed collectivization and collective herding 115 hat, the great horns of artificial hair, the high, padded doctrine insisted strongly, however, on the ultimate shoulders, the horse-hoof cuffs, and the upturned boots necessity of collectivizing the “peasantry” both for eco- of married women constituted the “five prides” of nomic growth and for the Communist regime’s safety. Khalkha. With the 1921 REVOLUTION youths began to In 1934 People’s Producers Associations (Ardyn üildw- criticize these and the old Qing court dress as linked to erchinii negdel; the term “association,” or negdel, was used feudal customs. In 1922 members of the Revolutionary instead of either “cooperative,” khorshoo, or “collective,” Youth League began stopping women in the streets and khamtral) began to be formed on a strictly voluntary basis. cutting off their high shoulders, cuffs, and jewelry and At first such associations merely pooled labor, but with confiscating men’s hats with rank buttons and peacock the publication of model bylaws in 1942 they were trans- feathers. The campaign soon caused widespread disaffec- formed into cooperatives in which members voluntarily tion and was repudiated by the government. chose what implements and livestock they wished to pool, Nevertheless, by 1924 the traditional dress attacked income from which was partly added to the association’s by the youth had, in fact, almost completely disappeared. fixed capital and part distributed as wages. The caftan was retained, but with no cuffs, uuj, or khan- taaz, and no brocade. Instead cavalry boots, cigarettes COLLECTIVIZATION (rather than a pipe), a fedora or peaked cap for men, and As late as 1953 the negdels, along with the state-owned bobbed hair for women were adopted. Women also began hay-mowing stations and state farms, held only 3.3 per- to wear the sash after marriage. From around 1929 to cent of Mongolia’s livestock. The authorities began 1940 Soviet-style military uniform or suits and ties grad- actively promoting collectivization in that year. Collec- ually replaced this modernized Mongolian costume tivization proceeded from the northern khangai (wooded among Mongolia’s leaders. In Inner Mongolia similar mountain steppe) to the central kheer (steppe) and the changes occurred from the 1930s to the 1950s (see REVO- southern gobi (habitable desert); in 1954 collectivized LUTIONARY PERIOD). livestock in the three zones reached 8.4 percent, 4.6 per- Today the modern-form deel is worn in Mongolia cent, and 3.1 percent, respectively, of the total. In 1955 a proper by both sexes in the countryside, particularly in congress of model workers from the negdels, renamed the winter, and for ethnic and ceremonial occasions in the “Agricultural (or Rural) Associations” (Khödöö aj akhui cities. Newscasters, for example, wear the deel around the negdel), issued new model guidelines. Members should White Month and NAADAM celebrations. A long-sleeved give at least 75 working days per year to the negdel, and jacket, or khürem, with traditional styling is popular with their private livestock should not exceed 100 head in the young men. In Inner Mongolia deels are worn daily only khangai and kheer and 150 in the gobi. Members of the in the HULUN BUIR and SHILIIN GOL steppe. In Mongolia the whole family, including children up to 16, had to join “general’s hat” with a cloth knot on the peak is commonly with the head of the family (previously only family heads worn, but in Inner Mongolia men wear European-style joined, and dependents often worked full time on private headgear and rural women wrap their heads in turbans. herds). Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Commodity and By 1957 34.3 percent of all rural households with Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of 40.2 percent of the total herd had joined collectives. In Islamic Textiles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958–59 the government finally dared to order holdouts 1997); Henny Harald Hansen, Mongol Costumes (London: to join, and by April 1959 97.7 percent of all rural house- Thames and Hudson, 1993). holds belonged to the negdels. With procurement prices deliberately raised, the number of livestock continued its 6 rise from 23.1 million in 1955 to 23.8 million in 1959. In Cojr See CHOIR CITY. reality, however, the high limits on private livestock meant that 48 percent of all livestock were still privately collectivization and collective herding Collec- owned, albeit by negdel members. That year the party tivization of the nomadic herders was completed in Mon- Central Committee ordered that this number be cut in golia in 1958–59. While the process involved collective half: 50 in the khangai and 75 in the gobi. Thus, in 1960 ownership of most of the livestock, there was no attempt negdel members composed about 96 percent of the agri- to sedentarize the nomads. cultural and animal husbandry workers (the balance belonged to state farms and mowing stations), while 74 EARLY EXPERIMENTS IN COLLECTIVIZATION percent of Mongolia’s livestock belonged to the negdels The Mongolian government first attempted collectiviza- and only 22 percent to negdel members privately. tion during the LEFTIST PERIOD of 1929–32. The move- ment provoked a massive slaughter of livestock and THE NEGDELS insurrection. After the fiasco of collectivization in Amalgamation made the negdels, numbering 289 in 1965, 1931–32, the Mongolian government remained hesitant conterminous with the sum, or district, the subprovincial of further collectivization experiments for years. Leninist unit of rural administration, the two often being referred 116 collectivization and collective herding to together as the sum-negdel. The membership of the Especially in the first five years, the negdel authori- negdel was the same as that of the sum, except for exclud- ties used brigade assignments to break up clans and lin- ing children under 16 and transient specialists (physi- eages. Vigilance by negdel officials and limitations on cians, veterinarians, school teachers, etc.). Every sum-negdel private livestock also curtailed tradition feasts (nair) and had a settlement that served as an administrative, commer- sacrifices, such as cairn (OBOO) worship. Along with com- cial, and cultural center. The sum, negdel, and settlement all pulsory education delivered in boarding schools at the had different names, so that the same unit could be referred sum center, these changes were part of the “cultural revo- to as, for example, Khairkhandulaan sum, or New Victory lution” desired by the government. Later, however, zeal negdel, or even Marzat settlement. for cultural transformation flagged. Legally, the negdels, Administration of the sum-negdel was similarly trifur- like the old BANNERS (appanages), were a closed commu- cated: The sum members elected a local legislature nity that members could not enter or leave without per- (assembly of people’s deputies), which chose a chairman mission. Approved migration to the province towns and to head the local government; negdel members elected a cities was common, however. governing board, which chose a negdel chairman, who was responsible for fulfilling the five-year plan; and THE PERFORMANCE OF COLLECTIVE HERDING finally the local party committee elected the party secre- The negdel system did not create the productivity break- tary. In fact, the membership of the assembly, the govern- through advertised by its planners. Total productivity ing board, and the party committee usually overlapped to per head of livestock showed no great increase, whether form a leading oligarchy that administered the sum-negdel in sheep’s wool, cow’s milk, or the slaughter weight of as a whole. Leadership, while strongly paternalistic, was beef cattle, sheep, or goats. Only in CASHMERE did a usually not distant from herders. At the same time, the steady increase in livestock productivity appear, rising FIVE-YEAR PLANS and party apparatus exercised tight con- from 200 grams (7.1 ounces) per goat in 1960 to 295 trol from outside the sum-negdel. grams in 1990. While the overall herd size fluctuated The average negdel contained about 500 households from 22.5 to 24.8 million head, the herd composition and was divided into four brigades. At the sum-negdel was altered to reflect government purchasing priorities, center most negdels had one auxiliary brigade handling so that the average value of output per head of livestock carpentry, small-scale manufacture, and so on, while a grew from 52 tögrögs in 1960 to 73 in 1985. Since small number of negdels had farming brigades. (Most urbanization reduced the number of working negdel farming took place at the state farms, however.) The members from 234,100 to 142,100 in the same period, regular herding brigades were divided into suuri (liter- labor productivity in Mongolia’s livestock sector rose ally settlements, but more accurately nomadic camps), from 5,260 tögrögs per herder in 1960 to 10,901 in of two to five households. Unlike in the past, each camp 1985. This increase in productivity resulted partly specialized in taking care of only one animal, assigned through increased investment in wells, corrals, and by negdel officials in consultation with the households other installations. Reflecting this investment, survival involved. rates of lambs and kids increased from 65 percent and Negdel members received a basic wage in addition to 53 percent in 1960 to 77 percent and 69 percent in the proceeds of the sale of assigned animals to the state 1980. (That of large livestock remained stagnant.) procurement agencies, with bonuses and penalties for Collectivized herding’s mixed record led to major meeting or not meeting production quotas. These wages reforms in the late 1980s, which, with democratization, were paid in cash, while herders used their allowed pri- turned into wholesale DECOLLECTIVIZATION in the 1990s. vate herds for subsistence needs. In practice, however, See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; ECON- neither the bonus nor the penalties were very large, and OMY, MODERN; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. income was largely guaranteed. Likewise, the state rarely Further reading: Danuta Markowska, “Urbanization punished negdels severely for consistently failing to meet of the Steppes,” in Poland at the 8th International Congress state-set production targets. Thus, neither negdels nor of Anthopological and Ethnological Sciences (Wroclaw: individual negdel herders had strong material incentives Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossilinskich, 1968), 171–192; to produce. Negdel herders received pensions on retire- Zofia Szyfelbejn-Sokolewicz, “On the Applicability of the ment at age 55 (women) or 60 (men). Concept ‘Local Community’ to the Study of Culture The negdel organization effectively delivered con- Change in Present Day Mongolia,” in Poland at the 8th sumer goods and medical and educational services International Congress of Anthopological and Ethnological through the stores, boarding schools, and clinics in the Sciences (Wroclaw: Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossilinskich, sum-negdel center. Negdel-owned trucks also assisted 1968), 211–223; Slawoj Szynkiewicz, “The Role of the members in nomadization. More directly related to pro- Herdsmen’s Co-operatives in Modernizing the Country duction was the organization of veterinary services and Life in Mongolia,” in Poland at the 8th International the mobilization of labor to build and maintain wells and Congress of Anthopological and Ethnological Sciences (Wro- corrals and to mow hay. claw: Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossilinskich, 1968), 195–210. Confucianism 117 Comans See QIPCHAQS. inal and Arabic translation to be made annually. Four of these copies have survived as well as a number of later Compendium of Chronicles (Jami‘ al-tawarikh) manuscripts. Rashid-ud-Din’s work became the primary RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH’s Compendium of Chronicles is source on the Mongol conquest in the Islamic world and both an invaluable encyclopedic account of the Mongol from the 18th century in Europe as well, and it remains a Empire and an unprecedented attempt at multiciviliza- strong influence on the historical view of the Mongols tion history. GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304), Mongol ruler in even today. Iran, was worried that the now-Islamic Mongols might See also ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE. loose sight of their ancestral traditions and commissioned Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- Rashid-ud-Din to produced a comprehensive history of quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- the people. His successor Sultan Öljeitü (1304–17) fur- sity Press, 2001); Rashid al-Din, Successors of Genghis ther asked him to add accounts of all the known peoples Khan, trans. John Andrew Boyle (New York: Columbia of the world, particularly the earlier Hebrew, Persian, and University Press, 1971); Rashiduddin Fazlullah, Jami‘u’t- Islamic dynasties, as well as those of India, China, and Tawarikh: Compendium of Chronicles, A History of the Europe. The resulting Compendium of Chronicles was Mongols, 3 vols., trans. W. M. Thackston (Cambridge, compiled under Rashid-ud-Din’s direction by a team Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999). including many foreign consultants, particularly the Mongol BOLAD CHINGSANG. The style throughout is plain Confucianism Although the Mongols have tradition- and impersonal. ally resonated with Confucianism’s patriarchal and filiopi- The history of the Mongols is the Compendium’s most etist social values and orientation toward service to the valuable part. Rashid-ud-Din incorporated large parts of state, Confucianism’s teachings have usually been assimi- ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI’s HISTORY OF THE WORLD lated more through reading histories than through CONQUEROR, editing out his elaborate style and predesti- abstract metaphysical texts. narian theory of history. For contemporary Islamic his- tory he used Ibn al-Athir’s al-Kamil fi’l Ta’rikh. For the EARLY INTERACTIONS history of CHINGGIS KHAN and his predecessors, he used While North China’s XIANBI dynasties in the fifth–sixth the Mongolian chronicle now preserved in the first chap- centuries had translated Confucian classics into their ter of the YUAN SHI (History of the Yuan) and in Chinese own Mongolic language, the KITANS, another Mongolic translation as the SHENGWU QINZHENG LU (Campaign people who founded the Liao dynasty (907–1125), undertaken by the lawgiving warrior). The Mongolian showed little interest in Confucian works. Although Altan debter, to which he refers occasionally, may well be CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) was fascinated by the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, but if so, he was Buddhist and Taoist holy men, he too showed no interest shown only isolated portions of it. in Confucianism, although his entourage included Con- Other sections on the Mongols were new. The fucian-trained officials such as YELÜ CHUCAI. Under description of the Mongol tribes and clans, the annotated Chinggis Khan’s successor, ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), list of Chinggis Khan’s captains, the Persian translations however, Yelü Chucai and Inner Mongolian ÖNGGÜD men of Chinggis’s biligs (wise sayings), and accounts of the began instructing the emperor in Confucianism. From khans’ wives and children, all produced by extensive 1233 on trained Confucian scholars received the same interviews with Bolad Chingsang and other Mongol privileges given Buddhist and Taoist clergy (see RELIGIOUS informants, are indispensable sources on Mongol social POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE), a descendant of Confu- history. His history of QUBILAI KHAN, evidently derived cius was enfeoffed as duke, and a Confucian temple was from Bolad Chingsang, excellently complements Chinese built in the imperial capital of QARA-QORUM. From 1240 histories. Even when incorporating existing source mate- Yelü Chucai’s influence declined, and Ögedei’s immediate rial, he carefully corrected and added material from his successors showed no interest in Confucianism, allowing Mongol consultants or from now-lost Mongolian written the provisions protecting scholars to lapse. sources. In his history of the Middle Eastern Il-Khans, how- QUBILAI AND HIS SUCCESSORS ever, Rashid aims to conceal as much as reveal. Despite In the 1240s, the prince Qubilai, under the influence of the wealth of data, he reveals few intimate details, and, as the Buddhist monk Haiyun (1202–57) and the master is typical in Islamic histories, he systematically excises diviner LIU BINGZHONG (1216–74), began interviewing the substantial role of Christianity and Judaism at court. Confucian scholars. Zhao Bi (1220–76), a Shanxi scholar The final section on Ghazan Khan’s reforms is, however, a in Qubilai’s entourage, translated into Mongolian the unique firsthand description of administration and commentary by Zhen Dexiu (1178–1235) on the Confu- finance in a medieval Islamic state. cian classic Great Learning, while Yao Shu (1203–80) lec- In his tomb complex of Rab‘-i Rashidi, Rashid tured Qubilai’s son JINGIM on the Classic of Filial Piety. arranged for one illustrated copy each in the Persian orig- The records of their conversations kept by Zhang Dehui 118 Confucianism (1197–1274) show Qubilai coming to grips with the school textbooks were all translated from Chinese: the almost purely ethical character of Confucianism yet wor- Difan (Plan for an emperor) by the Tang emperor ried by the conventional wisdom that excessive Confu- Taizong (597–649), the institutional compendium Zhen- cianism had ruined the earlier JIN DYNASTY. guan zhengyao of Wu Jing (640–749), the massive his- From 1252 Qubilai began applying these lessons as tory Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive mirror in aid of brother of the khan and viceroy in China. With Qubilai’s government) of Sima Guang (1019–86), and Zhao Bi’s election as khan in 1260, Confucian scholars for a brief translation of the commentary on the Great Learning. period began to dominate the councils of the ruler. While The court printed Mongolian translations of the Zizhi QUBILAI KHAN eventually rejected their advice as too dog- tongjian in 1282 and the elementary Classic of Filial Piety matic, Confucians remained a presence in the govern- in 1307. Only in 1329 was a Directorate of Literature ment, supported by Qubilai’s Confucian-trained son established for the comprehensive translation of Chinese Jingim and many Mongolian aristocrats. These Confucian classics into Mongolian. Mongols tended to focus on Confucianism’s historical and dynasty-building experiences rather than on the rit- MONGOL CONFUCIANISM IN THE ual or metaphysical side of the teaching. QING DYNASTY Under the civilian registration policies Confucian After the expulsion of the Mongols from China in 1368, scholars were defined as those who were either Confucian influence disappeared. Only the Classic of Fil- descended from a degree holder under the previous Chi- ial Piety was still transmitted; all other translations were nese dynasties or had demonstrated Confucian knowl- lost. With the Mongols’ submission to the QING DYNASTY edge in an examination. Government quotas kept the (1636–1912) they once again came in contact with Con- number of Confucian households at well under 1 percent fucianism, yet since the Mongols in the autonomous BAN- of the population, hardly a fifth of the Buddhist or Taoist NERS (appanages) were not allowed to participate in the clergy. Most of these Confucians were schoolteachers, dynasty’s Confucian examination system or even invite receiving positions in the local administration only at teachers to give instruction in Chinese, such contact was advanced ages. indirect. Qubilai’s early Confucian advisers were not members Certain Chinese books that were translated into of any organized school. The northern Dongping school, Mongolian for other reasons contained some Confucian which emphasized literary composition, was discredited content, particularly the 1644 court-sponsored printings when its key adherent at court, Wang Wentong, was exe- of an abridged Mongolian translation of the Chinese cuted for involvement in LI TAN’S REBELLION. Xu Heng YUAN SHI (History of the Yuan), or standard Yuan dynasty (1209–81), a northern Confucian at Qubilai’s court, was history. Manchu versions of the Four Books were also the first to disseminate in North China the teachings of printed, and many learned Mongols could read Manchu the metaphysical and rigorist school of Zhu Xi (far more than could read Chinese). Other printed didac- (1130–1200) that had dominated the SONG DYNASTY tic texts frequently used as textbooks taught elementary (960–1279) in South China. While at first Confucians of Confucian concepts such as the Shengyu Guangxun (Holy the fallen Song refused to serve the Yuan, by 1310 a new instruction), written by the Kangxi emperor in 1670 and generation of South Chinese scholars had begun serving revised by his son the Yongzheng emperor in 1724, and in government positions as well as teaching and tutoring the translated Chinese primer Three-Character Classic in the dynastic schools. When the emperor Ayurbarwada (Sanzijing). Historians of Buddhism such as DUKE GOM- (titled Renzong, 1311–20) finally established the exami- BOJAB (fl. 1692–1749) and the lama Jamba-Dorji of Urad nation system in 1315, Zhu Xi’s interpretations of the (fl. 1849) in describing Chinese Buddhism incidentally Four Books were established as standard. In 1324 the touched on other Chinese schools, including Confucian- “Classics Mat,” or program of Confucian lectures for the ism. Finally, by the 19th century the increasing number emperor by senior scholar officials, was also instituted. of Chinese settlers in Inner Mongolian banners made Despite these victories for the Zhu Xi school, leading Chinese literacy more common. In the early 19th century Yuan Confucians even in South China, such as Wu Cheng a Höhhot TÜMED author, Galsang (fl. 1838), translated all (1249–1333) and Yu Ji (1272–1348), reflected the Mon- of the Four Books, which were printed in bilingual Chi- gol focus on law and administration and avoidance of nese-Mongolian editions. narrow sectarianism. In 1775 the eastern Inner Mongolian author From Qubilai’s reign on Confucianism dominated Rashipungsug became the first Mongolian historian to the formal education of well-born Mongol boys. In 1269 confront the Confucian view of the Mongols in his BOLOR state-sponsored Mongolian schools were established in ERIKHE. While very much sympathetic with Confucian- the provinces, and in 1271 a Mongolian School for the ism’s social values, he was offended by the criticisms of Sons of the State was established in the capital, all staffed Buddhism offered by Confucian scholars in the course of by accredited Mongol teachers instructing children in the histories he read. While Rashipungsug remained the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE in the SQUARE SCRIPT. The firmly committed to the priority of Buddhism, INJANNASHI 1960 Constitution 119 (1837–92) engaged Confucian thought at a much deeper eign trade were reserved to state monopoly. The constitu- level. Quoting Qubilai’s early conversations with Zhang tion confirmed the abolition of the previous legal estates Dehui, Injannashi then offered his own Confucian-influ- and the privatization of religious belief. It also disenfran- enced views reconciling cultural relativism with common chised the aristocracy, full-time monks, and all “greedy human morals, yet his subtle ideas were not followed up. exploiters” and persons living on interest payments. The By 1900 certain aspects and catchphrases of Confu- more radical class struggle and socialist provisions were cian teachings were widely circulated among the Mongols not actually implemented until the LEFTIST PERIOD begin- but without the larger context of systematic doctrine. In ning in 1929. Inner Mongolia citations from the Chinese classics See also REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. increased in the years immediately after 1912, when the Manchu Qing dynasty fell and the Mongols were directly incorporated into the Republic of China. In Mongolia 1940 Constitution The 1940 Constitution, passed at some conservative scholars responded to the 1921 Revo- the eighth Great Khural (June–July 1940), held after the lution by emphasizing the family- and state-oriented sec- annihilation of the Buddhist clergy and the GREAT PURGE, ular values of Confucianism. Thus, Mandukhu naran-u confirmed the destruction of the prerevolutionary social tuyaga (Rays of the rising sun), published in 1923 by order. Batuwachir (Ch. Bat-Ochir, b. 1874), expressed Confu- The government organs created in the 1940 Consti- cian ideas on family and personal cultivation. In both tution resembled those of the 1924 CONSTITUTION, but areas, however, Soviet-influenced revolutionary move- the standing legislative body, the Little State Khural, was ments advocating revolutionary changes in society and renamed the Great Khural’s Presidium; its chairman the family and vehemently denouncing feudal and Orien- remained titular head of state. The government, or cabi- tal traditions, soon swept away these nascent Confucian net, elected by the supreme legislature or Great State trends. Khural, was renamed the Council of Ministers and the See also LIAN XIXIAN; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MON- prime minister renamed the chairman of the Council of GOL EMPIRE; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; SAYYID AJALL. Ministers. The Great State Khural’s deputies’ terms were Further reading: John W. Dardess, Confucianism and extended to three years. Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming The preface of the constitution defined the MONGO- Dynasty (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); LIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC as a state composed of three Igor de Rachewiltz, “The Preclassical Mongol Version of nonantagonistic strata: herders, workers, and intellectu- the Hsiao-Ching,” Zentralasiatische Studien 16 (1982): als, now pursuing “noncapitalist development” toward 7–109. the future building of socialism. The constitution fol- lowed the expropriation of the aristocracy, destruction of the Buddhist church, and limitation of private ownership 1924 Constitution The 1924 Constitution confirmed of capital to the animal husbandry sector. “Exploiting the elimination of the constitutional monarchy under the classes” such as those who lived on rents or interest, high JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU and made Mongolia a people’s lamas, titled nobility, oppressive taiji (petty nobility) republic. With the death of the Bogda Khan (Holy counterrevolutionaries, and influential kulaks (rich farm- Emperor, see JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH) in May ers or herders) were all disenfranchised. Freedom of reli- 1924, the Mongolian revolutionary leadership proclaimed gion was now paired, as in Soviet constitutions, with Mongolia a republic. On October 24, 1924, the govern- “freedom of antireligious propaganda.” ment created a commission to draft a new constitution. In 1949 the indirect election of the Great State Khural The commission’s draft was supplied by the Russian legal deputies by open ballot was amended to direct election by adviser P. V. Vseviatskii and translated into Mongolian by secret ballot, and the political disabilities of the earlier ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO. The First Great Khural (Novem- “exploiting classes” were removed. As before, however, ber 8–28, 1924) adopted it essentially without change. only one candidate, that nominated by the MONGOLIAN The new constitution was of the Soviet form, putting PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY, stood for each position. all sovereign power nominally in the hands of an indi- The Cyrillic version of the constitution published in 1949 rectly elected supreme legislature or Great State Khural, also made numerous changes in language from the original which elected a standing legislature or Little State Khural UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT version. and a government (i.e., cabinet). In reality, the Presidium of the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY (nowhere mentioned in the constitution) was the real 1960 Constitution Approved on July 6, 1960, at the decision-making body. Although the constitution guaran- close of the successful collectivization campaign, the teed various rights, they were restricted to the “real peo- 1960 Constitution celebrated the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S ple” (jingkhini arad tümen), and the constitution’s preface REPUBLIC’s coming of age as a fully socialist country. defined the republic’s aim as the destruction of internal The 1960 Constitution’s preamble was the first to tie and external reactionaries. All natural resources and for- explicitly Mongolia’s freedom and development to the 120 1992 Constitution October Revolution, V. I. Lenin’s teaching, and Soviet golia’s sovereignty, defines Mongolia as a unitary state, assistance. It was also the first to identify explicitly the allowing the stationing of foreign troops only by parlia- MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY as the ruling mentary approval and restricting private land ownership party. to improved urban and farm land, while reserving subsoil The 1960 Constitution defined the state’s class basis resources, forests, and pasture to state ownership. Owner- as the workers, the collectivized arats (Mongolian, ship of land by foreign nationals is prohibited. Religion arad/ard, people, commoners, here used to match Russian and state are enjoined to support each other without peasants), both herders and farmers, and the intellectu- either encroaching on the other’s sphere. als. The text repeatedly emphasized that all property in The second chapter defines the rights and freedoms Mongolia, whether owned by the state or the rural coop- of Mongolian citizens. Given the history of gross abuse eratives, was socialist and that all resources were to be by previous Mongolian governments, these carefully spell dedicated to socialist construction and development, cul- out rights to property, to join political parties and peace- minating in a communist society. fully protest, to enjoy freedom from unlawful searches, The 1960 Constitution retained the government detention, or any form of torture, and to a fair trial based structure created in 1940 as amended in 1949, although on a presumption of innocence. Capital punishment is the supreme legislature or Great State Khural was limited to the most serious crimes. Guarantees of free renamed the Great People’s Khural. At first the Khural education, health care, and other vaguer rights, such as to grew with the population, but in 1981 its size was fixed a balanced ecology, to favorable work conditions, and to at 370. With greater prosperity, the section on civil rights engage in creative work, are also offered. Citizens are was expanded to include, for example, the right to free required to respect the constitution and others’ rights, as health care and a steadily shortening work week with well as, when required, to pay taxes and do military ser- improving services. At the same time, the list of civil vice. (There is no provision for conscientious objection.) duties was lengthened by requiring various good behav- The third chapter defines the structure of the state: iors, including “proletarian internationalism” (i.e., a pro- 1) The Great State Khural (Ulsyn Ikh Khural), or parlia- Soviet, pro-Russian attitude). ment; 2) the president; 3) the government (i.e., cabinet) In May 1990, during the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLU- with its prime minister; and 4) the judiciary. The Great TION, the 1960 Constitution was amended to allow multi- State Khural is composed of 76 members elected for four- party elections until a new constitution could be drawn year terms. The president is directly elected to, at most, up. A 430-seat Great People’s Khural was elected by a two four-year terms and has a veto power that can be first-past-the-post system, while a new Little State Khural overridden only by two-thirds of the parliament. He or with 50 seats became the standing legislature, elected by she must be born in Mongolia. The government and proportional representation. prime minister are nominated by the president for confir- mation by the Great State Khural. The selection of judges, including those of the Supreme Court, is 1992 Constitution The Mongolian 1992 Constitution entrusted to a general council of courts, with confirma- was intended to consolidate the social and political sys- tion by the parliament and appointment by the president, tem created by the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION. It was and is limited to those with a formal legal education and the first Mongolian constitution to guarantee effectively a legal experience. pluralistic society that respects human rights and decides The fourth chapter defines a three-tier system of political leadership through competitive elections. The local administration. Below the national level are: 1) constitution defines Mongolia’s current state structure. provinces (AIMAGS) and the capital city, ULAANBAATAR; The 1992 Constitution was adopted on January 13, then 2) rural SUMS and urban districts (düüreg); and 3) 1992, by the Great People’s Khural (Assembly), which rural bag (teams) and urban khoroo (wards). Local gov- had been elected in May 1990 after the advent of multi- ernments are indirectly elected; a general meeting (in the party elections. Drawn up after comparison with a wide lowest level) or part-time khural, or assembly (in the variety of world constitutions, the initial draft, presented upper levels), elects a standing presidium and nominates at the end of October 1991, was subject to 76 days of dis- a governor. The governor then must be approved by the cussion in the Great People’s Khural. In these debates the next higher level. initial draft’s proposed official name for the country was The fifth chapter creates a nine-member Constitu- changed from the Republic of Mongolia (Bügd Nairam- tional Tsets, or court. The parliament, president, and dakh Mongol Uls) to State of Mongolia (Mongol Uls), the Supreme Court each appoint three members who serve old 1945 flag basically preserved (see FLAGS), a new seal for six years. This body exercises the predominant power adopted, and possible land PRIVATIZATION carefully cir- on issues of constitutionality. The sixth chapter allows cumscribed. constitutional amendments either by a three-fourth The 1992 Constitution is divided into a preamble majority of the parliament or by a national referendum and six chapters. The first chapter, on the State of Mon- called for by two-thirds of the legislature. Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121 The first amendment to the 1992 Constitution con- was the Mediterranean’s major supplier of Far Eastern cerned the relation of the government and prime minister wares. to the president and Great State Khural. Originally, the In the 1290s conflicts between the khan Toqto’a constitution forbade members of parliament to serve in (1291–1312) and the senior prince NOQAI (d. 1299) the government. In 1998 members of the parliament in spilled over into Crimea. In the 14th century Christian- both main parties passed a constitutional amendment to Muslim tensions increased with the immigration of Ana- change this provision and to create a more clearly parlia- tolian Turks. These tensions periodically provoked mentary system. President N. Bagabandi’s veto was over- conflict with the Mongol rulers, who sacked Caffa in ridden, but the Constitutional Court invalidated the 1308 and Sudak in 1322 and besieged Caffa unsuccess- amendment due to procedural irregularities. President fully in 1343 and 1345–46. In 1332 Ibn Battuta found Bagabandi also refused to accept the government nomi- Caffa flourishing under Genoese control, but Sudak was nated by the majority parliamentary party, as the candi- partly in ruins and under Turkish control. Qirim and dates were under investigation for corruption. After Azaq were heavily Muslim and ruled by governors from further controversy, in May 2001 a new parliament the Horde. passed, and the Constitutional Court accepted, the con- During the 1345–46 siege plague spread from the stitution’s first amendment clearly establishing the princi- Horde’s army to the Crimean cities, claiming 85,000 lives. ple of a government responsible to parliament and In the succeeding troubles Far East trade dried up, and composed of parliament members. defeated khans and emirs restocked their treasuries by See also MONGOLIA, STATE OF. looting Caffa. The same chaos, however, allowed the Genoese to unify the port cities and renegotiate their sta- tus (1380). Court of Colonial Affairs See LIFAN YUAN. In 1426–27 a line of Chinggisid khans established themselves in Crimea, and in 1449 the Chinggisid Hajji Crimea Under the Mongols Crimea continued to Giray declared himself khan of an independent Crimea. export northern commodities—grain, fish, salt, beeswax, In 1475 the Ottoman Turks conquered Caffa and the port honey, skins and furs, and slaves—to Byzantium, Italy, cities. The Crimean khanate occupied the Crimean and Egypt. In the 13th century the main ports for Black inland and the neighboring steppe as an Ottoman protec- Sea commerce were Sudak (Italian, Soldaia) and Caffa torate until the Russian conquest in 1783. (Russian, Feodosiya). Inland from both was the adminis- See also BYZANTIUM AND BULGARIA. trative center of Qirim (modern Staryy Krym). Goths, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Anatolian Turks settled the coastal ports and villages, while Qipchaq nomads dwelled Crusaders See LESSER ARMENIA; MAMLUK EGYPT; WEST- ERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. in the northern plains. During the Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204–60) the Venetians established a factory at Sudak, where MARCO POLO’s family kept a Cyrillic-script Mongolian The Cyrillic (Russian) house. script was adapted for writing the Mongolian language in In spring 1223 a detachment of Mongols sacked a lengthy process from 1941 to 1951, and it is still Mon- Sudak as part of a massive raiding expedition through the golia’s official script. Qipchaq lands. As the Mongols conquered the Black Sea steppe from 1236, famine-struck Qipchaq refugees INTRODUCTION OF THE SCRIPT crowded into Crimea. The Mongol conquest of Crimea in Russia’s Buriat Christians and folklorists first experi- 1238 depopulated the Crimean steppe and glutted the mented with transcribing MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE texts port markets with Qipchaq slaves. Sudak now became into Cyrillic. In 1925 the KALMYKS (Oirat Mongols) in MAMLUK EGYPT’s key supplier of mamluks (military European Russia adopted a Cyrillic script to write their slaves). language. In 1939 the Buriat Mongols in Siberia moved After the Mongol conquest the port cities paid cus- from the Latin script they had adopted in 1931 to a new toms duties to the GOLDEN HORDE khans on the Volga, Cyrillic script. On March 25, 1941, the MONGOLIAN PEO- but the revenues were divided among the whole empire’s PLE’S REPUBLIC rejected Latinization and, to increase Chinggisid princes, in accordance with the APPANAGE SYS- familiarity with Soviet writings and culture, decided to TEM. Crimea’s salt lakes also generated major revenue for replace the traditional UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT with the Horde. In 1260 the Byzantines recovered Con- the Cyrillic script instead. The Mongolian scholar stantinople and gave to the Genoans vast trade conces- TsENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN designed the new script in less sions in the Black Sea. In 1267 the khan Mengü-Temür than a week. The Khalkha dialect of Mongolian, spoken (1266–80) granted the Genoese the administration of by 70 percent or more of the population of the Mongolian Caffa, while Venice held a factory at Azaq (Italian, Tana, People’s Republic, was naturally chosen as the basis for modern Azov), center of the fish trade. By 1340 Crimea the Cyrillic script orthography. 122 Cyrillic-script Mongolian After desultory educational efforts the Mongolian In all new Mongolian languages (Mongolian proper, government tried to switch to the new script in July Buriat, and Kalmyk-Oirat) short noninitial vowels are 1945, but passive resistance was widespread. In July 1946 more or less reduced, losing their distinctive character a serious push was begun to transfer to the new script, but mostly still being pronounced as a “schwa.” While and by October 1947 42.2 percent of adults were literate the Kalmyk Cyrillic script drops them all and the Buriat in the Cyrillic. From July 1, 1950, government business Cyrillic script retains them all, Damdinsüren adopted a was officially conducted in the new script. Even so, middle course together with complex rules of dropping important political works were published in the Uigher- and retention of short vowels in noun and verb inflec- Mongolian Mongolian script as late as 1951. From 1955 tion. These rules, which include switching between the N to 1958 the Inner Mongolian government in the People’s soft sign (ь) and the “i” ( ), give considerable trouble to Republic of China planned to introduce the Cyrillic script Mongolian children. in place of the Uighur-Mongolian script, but this idea was CONTEMPORARY USE canceled for political reasons (see KHAFUNGGA). Although the older generation in Mongolia continued to DESIGN OF THE SCRIPT use the Uighur-Mongolian script privately, the Cyrillic In commissioning Damdinsüren to design the script, YUM- script soon became completely dominant. In 1986, with JAAGIIN TSEDENBAL ordered that the Russian script not be the beginning of liberalization, the Uighur-Mongolian “cut up,” that is, that all its letters must be used. At the script was introduced as a compulsory subject in seventh same time, non-Russian letters were to be kept to an abso- and eighth grades (equivalent to American ninth and lute minimum. Damdinsüren fulfilled this mandate largely tenth grades). In 1991, with full-scale democratization, by imitating the existing Buriat Cyrillic script. Russian the Mongolian legislature ordered the Uighur-Mongolian “¬” (zh) and “з” (z) were used for the Mongolian “j” and script restored as Mongolia’s official script by 1994. For a “z,” even though the Mongolian pronunciation was differ- few years primary school pupils were taught solely in the ent (like jam and adze, not like azure and zoo). The use of Uighur-Mongolian script. In a democratic environment Cyrillic “¿” (n) for both Uighur-Mongolian “-n” and “-ng” the inadequate materials and poor teacher training in the complicated the noun declension system. Palatalized Rus- Uighur-Mongolian script could not overcome passive sian vowels (e, ë, я and ю) represented the consonant “y,” resistance from the population, and in 1996 the Cyrillic even though this created ambiguities between, for exam- script was reconfirmed as the official script, with the ple, “ye” and “yö.” Uighur-Mongolian script to be taught as a required sec- Vowels were more complicated. Damdinsüren adopted ondary school subject. While Latinization has influential the Cyrillic Buriat “µ” and “Æ” for the Mongolian front adherents, Cyrillic will remain Mongolia’s primary script rounded vowels (conventionally transcribed ö and ü). At for the foreseeable future. first long vowels were distinguished by an added apostro- See also BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT; KALMYK-OIRAT phe and then by a macron (e.g., o).¯ In May 1945, however, LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT. it was decided to follow Buriat by representing long vowels Further reading: Stephane Grivelet, “An Attempt to with double vowels, thus avoiding diacritics. The Russian Change the Official Script of Mongolia,” Turkic Languages 2 soft sign (ь) and hard sign (ъ) and the “61 i” (ы) had no (1998): 233–246; ———, “Latinization Attempt in Mongo- obvious use in Mongolian, but Damdinsüren used the soft lia,” in Historical and Linguistic Interaction between Inner- sign to represent a reduced etymological “i” that palatal- Asia and Europe, ed. Árpád Berta and Edina Horváth ized the preceding vowel and the “61 i” in case endings. (Szeged, Hungary: University of Szeged, 1997), 115–120. Dadu See DAIDU. D designed the buildings. Qubilai held his first formal audi- ence in the new palace in February 1274. Renamed Daidu (Great Capital, modern Chinese pronunciation Dadu) in Dagor See DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. 1272, the city was called by its many foreign residents Khan-Baligh, “City of the Khan.” Dagur See DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. The new city’s 15 meter (50-foot-high) whitewashed walls extended five kilometers (three miles) east to west Da Hinggan Ling See GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE. and somewhat less than seven kilometers (five miles) north to south. Respectable residents from the old city were housed in extended-family compounds in plots of Dahur See DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. around 3 hectares or more than an acre each. The six broad alleys and strict grid organization gave the city an Daidu (Dadu, Ta-tu, Khanbaligh) Moving his capital to impressively spacious look. Suburbs stretched for miles Daidu (modern Beijing) marked the importance of North outside the new city’s 12 gates, while old Yanjing became China in QUBILAI KHAN’s realm, yet he also preserved much almost desolate. Following Mongol custom, burials and of his Mongol background in his palace there. any bloodshed were strictly forbidden inside the city. A The site of present-day Beijing, traditionally named curfew testified to the Mongols’ continuing fears of Yanjing, was a secondary capital of the Liao dynasty rebellion. (907–1125) founded by the Inner Mongolian KITANS. In Following a model begun at QARA-QORUM, Qubilai’s 1153 the Jurchens’ JIN DYNASTY renamed the city palaces, including Daming Hall for formal audiences and Zhongdu, or “Central Capital.” In 1215 the city was Yanchun Pavilion for confidential meetings and Buddhist besieged and sacked by the Mongols (see ZHONGDU, rituals, occupied elevated platforms inside the palace SIEGES OF). Afterward, under the name Yanjing, it served grounds. The outer-palace grounds, walled with watch- as the seat of Mongol administration in North China. towers and arsenals, were a stocked game park, criss- When Qubilai Khan (1260–94) was first elected crossed by elevated walkways and graced by the lake khan, he placed the secretariat, his main organ of admin- Taiye Chi (modern Bei- and Nanhai). istration, at Yanjing. Cut off from his ancestors’ palace- The Yuan-era population has been estimated at tents (ORDOs) by war, he built an ancestral temple there 600,000 persons, and they served as a magnet for all with earth and grass from the steppe. Finally, in 1266 forms of commerce. Even so, feeding the court estab- Qubilai ordered a new capital to be built northeast of old lishment was a major task. In 1292 Guo Shoujing Yanjing centered on today’s Forbidden City. Feng-shui dredged the Tonghui Canal, bringing water into the very expert and adviser LIU BINGZHONG based the city’s overall walls of the city. After the fall of the city to the MING placement on the Chinese classic Zhou Li (Rites of the DYNASTY in 1368, the site was retained and renamed Bei- Zhou dynasty), and the Turkestani architect Igder jing (Northern Capital). The only extant monument of 123 124 dairy products the Mongol city is Baita or “White Pagoda” north of Bei- melted to separate the “yellow oil” (shar tos), or clarified hai Lake. butter. The residue from the separation of “white oil” is See also “LAMENT OF TOGHAN-TEMÜR.” tsötsgii, a delicious cream eaten in recent times mixed Further reading: Nancy R. S. Steinhardt, “The Plan with cane sugar and fried millet. of Khubilai Khan’s Imperial City,” Artibus Asiae 44 Once the cream is skimmed off, the rest of the milk (1983): 137–158. may be poured into a kettle over a gentle flame until it separates into curds and “yellow milk” (sharasü). The dairy products Historical and ethnographic accounts yellow milk is boiled and then mixed with culture and show that Mongolian dairy products have generally been allowed to ferment, forming chagaa. The chagaa is then processed in identical ways from the 13th century to placed in sacks and the liquid squeezed out with a today, although the terminology differs somewhat from weight, forming a semisolid aarts. Dried in the sun, region to region. Mongols milk all five of the animals but aarts becomes khuruud, a kind of rockhard cheese. This they tend to put the milk to different uses. Thus, mare’s cultured cheese can be preserved indefinitely and was milk is generally fermented into KOUMISS, sheep and part of the regular rations of soldiers on campaigns. It is goat’s milk is mostly used in TEA or cheeses, while cow’s reconstituted for eating by placing it in hot water. In the milk is used for all three purposes. Middle Ages this was done by putting it in a skin and Zöökhii, or cream, is one of the simplest dairy prod- beating it, while in modern times it is often placed in ucts to make, being produced by letting the milk curdle tea. Today the aarts is frequently mixed with sugar and in a warm place for six to eight hours and skimming the squeezed through a meat grinder to form wormlike cream off the top. This cream is strained and churned to pieces of sweet aaruul, a popular holiday and gift prod- form “white oil” (tsagaan tos), which is then gently uct. Another form of khuruud is made today without culture by pressing unfermented curds into molds to make pieces of hard, round, dry curds used to decorate hospitality plates. In the fall öröm rather than zöökhii is made. Öröm is a kind of coagulated foamy cream. By gently heating (to about 80°C, or 176°F) and ladling the milk, a foam is produced, which when the fire is weakened coagulates. By carefully adding new milk around the edges and reheating three to four times, a thick layer of öröm is formed, which after cooling overnight can be removed. Cheeses (biyaslag) are made by adding fermented milk to foaming milk, heated over a gentle flame. The curdled milk is then strained through cloth, wrapped, and placed under a stone to remove the liquid. This pro- cedure can also be followed with the milk left over from öröm. Culture is also added directly to milk (fresh or left- over from making öröm) to make yogurt (tarag). Fermented, slightly alcoholic liquors are made from mare’s, cow’s, and camel’s milk. That from mare’s milk is the famous koumiss (from Turkish qumiz, Mongolian, airag or chigee), the drink of choice for Inner Asian men. This is produced by vigorously churning cultured milk. Koumiss has a natural tendency to separate into turbid white dregs and a potent clear liquid. While today only plain koumiss is usually drunk, in the empire period the clear liquid, called “black koumiss” (qara qumiz) in Turkish (all clear liquids are “black” to the Mongols), was the rulers’ preferred drink. Today, instead, distilled milk liquors are made with home-distilling equipment set up over a kettle of boiling fermented milk. The resulting liquor, called shimiin arkhi in Mongolia or saali-yin arikhi in Inner Mongolia, is 10–12 percent alco- “Yellow milk” being fermented to make khuruud (a hard hol. Double-fermented milk liquor, or arz, reaches 30 cheese). Shiliin Gol, Inner Mongolia, 1987 (Courtesy of percent alcohol. Christopher Atwood) See also FOOD AND DRINK. Damba, Dashiin 125 Kalmyk women and children in a yurt, brewing distilled milk liquor (From Peter Simon Pallas, Sammlungen historischer Nachrichten über die mongolischen Völkerschaften [1976]) Dalai Lama, fourth (Yon-tan rGya-mtsho) (1589–1617) lian escorts as illiterate barbarians and dGe-lugs-pa big- The only Dalai Lama of non-Tibetan origin ots. The Tibetan king, based in gZhis-ka-rtse (Xigazê), In 1588 the Third Dalai Lama, bSod-nams rGya-mtsho also saw the escorts as a threat and had them expelled in (1543–88) died while in Inner Mongolia. In February 1605. As the dGe-lugs-pa were strong in the dBus district 1589 a boy born to Sümer Taiji, grandson of ALTAN KHAN around Lhasa, while the Karma-pa and the Tibetan king (1508–82) and a lady variously known at Bigchog Beiji or were based in the gTsang district, regional tensions flared. Baigha-Jula, showed remarkable religious attainments Only the affection between the young Dalai Lama and his from birth. In 1592 the boy’s uncle Tümed khan Chürüke tutor, Blo-bzang Chos-kyi rGyal-mtshan (1567–1662), and his queen, Noyanchu Jünggen, visited his father’s the first Panchen Lama, who presided over bKra-shis camp at Chaghan Nuur (Qagan Nur), and the boy was Lhun-po Monastery in gZhis-ka-rtse, moderated the ten- enthroned as the Dalai Lama at Guihua (modern sions. In 1617 the Dalai Lama died; his heart and other HÖHHOT). The Tibetans, believing the Mongols to have organs were brought back to Tümed as relics. “little wisdom and much pride,” ignored the boy until 1601, when the chief monasteries of the Dalai Lama’s Damba See DAMBADORJI. dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) order sent a delegation to test him. Once the boy passed the test, the Tibetans insisted that he be brought to Lhasa. On November 3, 1603, he Damba, Dashiin (1908–1989) Mongolian party leader was ordained at Lhasa with the name Yon-tan rGya- who was ousted for attempting to implement de-Staliniza- mtsho. Within a year tensions flared with the rival tion more aggressively than the maximum leader, Tsedendal, Karma-pa lamas, who saw the new Dalai Lama’s Mongo- wished 126 Dambadorj, Tseren-Ochiryn Born on March 29, 1908, in Daiching Zasag banner pean countries, wrote articles, and translated several (Teshig Sum, Bulgan), Damba joined the MONGOLIAN REV- works of Friedrich Engels. OLUTIONARY YOUTH LEAGUE in 1924 and participated in At the People’s Party’s Third Congress (August 1924) the expropriation of the nobility’s property in 1929–30. he allied with the Buriat revolutionary ELBEK-DORZHI After studying in the party school in ULAANBAATAR, he RINCHINO to overthrow GENERAL DANZIN and regain his became a commissar in the armed forces (see ARMED old position. After Rinchino’s recall to Russia in July FORCES OF MONGOLIA) from 1932 to 1938. 1925, Dambadorji as party chairman and his allies ran After serving as provincial party secretary, he was Mongolia. Under Dambadorji’s rule state control of the elected to the party presidium in July 1939 while partici- economy and Soviet presence slowly increased, yet he pating in the arrest of the 1921 revolutionary and deputy strictly disciplined radicals who demanded the replace- interior minister Losal (D. Losol, 1890–1940). With the ment of experienced old officials. With Moscow’s encour- arrest and torture of the new party secretary Basanjab (B. agement Dambadorji supported both the Chinese warlord Baasanjaw, 1906–41), Damba was implicated as well, but Feng Yuxiang and Inner Mongolian revolutionaries. His Mongolia’s leader, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG, had the charges short-lived first marriage in 1925 to a Chinese actress, dropped. Damba remained in the Politburo but was not Wang Shuqin, diminished his popularity. In 1927 he mar- part of Choibalsang’s inner circle. ried a Mongolian woman, Batsükh. After Choibalsang’s death Damba took the position of His attempts to open diplomatic relations with Japan the party’s first secretary, while YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL and his opposition to the Communist International’s radi- became premier. The Soviet-educated Tsedenbal despised calization of the allied Inner Mongolian party incurred Damba as a “backward” man who shirked work to visit Moscow’s hostility. After more than a year of pressure, the countryside, was not a reader, and did not write his Dambadorji’s regime was overthrown at the People’s Rev- own speeches. In 1956, with de-Stalinization in the olutionary Party’s Seventh Congress (September–Decem- Soviet Union, a special commission headed by BAZARYN ber 1928). Dambadorji was exiled to Moscow for study SHIRENDEW was formed to reevaluate purge victims in the with Batsükh and their son, Abmad. After 1932 he Stalin-Choibalsang years. Damba supported giving the worked in Mongolia’s embassy in Moscow before dying of commission access to top-secret Interior Ministry files, disease in 1934. but Tsedenbal was opposed. In 1957, when Tsedenbal See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS wished to arrest Shirendew and another rival as “imperi- OF; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY, SEVENTH alist spies,” Damba persuaded him to delay and then drop CONGRESS OF; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC the charges. In November 1958 Tsedenbal dismissed PERIOD. Damba. After his dismissal he headed a machine tractor station and eventually became deputy director of the Institute of Agriculture. Dambijantsan (Ja Lama) (d. 1922) Mysterious adven- See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. turer said to have had magic powers who helped drive the Chinese out of Khowd and became the border warden in western Mongolia Dambadorj, Tseren-Ochiryn See DAMBADORJI. Dambinjantsan is generally said to have been a Kalmyk. A Dambijantsan (known as Ja Lama, from “Jantsan”) Dambadorji (Tseren-Ochiryn Dambadorj, Damba Dorji, traveled western Mongolia and Tibet in 1889–90, 1892, Damba) (1899–1934) Mongolia’s leader in 1925–1928 who and from 1900 to perhaps 1904 as a lama from the west, resisted complete dependence on the Soviet Union prophesying the fall of the Qing and the rise of the Mon- Dambadorji’s father, Tsering Wachir, was head of the tele- gols and calling himself a reincarnation of AMURSANAA graph bureau of Mongolia’s theocratic government. His (1722?–57). son Dambadorji was born in Maimaching, the Chinatown In 1910 a Dambijantsan reappeared in western Mon- of Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). His father enrolled golia, although those who knew both doubted if it was him in 1913 in the translator’s school attached to the the same person. In 1912 he persuaded the Dörböd rulers Russian consulate and then in the gymnasium (high to support the 1911 RESTORATION and joined GRAND DUKE school) in Troitskosavsk (in modern KYAKHTA). After DAMDINSÜRÜNG, MAGSURJAB, and the JALKHANZA graduating he worked in the telegraph bureau. In winter KHUTUGTU in the siege of KHOWD CITY. Dambijantsan’s 1920–21 he joined the Mongolian revolutionaries in annihilation of Chinese reinforcements coming from Troitskosavsk, later participating in the October 1921 Chenghua (modern Altay) and his capture of their car- siege at Tolbo Nuur (Tolbo Sum, Bayan-Ölgii). From bines marked a turning point in the siege and also began December 1921 to January 1923 he was chairman of the the legend of his invulnerability to bullets. Mongolian People’s Party. After being replaced as chair- After the Mongolian victory he took the title Dogshin man by the more conservative “Japanese” Danzin Noyan Khutugtu Nom-un Khan (Fierce Lordly Incarna- (1875–1934), he traveled to Germany and other Euro- tion, Dharma King) and was appointed commissioner of Damdinsürüng, Grand Duke 127 the Western Marches by Mongolia’s theocratic govern- Mikhail, and Anna (Dulmaa). After his return in 1938 he ment. He built a new monastery near LAKE UWS, forcing was arrested in the GREAT PURGE on November 4 and tor- the lamas to dig an artificial pond, collecting 2,000 sub- tured—a blow with a red-hot iron lost him several jects, or shabi (lay disciples), and mooting various Russi- teeth—but was not executed. After his release on January fying reforms. Despite stories of his gun magic, 27, 1940, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG employed him to design clairvoyance, and prophetic gifts, his requisitions and Mongolia’s Cyrillic script. From 1942 to 1946 he was extreme cruelty soiled his and the theocratic govern- again Ünen newspaper’s editor in chief. From 1946 to ment’s reputation, and sparked a DUGUILANG-style move- 1950 he studied for his master’s degree in Moscow, writ- ment of Dörböd lamas against their prince and the ing his thesis on the GESER epic. Subsequently, he worked Mongolian government, one that had to be suppressed by at the Mongolian State University and the ACADEMY OF force. In 1914 the western Mongolian people appealed SCIENCES and published 56 scholarly papers and mono- directly to the Russian government, and Dambijantsan, a graphs. Russian citizen, was arrested and deported. Damdinsüren began his writing career as a poet and a After penal exile in Tomsk and Yakutsk, he returned short story writer. His first story, “The Rejected Girl” to Astrakhan and in 1918 reappeared in Khalkha’s (“Gologdson khüükhen”), written for the leftist Writer’s Zasagtu Khan AIMAG. Again winning over some of the Circle in January 1929, followed a poor family through princes, he set up a stockade at Gongpoquan, north of its troubles into the revolutionary years. Altered by pres- Mazong (Maajin) Shan in the northwest Gansu border- sure from his colleagues, the original, less ideological ver- lands (modern SUBEI MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY). He sion was to Damdinsüren’s later regret lost. In Leningrad remained neutral in the conflict between the White Rus- Damdinsüren wrote his famous poem “My Silver-Haired sians and the Soviet-supported revolutionaries in Mother” (“Buural ijii mini,” 1934) in a strongly rhythmic 1921–22 but was assassinated by agents sent from the folkloric style, speaking of his homesickness as well as revolutionary Office of Internal Security in early Decem- his determination to study. In 1950 he composed the ber 1922. Until the moment of his death even his assas- lyrics to the Mongolian national ANTHEM. sins worried about his reputation for invulnerability. After 1940, however, Damdinsüren put his major See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. effort into scholarship, paraphrasing the SECRET HISTORY Further reading: John Gaunt, “Mongolia’s Renegade OF THE MONGOLS in modern Mongolian (1947) and pub- Monk: The Career of Dambijantsan,” Journal of the Anglo- lishing the extraordinary pioneering anthology Monggol Mongolia Society 10 (1987): 27–41. uran zokhiyal-un degeji zagun bilig oroshibai (One hun- dred best works of Mongolian literature, 1955), which presented prerevolutionary works, almost all of which Damdinsüren, Jamsrangiin See DAMDINSÜRÜNG, had existed only in manuscript, in a modern format with GRAND DUKE. notes and commentary. Works covering virtually every field of prerevolutionary Mongolian literature followed. Damdinsüren, Tsendiin (1908–1986) Mongolian author In 1963 the party Politburo attacked Damdinsüren and scholar who became a leader in the preservation and study for recklessly reprinting Buddhist and shamanist texts of Mongolia’s prerevolutionary literary heritage and for encouraging his students to do the same. In Born in Üizeng Zasag banner (modern Matad Sum, East- 1970 his 1967–69 Russian-Mongolian dictionary was ern), the second son of the banner clerk Tsengde, who recalled, and Damdinsüren was fined 5,600 tögrögs for served briefly as banner deputy adjutant (1921–22) its “chauvinistic” chronological appendix. Foreign, par- before retiring due to illness, Damdinsüren was first ticularly Russian, appreciation of his work prevented tutored at home. In 1923 he became a banner clerk in his further persecution. banner and in 1925 volunteered as a scribe for a company See also CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MONGOLIAN LITERATURE; of soldiers stationed at Tamsag. While in the army, he MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; SOVIET UNION AND MON- began collecting books. From 1927 to 1929 he served as GOLIA. editor of Ünen newspaper and first became acquainted with Marxism in an evening study group with the Buriat “Wooden Leg” Gombozhab and the Russian adviser Damdinsürüng, Grand Duke (Jamsrangiin Damdin- Koniaev. In the succeeding LEFTIST PERIOD (1929–32) he süren) (1874–1920) A Barga Mongol and one of the chief briefly served on Mongolia’s trade union council before generals of the Mongolian theocratic government being sent to organize herding collectives in GOBI-ALTAI Born the only surviving son of a SUM captain in Plain PROVINCE. White banner of New BARGA left flank (modern Xin Barag From 1933 he studied at the Oriental Institute in Zuoqi), Damdinsürüng became a clerk before enrolling as Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In 1936 he married a Rus- a militiaman at age 18. In 1908, while staying in Beijing to sian-Jewish woman, L. V. Zevina, who was studying Mon- receive his lieutenant’s commission, he met the Khalkha golian there. They had four children: Lev, Konstantin, PRINCE KHANGDADORJI (1870–1915). After bannermen in 128 dance HULUN BUIR (including Barga) overthrew the local Chinese Among the KALMYKS on the Volga the bii dances were authorities in January 1912, Hulun Buir joined Khalkha strongly influenced by Cossack forms. Mongolia’s new theocratic government, and Damdin- In ORDOS dances involving only the upper body are sürüng was made duke (later grand duke) and deputy for- also performed. One involves holding a pair of chopsticks eign minister. Damdinsürüng and MAGSURJAB commanded and clicking them on each other and parts of the body, the successful Mongolian siege of KHOWD CITY (August while another involves balancing liquor cups on the 1912), and in 1913 he became supreme commander in the head. southeast during the SINO-MONGOLIAN WAR. As deputy for- Eastern Inner Mongolian dances include the Andai of eign minister Damdinsürüng helped draft the Mongolian- southeastern Inner Mongolia, which was performed by Tibetan treaty of March 1913. After 1915 Hulun Buir was villagers on a specially prepared ground when a shaman made a “Special Region” in China, but some New Barga identified a young woman as suffering from lovesickness bannermen and CHAKHAR soldiers were resettled in Mon- or post-partum depression. The dance, which was golia as Damdinsürüng’s subjects. Damdinsürüng, like avoided by the respectable strata or society, was per- many INNER MONGOLIANS, found the arrogance and mis- formed by dancers, villagers, and eventually the patient management of the Khalkha nobility and lamas frustrating herself and involved waving handkerchiefs and stamping. and proposed numerous reforms. After the disappointment With the development of professional folk perfor- of the 1915 KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY and the REVOCA- mance ensembles in the Mongol regions of Russia, Mon- TION OF AUTONOMY in 1919, he drank heavily. The Chinese golia, and China, the idea that the Mongols ought to have authorities in Mongolia arrested him on September 10, a flourishing dance tradition took hold. Emblematic 1920, and he died in prison. movements from the various dances described above See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. were taken and added to the ensemble jumps and twirls Further reading: Sh. Natsagdorj, “Damdinsüren the of Russian Cossack dance to manufacture a synthetic folk Forefront Hero,” in Mongolian Heroes of the Twentieth dance style. Century, trans. Urgunge Onon (New York: AMS Press, Further reading: Carole Pegg, Mongolian Music, 1976), 77–104. Dance, and Oral Narrative (Seattle: University of Wash- ington Press, 2001). dance Due to clerical opposition, dance virtually disap- peared from central Mongolia. Folk dances have danshug (modern, danshig) In Mongolia the danshug remained only in the peripheral areas of the Mongol (from Tibetan brtan-zhugs, firm abiding) ritual of asking world. In the 20th century new folk dance traditions an INCARNATE LAMA to abide longer in this world became were created. a vital part of the offering site–almsgiver (or A story of an early QURILTAI of 12th-century Mongols priest–patron) relationship established between the tells of them dancing around a lone tree and stamping KHALKHA nobility and the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU (see their feet so strongly they pounded a ditch as deep as “TWO CUSTOMS”). Begun in Tibet by the First Panchen their knees. European travelers also observed a kind of Lama (1567–1662), this type of ritual was first performed drinking dance in which the dancer teased and encour- in Mongolia for the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU in aged a partner to drink. In the ancestral temple built by 1657 at ERDENI ZUU, when it was accompanied by the QUBILAI KHAN (r. 1260–94), dances were performed, but Maitreya procession. From 1696 on the Khalkha nobility of what style is unknown. of all four AIMAGs and the GREAT SHABI presented the dan- In modern times essentially no dances are known shug annually or more often. These offerings began with a among the central Khalkha Mongols, except for the Garuda poem in the Tibetan shabdan (from zhabs-brtan, firm feet) dance of the wrestlers and the TSAM dance of the monaster- genre requesting the lama to remain in this world for the ies. A circle dance, or yookhor, was popular among the west- sake of sentient beings and the presentation of a silver ern BURIATS. In it the dancers make a circle, hold hands, and mandala, then followed with a gilt statue of Ayushi (Ami- slowly circle while singing. Games are also associated with tayus), Buddha of eternal life, and the scripture Tsendoo, dances. Among the eastern Buriats dance is performed only written in five jewels. Accompanying the offerings were during weddings, due to Buddhist opposition. “The Danshug Games of the Seven Banners [of The OIRATS of western Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Khalkha],” Doloon khoshuun-u danshug naadum. During Kalmykia perform a dance called bii or biyelgee. This the reign of the Fifth Jibzundamba (1815–42), the Qing dance, performed inside the yurt, involves only the arms, government restricted this all-Khalkha danshug to once in hands, head, and shoulders and mimes either daily activi- three years, but the GREAT SHABI continued annual offer- ties or worship rituals. While often etymologized by ings. After 1912 annual danshugs were held in the last Mongols as related to biye, “body,” and thus expanded to month of summer, becoming the basis of today’s NAADAM the form biyelgee, the word, in fact, originates from festival. Kazakh bi, “dance” thus indicating its foreign origin. See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Danzin, General 129 Danzan, Soliin See DANZIN, GENERAL. Dogsom, 1884–1941) to form a nam (“faction,” later “party”) called the “Officials’ Faction,” or the East Khüriye Group, to fight Chinese control. After merging Danzanravjaa See DANZIN-RABJAI. with another anti-Chinese faction, the “Consulate Terrace Group” headed by BODÔ, and forming the “People’s Party Danzin, General (Soliin Danzan) (1885–1924) One of of Outer Mongolia,” Danzin set out for Soviet Russia with the leaders of the 1921 Revolution, he served as national an interpreter, Choibalsang, on June 28–29. leader until his execution during the party’s Third Congress From the beginning Danzin insisted that the Mongo- Danzin was born to an unwed mother, Soli, in Süjügtü lian party needed to be representing the Bogda, as the Zasag banner (modern Khotont Sum, North Khangai). established ruler of Mongolia, to have any credibility with When Soli married, Danzin stayed behind with his pater- the Russians. This insistence brought him into repeated nal grandfather. Placed in a banner monastery, he soon conflict with Bodô. The uneducated Danzin, whom Rus- ran away and became a hired herder. Eventually, he sian advisers assessed as “not a man of great range,” con- became notorious in the local BANNERS as an incorrigible sidered the intellectual Bodô to be pretentious and vain. horse thief. In the early 1910s he fled south to the Gobi Once in Russia the two could not work together, and they before ending up in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) split up, Danzin going to Moscow to negotiate assistance around 1915. There he found employment in the Finance while Bodô returned to Mongolia. Ministry supervising leases and MINING concessions. He In mid-February 1921 Danzin returned to the border, worked as liaison to the Russian Witte expedition and to where GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR and others had been build- the Russian financial adviser S. A. Kozin, although he ing a partisan army. Danzin dominated the March 1–3, never learned much Russian. 1921, assembly at which the People’s Party program was When the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY was still adopted, and he was elected the party chairman. In mid- impending, Danzin joined with Dindub and Dogsum (D. spring Bodô returned, and Danzin went to Khüriye to do Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino (third from right) and General Danzin (in fedora at left) picnicking with their families and friends, summer 1924 (From XX Zuun Mongolchuud, 2000) 130 Danzin-Rabjai undercover work among Mongols in the White Russian count) first revealed his poetic talent. Sitting by the door army that had occupied Khüriye. On the way back he of a YURT on a rainy day, his area, while covered by the injured himself when his pistol went off during cleaning. worst felt, did not drip, while the area of honor did. With the successful intervention of the Red Army in When kidded about this by the master, he spoke his Mongolia, Danzin became finance minister and Bodô poem “Indra” (Khormusta tngri), saying that just as seat- prime minister in the new government. From September ing does not matter in the rain, so age does not at the 29 to December 22 Danzin, with General Sükhebaatur and moment of death. Deputy Foreign Minister TSERINDORJI, went to Moscow to Shortly afterward Danzin-Rabjai was enthroned as negotiate the November 5 friendship treaty. During their the fifth incarnation of the Gobi-yin Noyan Khutugtu absence Bodô made a series of erratic decisions. Now (Lordly Incarnation of the Gobi) lineage, affiliated with Danzin, Sükhebaatur, and the Buriat revolutionary ELBEK- the bKa’-brgyud-pa order of Tibetan Buddhism. Since the DORZHI RINCHINO all desired Bodô’s resignation, which previous incarnation, Jamiyang-Oidub-Jamtsu, had occurred in January 1922. To calm public opinion, Danzin stabbed a lama, the Qing authorities had canceled the lin- went personally to western Mongolia to invite the eage in 1794, and the enthronement was somewhat JALKHANZA KHUTUGTU DAMDINBAZAR, a well-respected high secret. In 1817 he first studied the Tibetan verses of the lama, to serve as prime minister. In June Danzin criticized A-mdo Tibetan lama sKal-ldan rGya-mtsho (1607–77) of the Youth League as overly radical and insisted Mongolia Rong-bo (Longwu) monastery and then studied philo- would have to develop step by step. In August Danzin with sophical debate at Badgar Juu (north of BAOTOU). A cryp- the other ministers approved the execution without trial of tic autobiographical poem seems to refer to his first 15 well-known dissenters, including Bodô. sexual experience at age 17 and his mother’s death in After Sükhebaatur’s death in February 1923, Danzin spring the next year. Later he wrote of his grief that “the took his position as commander in chief, although his kindness of a mother is greater than the Buddha’s.” prime interest remained finances. After the chaos and depression of the 1919–22 years Mongolia’s international TRAVELING INCARNATION trade through China began to pick up again in 1923. From 1822 his life alternated between building her- Hoping to revive Mongolia’s economy and finances, mitages in his Mergen Wang banner and wanderings in Danzin encouraged Chinese firms to return to Mongolia. Inner Mongolia and Khalkha. He became a particular dis- This friendliness to Chinese firms alienated his former ciple of the Third JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU (1787–1846). From ally Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino, and Danzin’s political sup- 1825 consorts accompanied him on his journeys, and his porters began to criticize openly the Buriat advisers as frequent drinking spells and bouts of rage earned him the clever pied pipers of the naive young Mongols. Criticism epithet dogshin (terrible). In 1839, hearing of an illness of of Danzin’s administration increased at the People’s the Fifth Jibzundamba Khutugtu (1815–42), he rushed to Party’s Third Congress in August 1924, when Danzin Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) and performed services suddenly withdrew in a huff to the city garrison. He may for healing. The next year, however, he was refused have been planning a coup d’état against Rinchino, but he entrance to the city as a wild and drunken “Red Hat” did not have the soldiers’ support and was himself (bKa’-brgyud-pa) lama. In 1841 even his teacher, the arrested and executed without a trial on August 30. Jangjiya Khutugtu, ordered him to stay in his banner, See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS which he did. In 1852, after performing a cursing ritual OF; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY; 1921 against Chinese rebels at the invitation of the Manchu REVOLUTION; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. AMBAN and the Khalkha khans, the dogshin lama became welcome again in prominent Khalkha circles, although not in Khüriye. In 1856 he felt ill but hoped to revisit Danzin-Rabjai (Danzanravjaa, D. Ravjaa) (1803–1856) Maidari Juu near Höhhot. He died on the way in Dörben A wild incarnate lama, Danzin-Rabjai was Mongolia’s great- Kheükhed (Siziwang) banner. est traditional poet and playwright and the focus of innumer- able legends. SONGS AND POEMS Born in Mergen Wang banner (modern East Gobi Danzin-Rabjai’s songs combine a language and PROSODY province), Danzin-Rabjai’s parents were so poor his close to folk songs with a profound multilayered under- mother had to beg for soup from a camel herder for the standing of the Buddhist concept of emptiness. Danzin- customary meat meal after childbirth. Local legends Rabjai had many women in his life, and while a large speak of him being raised by his father, Dulduitu, but the number of his lyrics are still sung as love songs, a deeper poems and early biographies speak of Dulduitu as his level of meaning is always available. His most famous mother and say nothing of his father, who apparently dis- song, Ülemji-yin chinar (Extraordinary qualities), extolled appeared early from his family’s life. the ravishing of the poet’s senses by the sight, sound, In 1809 Danzin-Rabjai took vows as a bandi (novice) smell, taste, and touch of his beloved. Legend said he and the next year at age eight (seven in the Western composed this song for his great love, the singing girl Danzin-Rabjai 131 Dadishuari, in gratitude for her cure of his near-fatal ill- ness. At the same time, its imagery follows the Buddhist “five qualities of enjoyment” frequently offered to gurus in meditation. Danzin-Rabjai’s devotional lyrics to deities and gurus are sometimes filled with the sentiments of a lover and at other times with profound filial longing. The theme of what was said to be Danzin-Rabjai’s first poem, Khormusta Tngri, was death and imperma- nence. His two conversation songs, now sung as folk songs, Galuu khün khoyor (The goose and the man) and Öwgön shuwuu (The old man and the bird) use bird migrations to illustrate the transitory nature of affections and the power of past lives. Danzin-Rabjai, like many Tantric and Dhyana (Zen) practitioners, ridiculed institutionalized religion, saying to Dadishuari on his deathbed that a good horse that can go a long distance is better than boring scriptures, yet he also authored a number of didactic poems. His famous Ichige, ichige (For shame, for shame) is a marginally rewritten version of some verses by the THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN (1717–66), but Tsagasun shibagu (The kite) is a fresh rephrasing of traditional didactic sentiments. In another song he playfully tweaks the common didactic trope about the preciousness of human birth, saying that realizing your own self-deception is better than a human birth. THE OPERA MOON CUCKOO Danzin-Rabjai had directed TSAM performances from 1827. In 1831, inspired by a visit to ALASHAN (Alxa), where Tibetan-style opera was performed, he built a the- Danzin-Rabjai (1803–56), the fierce Lordly Incarnation of ater in his Khamar Hermitage and wrote the opera Saran the Gobi and perhaps Mongolia’s greatest poet (From D. Khökhögen-ü Namtar (Tale of the moon cuckoo). In 1833 Tsagaan and Z. Altangerel, Ikh Gowiin Dogshin Noyon his first performances began. Danzin-Rabjai not only Khutugtu [n.d.]) wrote the libretto but also composed the tunes, designed the costumes, and trained and directed the troupe. The story, an adaptation of a Tibetan work of the same name, Copies of his writings, paintings, and effects were kept by revolves around a noble prince and his evil companion his takhilchi (curator), Balchinchoijai, and his descen- who have mastered the technique of transferring their dants. The opera was performed in his banner until the souls into other bodies. When the two enter cuckoos’ 1920s, and legends flourished about the incarnation. bodies, the evil companion stealthily returns to the During the anti-Buddhist campaigns of 1937–40, the prince’s body, destroys his own, and becomes ruler, while then-takhilchi, Tüdew, hid as much as he could in caves. the prince begins to teach Buddhism to the birds. The The 1962 publication of his poems in Cyrillic by D. imposture is eventually noticed by the prince’s faithful Tsagaan was a milestone in academic study of Danzin- wife, and the evil companion is driven out, but the Rabjai. In 1990, with the end of communism, Tüdew’s cuckoo cannot return. The opera alternated lively action grandson Altangerel exhumed Danzin-Rabjai’s effects and and didactic passages, with a number of pieces sung in founded a museum dedicated to Danzin-Rabjai in the city Tibetan. The actors, instead of wearing masks as in tsam of Sainshand. drama, used makeup in the style of the Chinese operas. See also LITERATURE. The performances were popular and made Danzin-Rab- Further reading: Marta Kiriploska, “Icige, Icige (A jai’s monasteries quite a bit of money. Poem of Danjin Rabjai),” Central Asiatic Journal 45 (2001): 254–265; ———, “Who Was Dulduitu? (A Note HIS LEGACY on Rabjai),” Zentralasiatische Studien 29 (1999): 97–108; Danzin-Rabjai also had talents as a physician and a Michael Kohn, “A Lonely Battle in Mongolia to Save Bud- painter whose works ranged from images of his incarna- dhist Relics.” New York Times, 12 August 2002, p. 4; tion lineage, to ink portraits of CHINGGIS KHAN, to erotica. Nicholas Poppe, “Noyan Khutugtu Rabjai and Mongol 132 Daoism Folklore,” in Studia Sino-Mongolica, ed. Wolfgang Bauer ples) of Mongolia’s great lama lineage, the Jibzundamba (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1979), 191–196; D. Khutugtu. The Darkhad name means “Exempt Ones” (cf. Tsagaan and Z. Altangerel, Ih Gobiin Dogshin Noyon Middle Mongolian DARQAN). They received the name Hutuqtu (Ulaanbaatar: UULS Studio, n.d.). when the KHALKHA Mongolian nobleman Deleg and his lady, Dejid Akhai, donated themselves and their subjects Daoism See TAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. to the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU (1635–1723). From then on they formed part of the GREAT SHABI, the personal Darhan See DARKHAN CITY. estate of the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, and as such were exempt from state requisitions. The Darkhad were divided into three OTOGs (camp districts), each ruled by a Darhat See DARKHAD. daruga (chief) and inspected every three years by zaisangs (officials) dispatched by the ERDENI Dariganga Living along Mongolia’s southwestern fron- SHANGDZODBA office administering the Khutugtu’s estate. tier, the Dariganga yastan (subethnic group) numbers In 1861 the Darkhad numbered 7,015 persons, but by 28,600 (1989) and has a dialect and lifestyle quite similar 1915 had decreased to 5,130. The Darkhad principally to the KHALKHA Mongols. In 1697, after driving the occupied the Darkhad basin around the upper Shishigt invading ZÜNGHARS out of Khalkha, the Manchu Qing River west of LAKE KHÖWSGÖL; they were pastoral nomads emperor Kangxi established a special imperial stud in the living in YURTS (ger), although a few used Tuvan-style Dariganga area, manned by Khalkhas from Setsen Khan birchbark tepees. The Darkhad otogs were almost entirely province and SHILIIN GOL Mongols from Abaga (Abag) illiterate. Darkhad Monastery (at the seat of today’s and Sönid BANNERS (appanages). The Dariganga herds Rinchinlhümbe Sum) had more than 1,000 lamas, yet were eventually expanded into two camel herds, two then and now the Darkhad were also active patrons of horse herds, and a sheep herd, annually supplying 800 shamans and did not taboo fish, as did other Mongolian stallions, 300 bull camels, and first 4,000 and then, after Buddhists. 1831, 7,270 rams. Dariganga was under the Inner Mon- Under the QING DYNASTY the Darkhad territory was golian CHAKHAR banners and had no hereditary nobility included in Tannu Uriyangkhai province and separated (see EIGHT BANNERS). from the Khalkha Mongols by frontier pickets. Around In March 1912, after the 1911 RESTORATION of Mon- the Darkhad were organized several Khöwsgöl golian independence, the Dariganga officials petitioned to Uriyangkhai BANNERS inhabited by TUVANS. join Mongolia. The new Republic of China sent the The origin of the Darkhad appears to be mixed Mon- Chakhar official Jodbajab to recover the territory, but his golian and Tuvan. The most common CLAN NAMES are troops were dispersed. He was arrested on August 28 and Mongolian and Buriat ones. The Khuular clan, however, returned to China after the KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY in are Turkish-origin Tuvans. The Darkhad dialect today is 1915. The requisitions due the Qing emperor were trans- quite close to Khalkha but contains forms that indicate it ferred to the new theocratic emperor. Many Darigangas was originally a Kalmyk-Oirat type dialect later subject to escaped them, however, by joining the GREAT SHABI, or very strong Khalkha influence (see KALMYK-OIRAT LAN- the emperor’s personal estate. GUAGE AND SCRIPT; MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE). Dariganga continued under Outer Mongolian admin- After the 1911 Restoration the Khöwsgöl area, unlike istration after the 1915 KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY. After the rest of Tannu Uriyangkhai, remained part of Mongolia. the White Russian seizure of Khüriye in February 1921, In 1925 the Darkhad and their neighboring Khöwsgöl however, China again dispatched Jodbajab to recover Uriyangkhais were put under the new Delger Yekhe Uula Dariganga. That August, however, a task force of Soviet province, which in 1931 was merged with neighboring Kalmyk troops, assisted by Mongolian partisans, drove Khalkha areas to form the new KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE. By Jodbajab again out of Dariganga. The new revolutionary that time the Darkhad population had rebounded to 6,893. regime in 1924 reorganized Dariganga as a banner with In 1989 the Darkhad were the most rural of Mongolia’s eth- an elective government. In 1931 Dariganga was attached nic groups, with 61.5 percent collective herders, 10.1 per- to EASTERN PROVINCE but in 1941 was transferred to cent white-collar employees, and 28.4 percent workers or SÜKHEBAATUR PROVINCE. Treated simply as Khalkha in the state farm employees, compared to the national averages of 1930s, the Dariganga were recognized as a separate 27.8 percent, 21.4 percent, and 50.6 percent, respectively. subethnic group from the 1956 census on. See also DASHBALBAR, OCHIRBATYN; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. darkhan See DARQAN. Darkhad (Darkhat, Darhad) The Darkhad of Mongo- lia are a Mongolian-speaking yastan (subethnic group) Darkhan city (Darhan, Darchan) Created in 1961 as numbering 14,300 (1989) and living in far northern an industrial center, Darkhan city became a center of Khöwsgöl province. Originally they were shabi (lay disci- Mongolia’s construction materials industry. darqan 133 The site of Darkhan was chosen in Selenge province lowed the Turks west into the Islamic world, where Mah- to take advantage of the presence of limestone, sand, clay, mud al-Kashghari defined it in the 11th century as “a marble, marl, and other construction raw materials. The pagan word meaning emir (i.e., commander).” nearby Sharyn Gol brown coal (lignite) field, with In the MONGOL EMPIRE the title darqan was also a title reserves of 696 million metric tons (767 million short of honor, but with a somewhat different connotation. In tons), supplied power, while the site’s location on the the famous SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS the range of TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAILWAY facilitated transportation and possible rights and exemptions associated with the word communication. Construction began on October 17, darqan or its derivatives include: the right to nomadize 1961, and in 1962 Darkhan was put under direct central freely over wide territory, the right to hold women cap- government administration. The resident population tured in war without forwarding them to the khan, reached 23,300 by 1969 and 65,800 in 2000. More than immunity to prosecution for up to nine transgressions, 90 percent of the population is under 35 years of age the right to serve as quiver bearers for the khan, and the (1990 figure), and 86 percent live in apartment blocks right to drink the ötög, a special ceremonial liquor (prob- (2000 figure). Soviet and East European (especially ably a milk liquor) offered at the great assemblies (QURIL- Czechoslovak) aid played a major role in constructing TAI). All these rights were hereditary, being granted “unto the city. the seed of the seed.” Rewards of subjects and goods Major components of the Darkhan industrial com- inevitably accompanied them, too. plex include the Sharyn Gol strip mine (opened in 1964), While many in the Mongol elite received these a thermal power plant with a capacity of 50,000 kilowatt- exemptions, the actual title of darqan was mostly reserved hours (renovated with German assistance in 1993), a for those outside the ruling inner circle. Darqan was a building materials combine, a cement factory, and a pre- purely honorary title; the bearer was not expected to fill fabricated house-building combine. By 1985 Darkhan any office. The “classic” darqans, whose descendants were itself (not including Sharyn Gol) produced 9.7 percent of known not by name but simply as “Darqan,” were Badai Mongolia’s total industrial output; of that, 36.4 percent and Kishiliq of the Oronar clan, herdsmen who had was building materials, 22.7 percent food processing warned CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) of an attack (meatpacking, poultry, flour), and 15.8 percent fuel. by ONG KHAN. Similarly, MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) Mongolia’s manufacturing did not fare well in the granted the title to a camel herder who warned him of a economic liberalization of the 1990s, particularly outside coup attempt; HÜLE’Ü (1256–65) in Iran to a Georgian ULAANBAATAR. The Russo-Mongolian joint-stock com- wrestler; Abagha Khan (1265–82) to a Hindu who had pany Mongolrostsvetmet (formerly Mongolsovtsvetmet) led the camp of his mother and stepmother through hos- built a new minimetallurgical plant in 1993–94 in Dark- tile territory; and GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) to a Persian han with Japanese technology, but the city’s share of who alone in a village had supplied him with horses after Mongolia’s total industrial sales dropped from 5.2 per- a defeat. Sometimes, however, the darqan or his descen- cent in 1995 to 3.3 percent in 2000 as unemployment dants could become important officials. Thus Kishiliq’s reached 7.8 percent. descendant HARGHASUN DARQAN became grand councillor In 1994 the area of Darkhan was renamed Darkhan- in the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY. Uul province and expanded from an original 200 square Tax exemption was also granted to other people in kilometers (77 square miles) to a current 3,280 square the empire who did not have such exalted status. Crimi- kilometers (1,266 square miles). Darkhan-Uul’s popula- nals exempted from punishment in return for frontline tion was 83,300 in 2000. The newly expanded province service were called darqan. All craftsmen were enrolled grows a significant grain and potato crop and in 2000 on the census and placed under direct state control. In accounted for more than 18 percent of Mongolia’s total return they too were exempted from taxes. This exemp- vegetable harvest. tion made them darqan; one meaning of darkhan in mod- ern Mongolian is simply “craftsman.” Those persons Darkhan-Uul province See DARKHAN CITY. dedicated to the service of the palace-tents (ORDO) of the deceased Chinggis were also freed from imposts and hence also received the name of darkhad (plural of dar- Darkhat See DARKHAD. khan). Such Darkhad people still exist at the EIGHT WHITE YURTS of Chinggis Khan in Ordos in Inner Mongolia. darqan (darkhan, tarqan) In the Turco-Mongolian tra- Under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) local Mongol dition, exemption from imposts was one of the most rulers continued to grant darqan status to those rendering important privileges accorded to classes and persons. special services; regulations dealing with the financial Those accorded these exemptions bore the title tarqan problems this could cause were being issued as late as (Turkish) or darqan (Mongolian, modern darkhan). This 1923 in Inner Mongolia. term first appears under the Türk empire (552–745) as See also CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MOGHULIS- one of the titles of the great leaders of the empire. It fol- TAN; NÖKÖR; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. 134 darughachi darughachi (basqaq, shahna) The darughachi was an tant, and a clerk would discuss all business with a overseer used by the Mongols to supervise local officials darughachi who controlled the seal that made any docu- in subject kingdoms. The term in Mongolian is some- ment valid. Darughachis were supposed to serve for only times used in the form of darugha (modern darga), which 30 months and be Mongols or SEMUREN (various sorts), indicates a chief or boss of any sort. while the officials were ethnic Chinese. Sons of The institution of darughachi seems to have origi- darughachis received preferential promotion but did not nated with the QARA-KHITAI, or Western Liao Empire, in directly inherit offices. In fact, however, tenure was Turkestan. The Qara-Khitai emperor and his small core of often much longer, and the rules on ethnicity were fre- ruling Kitan people appointed overseers to reside at the quently subverted. court of the many tributary rulers to ensure that they In the IL-KHANATE (1256–1335) in Iran the shahna or obeyed Qara-Khitai policy. In Persian these overseers basqaq (the Mongol term darughachi only gradually were called shahna and in Turkish basqaq. During the became common) served alongside the Persian governor MONGOL EMPIRE the Persian and Turkish terms were used and (in great cities like Baghdad) an auditor general and as interchangeable equivalents for the Mongolian word Mongol commander. The shahna participated in all legal darughachi. These officials always worked alongside cases involving Mongols and in smaller cities com- existing local authorities. manded the garrison and exercised police functions. As Despite this clear connection in terminology, no in the Yuan system, shahnas and governors were sup- shahnas in the Mongol Empire are known before 1214, posed to exercise surveillance over each other, but the even though several sedentary kingdoms had become two often colluded in corruption. There is no data on tributary to the Mongols by then. In these early years specific tenure in office, but rotation was normal. Most CHINGGIS KHAN preferred to use marriage ties to attach shahnas were Mongols with Persian staffs, and the few sedentary rulers to himself and did not require tributary Muslim darughachis were old servants of the Mongols. states to accept darughachis. Darughachis were first In the GOLDEN HORDE (1257–1480) in Eastern appointed after 1214 when Chinggis resolved to extermi- Europe, overseers governed the sedentary areas of the nate North China’s JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), which had empire, such as the Crimean trading cities and the Rus- broken its tribute agreement. More shahnas, or sian principalities. Up to the 1320s they were called darughachis, were appointed in Mawarannahr (Transoxi- basqaqs (Russian baskak). The basqaq of Vladimir, the ana) during Chinggis Khan’s campaign of vengeance most powerful Russian principality, was called the Great against the sultanate of KHORAZM. From the reign of Basqaq. In the early 14th century, however, the Russian Chinggis’s successor, ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), on, how- princes of Moscow and elsewhere won greater autonomy, ever, states voluntarily submitting to tribute were also and the basqaq institution declined, being replaced by ad required to accept a darughachi. Such darughachis were hoc messengers or envoys (posoly, from Mongolian sometimes accompanied by troops and paid special atten- elchi). The 15th-century term doroga (or daruga) as used tion to ensuring the collection of Mongol-imposed taxes. in the Golden Horde designated the head of a secretariat The term darughachi did not refer to a specific func- dealing with a particular area or appanage (such as tion but simply meant an official representing the Mongol Moscow). How it developed from the darughachi is rulers to a particular non-Mongol population. Thus, the unclear. early darughachis oversaw units ranging from a single See also ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BAYAN; prominent family, a ward in a city, or a town, to a regional KASHMIR; KÖRGÜZ; MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG; capital. The last were called “great darughachis.” ORTOQ; SA‘D-UD-DAWLA; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL Darughachis were also assigned to non-Mongol artillery- EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SAYYID AJALL; men and Iranian craftsmen. The length of tenure of SHIMO MING’AN AND XIANDEBU; TAMMACHI; YELÜ AHAI AND darughachis was indefinite, and sons frequently inherited TUHUA. the position from their fathers. More important than Further reading: Elizabeth Endicott-West, Mongolian function in defining the distinct role of the darughachi Rule in China: Local Administration in the Yuan Dynasty was ethnicity. Virtually all early darughachis were allied (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989). people who had surrendered early to the new empire: ÖNGGÜD, UIGHURS, KITANS, QARA-KHITAI, NAIMAN, or Mus- lim traders in the Mongolian plateau. Combining implicit Dashbalbar, Ochirbatyn (1957–1999) One of Mongo- loyalty with knowledge of sedentary society, such politi- lia’s great modern poets and from 1996 an ultranationalist cal middlemen were invaluable. politician speaking for those alienated by Mongolia’s demo- All of the successor states of the Mongol Empire cratic transition retained the institution of darughachi. In the Mongol Dashbalbar was born in Dariganga Sum (Sükhebaatur YUAN DYNASTY (1271–1368) in China, QUBILAI KHAN and province). After eight years in the local school, he his successors transformed the darughachi into a type of attended a professional high school in Omsk in agricul- local official. In each district the magistrate, his assis- tural science. He abandoned that field for literary studies Daur language and people 135 at Moscow’s Gorky Literature Institute, becoming a pro- family who called their 10th- to 12th-century empire fessional writer while making a living writing for his the “Daur Gurun,” or Daur Empire. The Daur language provincial newspaper and later as a translator. today retains a few Kitan features, such as the peculiar Dashbalbar’s vision of poetry was formed by Mongo- word kasoo for “iron” (versus Mongolian temür, a bor- lian and foreign poets such as DANZIN-RABJAI, NATSUG- rowing from Turkic), yet the Daur language is mostly a DORJI, B. Yawuukhulan, Alexander Blok, Sergei Esenin, development of Middle Mongolian, the language of the Walt Whitman, and Rabindranath Tagore. In his earliest Mongol Empire (see MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE). Moreover, published poetry collection, Oddyn ayalguu (Melody of the Daur clan name Boskochaina may be the same as the the stars), Dashbalbar proclaimed: “Like two icebergs in QONGGIRAD tribe’s Bosqur lineage, from whom came the Atlantic grinding each other to powder/I would write CHINGGIS KHAN’s wife BÖRTE ÜJIN. The Daurs thus appear poems,” His early poetry bore witness to his lust for to be a population of provincial Kitans who were heav- experience heightened to the utmost, while at the same ily “Mongolized” during Mongolian rule in Manchuria time testifying to his love for his DARIGANGA homeland (see MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). and especially his deceased father. Dashbalbar always had The Daurs emerged into history in 1616, when the a high appreciation of the poet’s vocation, and his poem nascent Manchu Empire found “Solon” tribesmen dis- “Nökhdöd” (To the comrades, 1986), revealed his aim to tributed along the northern bank of the Amur River “Toss away the petty private thoughts/Like powdered from the Shilka to the Bureya and north along the Zeya. dust shaken from my shoulder” and seek the truth. His These Solons were divided into khalas (clans), a 1990 prose–poetry collection Burkhny melmii (Eyes of the Manchu-Tungusic word, and composed of predomi- Buddha) testified to the rest he found in the Buddha’s nantly agricultural Daurs in symbiosis with bands of teaching of impermanence. hunting and farming EWENKIS, a Manchu-Tungusic peo- From 1991 Dashbalbar ran the literary journal ple. Daurs and Ewenkis intermarried yet maintained Zokhist ayalguu (Harmonious melody) of the newly their distinctive languages. The BARGA, then occupying formed nationalist Mongolian National Free Writers’ northern HULUN BUIR, were also tributary to these Union and the Mongolian Buddhist Center. Dashbalbar’s “Solons,” and place names show that Daur territory at commitment to the truth of Buddhism and his long- times stretched north to the Aldan River and west to the standing dedication to filial piety and the Mongolian land upper Shilka and Ergüne valleys. propelled him to denounce land PRIVATIZATION, feminism, Christian evangelism, and the new Democratic move- LANGUAGE ment in general as being foreign-directed conspiracies to Daur language is, along with Mogholi, the most archaic destroy Mongolia. Elected to the new democratic legisla- of the extant Mongolic languages. It has preserved the ture in 1990, he was a vocal opponent of liberalization in initial h- (e.g., heleg, “liver,” from Middle Mongolian the debates over the 1992 constitution. In 1996 he again helige, cf. Modern Mongolian eleg), virtually all the diph- won election to the Great State Khural (the parliament) thongs (e.g., aol, “mountain,” from Middle Mongolian from SÜKHEBAATUR PROVINCE, representing the Mongolian a’ula, cf. Modern Mongolian uul), and the q- as a stop Traditional United Party and then in 1999 the Mongolian (e.g., kuaangart, “bell,” from Middle Mongolian qongqa, Party for Tradition and Justice. He died of a liver com- cf. Modern Mongolian khonkh). plaint on October 16, 1999, leaving three children from At the same time it shows a number of progressive his previously divorced wife. features related to its Manchurian environment and prob- See also LITERATURE; MONGOLIA, STATE OF. able Kitan ancestry. The transformation of medial -b- to - w- is rather complete (e.g., taawu, “five,” from Middle Daur language and people (Dagur, Dagor, Dahur, Mongolian tabun), and it shares with the Buriat and East Dawor) The Daurs, numbering 121,357 in 1990, are a Mongolian dialects the transformation of /e/ to /¹/ and the Mongolic-speaking people mostly inhabiting northeast disappearance of ö (e.g., uku-, “to give,” from Middle Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. Although the Daur lan- Mongolia ög-). Daur also shows a number of idiosyn- guage is distinctly different from Mongolian and heavily crasies, such as the transformation of final -l to -r, the influenced by Manchu, in the 20th century the Daurs lengthening of short vowels, and the creation -ua- diph- adopted a Mongol identity. In the early 1950s, however, thongs from u or o (eg., duand, “middle,” from Middle the Chinese government designated them a separate Mongolian dumda). nationality distinct from the Mongols. In Mongolian and There are at present three principal dialects of Daur: Manchu the name is written Dagur or Dahur, respectively, Butha, Qiqihar, and Hailar (spoken in the Hulun Buir but is pronounced “Daur” by the Daurs themselves. steppes). The number of Daur speakers in the 1980s was estimated at 90,000 of 94,014 Daurs (1982 census). Most ORIGINS Daurs today are multilingual, knowing Chinese, Mongo- The name Daur goes back to the medieval KITANS, lian, and often Ewenki as well as Daur (see ALTAIC LAN- speakers of a very distinct language of the Mongolic GUAGE FAMILY; MONGOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY). 136 Daur language and people THE DAURS AS MANCHU BANNERMEN accompanied by games of WRESTLING, ARCHERY, HORSE By 1643 Manchu raids had subdued the Daur-Ewenki RACING, and field hockey (see NAADAM). Families lit bon- tribes. The next year Cossacks arriving from Yakutsk fires on new year’s day to worship heaven (see WHITE began pillaging Solon villages. While some paid tribute to MONTH). Shamans (yadgan), whether male or female, the Cossacks, others moved south to escape them. By used clan spirits for healing physical and psychic diseases 1667 both voluntary flight and the Qing generals’ but were, like women, kept away from the main clan ritu- scorched-earth policy had driven all the Solons south of als. Special women’s rituals from which men were the Amur to the well-watered and forested valley of the excluded included worship at women’s oboos, river wor- Nonni (Nen) River. ship, and certain lurgel dances. The Qing set up small garrisons of Daurs and After joining the Eight Banners the Daurs and Ewenkis at Aihui (modern Heihe) on the Amur River and Ewenkis used Manchu for writing. Daurs read Manchu- Mergen (modern Nenjiang) on the upper Nonni, and a language primers, collections of Qing memorials, and larger force at Qiqihar in Heilongjiang province. In 1731 Manchu translations of Chinese historical romances. By the Daurs and Ewenkis still on the lower Nonni River the 19th century Daurs began writing in their own lan- were formally incorporated within the Manchu EIGHT guage using the Manchu script. Changshing (Arabdan, BANNERS system as the Butha (Hunting) Eight Banners. 1809–85?), born in Nantun village outside Hailar, wrote In 1732 26 Daur and Ewenki niru (arrows, each poems and travelogues. Mamegchi, a Butha Daur offi- nominally 300 households) were transferred to Hulun cial, wrote a poetic travelogue of a journey to Hulun Buir steppe, west of the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE. The Buir, criticizing Buddhist superstition, while the songs Daurs did not adapt well to the new environment, and of Qin Tongpu (1865?–1940?) described events in ordi- most returned to Butha, leaving three Daur nirus in and nary life and offered warnings against lust, greed, and around Hailar city as mixed farmers and ranchers. anger. Despite their small numbers, they monopolized most of MODERN HISTORY the high positions in the Hulun Buir banner administra- tion. In 1763 Daurs were sent to help garrison Xinjiang, Chinese immigration into Manchuria, the progressive being stationed in modern Tacheng (Qöqek). sinicization of the Manchus, and the late Qing NEW The modern distribution of the Daurs still reflects POLICIES promoting the assimilation of frontier regions these Qing military assignments. In 1982 36.5 percent of such as Hulun Buir all pushed the Daurs, particularly in the 94,014 Daurs lived in the Butha area, 8.2 percent on Hailar, to adopt a Mongol as opposed to a Manchu iden- the upper Nonni around Nenjiang (both areas now tity. The building of the Russian-operated Chinese East- divided between Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang), 22.2 ern Railway and the growth of Japanese influence in percent in the Hulun Buir steppe west of the Greater Manchuria also opened new horizons, as students stud- Khinggan Range, 17.6 percent in Qiqihar and its suburbs, ied in Tokyo, Moscow, and Leningrad. Daurs joined in 2.7 percent on the Amur around Heihe, and 4.6 percent the 1912 anti-Chinese insurrection in Hulun Buir and in Xinjiang. (The remaining 8 percent lived outside tradi- became officials in independent Mongolia’s theocratic tional Daur areas.) government. After the restoration of Chinese control in 1920, Hailar Daur intellectuals such as MERSE (Guo TRADITIONAL ECONOMY, RELIGION, Daofu, 1894–1934?) and Fumingtai (Buyangerel, AND CULTURE 1898–1938) worked with Inner Mongolian politicians to The Butha Daurs mainly planted millet along with buck- bring Mongolia’s 1921 REVOLUTION to Hulun Buir and wheat, barley, and kitchen gardens. They kept mostly Inner Mongolia. Fumingtai’s uncle Duke Tsengde horses, cattle, and pigs, milking only the cows. After the (1875–1932) became the first person in Mongolia to influx of Chinese settlers, hunting of elk for medicinal restore the original text of the SECRET HISTORY OF THE products and logging supplemented their income. Daurs MONGOLS from the Chinese transcription. lived in Chinese-style houses with kangs (heated sleeping Under the Japanese occupation of 1932–45, Hulun platforms). The ideal was the compound household of Buir and Butha were each made autonomous Mongolian married brothers living together under the supervision of provinces. Daurs, who were now considered Mongols, a family patriarch, and family life was governed by strict played the leading role in both provinces as Mongolian hierarchies of age and sex. The lifestyle of the Hailar replaced Manchu and Chinese as the official language. Daurs was similar, except that sedentary ranching of In the civil war between the Chinese Communists and sheep, horse, and cattle replaced grain farming as the the Kuomintang that followed the end of WORLD WAR II main pursuit. in 1945, the Communists won Daur support by contin- Unlike most Mongolic peoples, the Daurs rejected uing the Japanese autonomy program. As elsewhere, Buddhism. Clan elders, sometimes assisted by baksh however, the land reform and rural class struggle cam- (learned men), carried on the twice-yearly worship of paigns of 1946–48 created lasting bitterness within Daur heaven and mountain spirits at clan cairns (OBOO), communities. Dauriia Station Movement 137 In 1952 in Heilongjiang and in 1954 in Xinjiang, Russian forces in Siberia. From August 1918 Semënov Daur nationality townships were set up, marking them as controlled the railway lines east of Lake Baikal through a separate nationality. In Inner Mongolia the question of HULUN BUIR into Manchuria. separating the Daurs from the Mongols was more contro- Among the troops joining Semënov’s forces were versial, since it would deprive the Daurs of their leader- about 800 men under Duke Fushengge (Chinese, Fux- ship role among the Hulun Buir Mongols. Chinese ing’a) from Baarin (Bairin) banner. Fushengge was the ethnographers preferred a separate designation, however, former chief of staff for Babujab (1870–1916), an Inner and in September 1956 a Daur nationality township was Mongolian bandit from Monggoljin (Fuxin) banner who created in Inner Mongolia. While the Inner Mongolian had fought successively for Japan, for independent Mon- chairman ULANFU advocated setting up a Daur autonomous golia, and for the Chinese monarchist party. By summer banner, many Daur officials demanded a larger autonomous 1918 Semënov was toying with the idea of a pan-Mongo- prefecture covering all the territory from Hailar to Qiqi- lian state and on Fushengge’s advice brought in the har, even though the Daurs would be only a small per- Neichi (Neisse) Gegeen, an INCARNATE LAMA of Guisui centage of such a prefecture’s population. In May 1957 (modern HÖHHOT), as a prestigious figurehead. The Ulanfu publicly criticized this proposal, and in August Japanese role in instigating this pan-Mongolist plan, 1958 the Chinese government created a Morin Dawa while often assumed, is unclear. Daur Autonomous County in the Butha heartland, now In November 1918 Semënov convened a Buriat in northeastern Inner Mongolia. Eventually, a total of National Duma in Verkhneudinsk (modern ULAN-UDE). seven small Daur nationality townships were established The Buriats, through their landsmen in Khüriye (modern in Qiqihar, Hulun Buir, Xinjiang, and elsewhere. ULAANBAATAR), tried to contact the theocratic government In the 1910s and 1920s Qin Tongpu experimented of Outer Mongolia but got no firm answer. On January with a Cyrillic script and Merse with a new Latin script. 12–14, 1919, Semënov with his chief Japanese adviser, In 1957–58 a Daur committee designed a Cyrillic script Kuroki Tikanori, convened delegates from the Buriats, based on the Qiqihar Daur dialect, but this was canceled Hulun Buir, and Inner Mongolia at Dauriia Station, a Rus- in 1958 due to the growing SINO-SOVIET SPLIT. In 1983 sian railway just over the border from Hulun Buir and Daur scholars introduced a new Latin script based on China. From February 25 to March 6, 1919, the Dauriia Morin Dawa’s Butha dialect and the Chinese pinyin delegates joined the Buriat National Duma in Chita under Latinization scheme. Daurs mostly still use Chinese or the chairmanship of Neichi Gegeen and inaugurated a new Mongolian for writing, however. pan-Mongolian government with Neichi Gegeen as head of Further reading: David Aberle, Chahar and Dagor state, the Buriat Dashi Sampilon (d. 1937) as finance min- Mongol Bureaucratic Administration (New Haven, Conn.: ister, the Hulun Buir Daur Lingsheng (1889–1936, a.k.a. HRAF Press, 1953); Caroline Humphrey, Shamans and Fuxiang) as war minister, and ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO as Elders: Experience, Knowledge, and Power among the Daur adviser. Semënov was granted the title of prince. The new Mongols (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); G. government sent a three-man delegation to the Paris Peace Kara, Daurica in Cyrillic Script (Budapest: MTA Alta- Conference via Tokyo in late April. jisztikai Kutatócsoport, 1995); Samuel E. Martin, Dagur By this time, however, Japan’s military-dominated Mongolian Grammar, Texts, and Lexicon (Bloomington: Terauchi cabinet had been replaced by the civilian Hara Indiana University, 1960); Herbert Harold Vreeland III, Kei cabinet. Hoping to withdraw from the Siberian Mongol Community and Kinship Structure (New Haven, adventure, the new cabinet refused to allow the delega- Conn.: HRAF Press, 1957). tion to go to Paris and demanded that Japanese officers cease assisting the pan-Mongolist venture. Meanwhile, the Outer Mongolian government, while feigning sympa- Dauriia Station Movement The pan-Mongolist thy, began seeking Chinese help against the movement. movement of Dauriia Station in 1919 briefly brought Stymied in their hopes for recognition, the Buriat together the Cossack forces of the half-Buriat Mongol nationalists deserted. By July Fushengge began entertain- commander Grigorii Semënov, Inner Mongolian bandits ing emissaries from China’s monarchist party. Before he still unreconciled to the Chinese 1911 revolution, earnest could act Semënov, the Neichi Gegeen, and other Inner Buriat and Daur nationalists, and Japanese advisers. It Mongolian troops attacked and killed Fushengge in ended in failure, but it bequeathed a term and a legacy to September. The movement broke up, and in December later Soviet demonology. Neichi Gegeen with 400 Mongols was transferred to After the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, Japan’s Verkhneudinsk. In January 1920 this force was to be army-dominated Terauchi cabinet nurtured anti-Commu- thrown against the advancing Bolshevik armies, but nist volunteer detachments under Ataman (Cossack com- Neichi Gegeen led a mutiny against the Russian officers mander) Grigorii M. Semënov (1890–1945). Tokyo and fled to Mongolia, occupied since September 1919 by supported Semënov not only against Bolsheviks but also Chinese troops. The Chinese at the KYAKHTA border town against more pro-American White (anti-Communist) murdered Neichi Gegeen and his top confederates at a 138 Dawor banquet before sending the ordinary fighters on to rein- dukhai moved into Ordos to the EIGHT WHITE YURTS, or force the Chinese garrison in Khüriye. shrine of Chinggis Khan, and launched a massive raid on While the Dauriia Station Movement was a complete Ningxia. Barely escaping an unexpectedly vigorous Chi- failure, it established the image of pan-Mongolism and nese counterattack the next year, however, Dayan Khan Lamaist theocracy as tools of Japanese imperialism that relocated to the KHERLEN RIVER, yet large-scale raids all Soviet policy makers repeatedly invoked from 1925 on. along the frontier continued through 1507. In this way it paved the way for the GREAT PURGE and the While Dayan Khan kept the support of the Mong- annihilation of Buddhism (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN goljin in Ordos, Iburai Taishi, probably a Uighur, and AGAINST). Mandulai (“the Ordos elder”) soon dominated the area. See also REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY; THEOCRATIC In 1508 a delegation of western Inner Mongolia’s three PERIOD. tümens (Ordos, TÜMED, and Yüngshiyebü), discontented Further reading: Uradyn E. Bulag and Caroline with Iburai’s power, invited Dayan Khan to rule them. Humphrey, “Some Diverse Representations of the Pan- Dayan Khan dispatched to them his second and third Mongolian Movement in Dauria,” Inner Asia: Occasional sons, Ulus-Baikhu (often given as Ulus-Bolod) and Barsu- Papers of the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit 1.1 Bolod Sain-Alag (d. 1521). As Ulus-Baikhu was being (1996): 1–23. enthroned as jinong, he was killed in a riot over a horse. Barsu-Bolod escaped, and Dayan Khan led his Three Eastern Tümens (Chakhar, KHALKHA, and Uriyangkhan) Dawor See DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. with the KHORCHIN and Abagha to attack the Three Western Tümens. Although first defeated at Türgen Dayan Khan, Batu-Möngke (Batmönkh, Dayun Khan) Stream (probably in present-day Tümed territory), in (b. 1475?, r. 1480?–1517?) Khan who united the Mongols 1510 Dayan Khan’s army crushed the Three Western under Chinggisid supremacy in the northern Yuan dynasty Tümens at Dalan-Terigün (modern Yin Shan Moun- (1368–1634) tains). Mandulai was killed, and Iburai fled to About 1480 a kidnapped boy said to be seven years old Kökenuur, where he remained active to 1533. Rejecting was presented to MANDUKHAI, SECHEN KHATUN, regent and advice to enslave the Three Western Tümens, Dayan empress of the late khan Manduul (1473?–79), with the Khan had Barsu-Bolod enthroned as jinong in 1513. All claim that he was the son of Manduul’s former Chinggisid his soldiers at Dalan-Terigün he made DARQAN (exempt jinong (viceroy), Bolkhu (fl. 1470–79). The khan and the from imposts). jinong had previously come to blows, and Bayan-Möngke From 1513 raids on China recommenced. Dayan had fled and been murdered. Manduul’s TAISHI (regent), Khan built forts in the Xuanfu (modern Xuanhua) and Ismayil, had then taken in Bolkhu’s wife Shiker. The kid- Datong areas and stationed 15,000 cavalry on Ming terri- napper’s story, recounted in the Mongolian chronicles, tory. Invasions in 1514 and 1517 involved up to 70,000 was that, afraid for his life, Shiker had given her only cavalry. child, Batu-Möngke, to a commoner family to nurse and Although beginning as a puppet Chinggisid like that the kidnappers had seized the boy from them to many others, Dayan Khan became one of Mongolia’s most bring him back to court. The truth of this tale is impossi- important rulers. He and Mandukhai eliminated Oirat ble to assess. power and abolished the TAISHI system, making him the Mandukhai, then 33, married the boy and had him first Chinggisid khan in a century actually to rule. His crowned the Great Khan of the Great Yuan at the Eshi victory at Dalan-Terigün reunified the Mongols and solid- Khatun (First Lady) shrine (that of SORQAQTANI BEKI) ified their corporate identity as a Chinggisid people, dis- kept by the CHAKHAR. Batu-Möngke’s reign title, Dayan tinct from the Oirats. Finally, his decision not to enslave Khan, was derived either from dayan, “all, whole,” or the Three Western Tümens but to divide the Six Tümens from Dayun, “Great Yuan” (from dai ön). She then led the as fiefs for his sons created a decentralized system of BOR- Mongol armies in 1483 against Ismayil Taishi, who fled JIGID clan rule that secured domestic peace and outward in defeat to Hami, where he was killed (c. 1486). Shiker expansion for a century. was brought back, unwillingly, to the Mongols and given See also NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY. the title taikhu (empress dowager). Around that time, Further reading: Hidehiro Okada, “Dayan Khan in Mandukhai also broke the power of the OIRATS. the Battle of Dalan Terigün,” in Gedanke und Wirkung: From 1480 raids on China had been virtually con- Festschrift zum 90. Geburtstag von Nikolaus Poppe, ed. stant, and under Dayan Khan they reached a new level of Walther Heissig and Klaus Sagaster (Wiesbaden: Otto organization. Dayan Khan sent “tribute” missions to Harrassowitz, 1989), 262–270; Hidehiro Okada, “Life of China from 1488 to 1498, but as a mature ruler he had Dayan Qaghan,” Acta Asiatica: Bulletin of the Institute of no interest in joining the Ming’s TRIBUTE SYSTEM. Dayan Eastern Culture 11 (1966); 46–55; Wada Sei, “A Study of Khan allied with Tölöögen and his son Khooshai, chief of Dayan Khan,” Memoirs of the Research Department of the the Monggoljin clan in ORDOS. In 1500 he and Man- Toyo Bunko 19 (1960); 1–42. decimal organization 139 decimal organization The decimal organization, in point. Knowing the total number of 1,000s under his which households were grouped in 10s, 100s, and 1,000s, command, the ruler could mobilize troops of any number was a traditional Inner Asian method of social and mili- desired without the need for elaborate recordkeeping. tary organization. From the first XIONGNU (Hun) Empire Natural increase and decrease of households and founded in 209 B.C.E., nomadic states grouped their peo- resources would eventually wreck havoc on such a sys- ples in 10s. The well-documented decimal organization tem, and Ögedei Khan required units that fell below the of North China’s JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), founded by minimum of households be replenished by those from a the Jurchen people of Manchuria, was based on a 300- different wing and that every owner of 100 sheep con- household “clan” (mouke). A hundred households in tribute one for the poor of his unit. each “clan” supplied regular soldiers, and 200 supplied Outside observers of the Mongol conquest all found auxiliary soldiers. Ten “clans” made up a “thousand” this system a fascinating aspect of Chinggis Khan’s law- (meng’an). In Mongolia, perhaps under Jin influence, the giving activity. Modern observers have often seen in this KEREYID Khanate also divided its people into 1,000s. system an attempt to shatter traditional tribal allegiances CHINGGIS KHAN in turn first divided his people into 100s and replace them with a rational system of total conscrip- and 1,000s in 1204, a year after conquering the Kereyid. tion. Such a view seems inaccurate, however. As noted After his coronation in 1206 Chinggis Khan reparti- above, chiliarchs were hereditary and in peacetime had tioned all his Mongol subjects into a decimal organiza- the same privileges as the clan chiefs of old. Many 1,000s, tion. The smallest group was a unit of 10 households in fact, were explicitly formed out of single clans or tradi- (harban). Ten 10s made 100 (ja’un), and ten 100s made tional clan segments, and exact numbers were not strictly 1,000 (mingghan). Each unit had its own head, or chief required. Records of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY show that (darugha). Chiliarchs, or heads of a thousand, were units were classified as being 30 percent, 50 percent, and appointed directly by Chinggis Khan and later partici- 70 percent of nominal strength. Thus, the decimal organi- pated in the election of his successors at the great QURIL- zation did not break up natural units of pastoral life; TAI assemblies, but centurions, or heads of 100s, and instead, it was adjusted to fit them. The point of the deci- decurions, or heads of 10, were appointed by their supe- mal organization lay in allowing troop mobilization with- riors and had no political role. Chiefs at each level out records and enforcing a relatively equal military received an appropriate PAIZA, or badge of rank. Normally, burden among the tribes, clans, and camps. the chiliarchs passed their offices to one of their sons, As the Mongols developed a more sophisticated sys- although the emperor retained complete freedom to dis- tem of conscription and taxation, the sedentary people miss or replace them. Centurions and decurions were not were also numbered and divided into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, supposed to be hereditary. and 10,000s. Here again, though, there was no attempt Some 1,000s, but not all, were organized into 10,000 to enforce rigid exactness of numbers. In Tibet, for (tümen). The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS states that example, the 11 tümens ranged in size from 5,850 to 500 in 1206 Chinggis Khan had 95 thousands and appointed households! The resulting system was quite similar to three commanders of tümen: BO’ORCHU on the right wing, that of the Jin dynasty. In the Mongol Yuan dynasty in MUQALI on the left, and Naya’a of the Baarin in the center. China, at least, only a minority of subject households (The myriarchy of Naya’a is unconfirmed elsewhere, were put in the military registers, and even among those, however.) Peng Daya, a Chinese envoy, mentions eight one or two auxiliary households would assist a single myriarchs among the Mongols under ÖGEDEI KHAN regular household in providing one soldier liable for (1229–41). RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH numbers Chinggis active duty. The sedentary decimal units joined the Mon- Khan’s people as 129 thousands and mentions tümens but gol units as a military caste, subject to their own officers does not list them. In any case, many 1,000s were in peace and war. Again natural demographic change assigned to members of the imperial family and did not made it inevitable that in a few generations some units come under any tümen. Later, as the number of troops would have too few adult men and others too many. expanded and sedentary soldiers were levied, the number Constant reregistration was thus necessary to maintain of myriarchs exploded both among the Mongol comman- an effective use of manpower. Up to about 1290 this ders and among the sedentary peoples. occurred but afterward lapsed. The registration of seden- During peacetime the chiefs of 1,000s were lords of tary tümens in the IL-KHANATE of Iran and the GOLDEN the households under them. They governed the use of the HORDE in Eastern Europe seems to be similar, although pasture lands and received from their subjects tribute of less is known of it. DAIRY PRODUCTS (particularly KOUMISS) and meat animals. The traditional decimal organization with the divi- For campaigns or garrison duty the emperor or prince sion into two wings was retained even into the 16th cen- estimated the number of soldiers needed and asked for a tury in the Crimean khanate, a splinter state of the East certain ratio of the army’s total strength, for example, two European Golden Horde. Among the Mongols of the of 10. In that case each decurion, or chief of 10, would NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY (1368–1634) in Mongolia itself, select two adult men and forward them to the rendezvous only the term tümen survived, and in a way that had no 140 decollectivization numerical meaning at all. The SIX TÜMENS into which the After announcing the overall privatization plan in Mongols were divided in the 16th century were each May, the government fine-tuned its application to the composed of 10 or so OTOGs (camp districts), which were collectives. In late 1991 every Mongolian received themselves named after clans. There is, however, no men- vouchers redeemable for state and collective property, tion whatsoever of a census. 30 percent in pink vouchers for “small privatization” The Manchu QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) imposed on and 70 percent in blue vouchers for “large privatiza- the Mongols their banner militia system, which retained tion.” While privatization legislation set guidelines for traces of the Inner Asian decimal tradition. This banner how to use the vouchers, negdels were allowed, in prac- system provided for a triennial census as well, although tice, to make their own decisions. Most negdels con- the real strength of the units diverged from the paper ducted only “small privatization” in late 1991, dividing strength. This final form of the Inner Asia decimal orga- up 30 percent of the animals and winter-spring shelters nization was abolished only in the 20th century. and other dispersed infrastructure. Animals were See also BANNERS; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; divided to members by family size, with extra shares for SUM. length of service in the negdel weighted by various for- mulas. Nonherding rural residents were expected to receive shares of fixed assets only, but some negdels decollectivization The breakup of the collectives in gave them animals as well. The other 70 percent of the Mongolia, while not initiated or even desired by the collective stock was held by a shareholding company herders, proceeded swiftly and relatively efficiently. run by the old negdel leaders, which funded salaries INITIAL EXPERIMENTS and pensions from anticipated profits, supplied services By 1989 Mongolian herders had been herding collec- (for fees), and organized marketing. Herders exchanged tively for 30 years, specializing in one form of animal their blue vouchers for shares in this shareholding and receiving salaries and pensions, with small bonuses company and continued the leasing operation they had for exceeding production quotas. Most had become com- been following since 1991 with the company’s animals. fortable with a system that, although it offered little After five years or so the herders were expected to be incentive for high productivity, supplied many free ser- ready for full privatization, and the government, over vices, both social and herding related, and virtually elim- the objection of the negdel leaders, guaranteed that inated risk. Moreover, allowances of private animals herders who so wished could leave the company, not amounted to about 20 percent of collectives’ total herd. with their blue vouchers but with their share of live- From 1986 to 1989, during the era of Soviet-inspired stock. perestroika (restructuring), the Mongolian government RESULTS OF DECOLLECTIVIZATION changed the basic payment system to offer greater incen- tives and allowed the herders a variety of contract and In fact, however, privatization proceeded much more lease arrangements to increase productivity. In leases the rapidly than planned. In the general economic crisis the herder leased the animals, paying a fee and charges for shareholding companies, despite being run by the same use of once-free herding-related services: hay, corrals, people who had run the negdels, proved generally unable veterinary services, and transportation. In return the to meet their traditional obligations. The company itself herders received payment for meeting production tar- was blamed for these problems, and most were dissolved gets of products and young and could keep excess off- by their shareholders after a year. The total number of spring. (Shortfalls were made up by the herders’ private livestock in private hands reached 54.9 percent in 1991, herds.) By 1990 private animals reached 32 percent of 70.4 percent in 1992, and 89.6 percent in 1993. By 1995 all livestock. the companies had essentially disappeared except for a few former state farms specializing in one pastoral cash DECOLLECTIVIZATION POLICY crop. In place of the old companies many herders set up In September 1990 the new democratically elected gov- voluntary cooperatives (khorshoo) to handle marketing ernment, headed by Prime Minister D. Byambasüren (b. and bulk purchasing of consumer goods. 1942), embarked on a reform plan emphasizing PRIVATI- The new private livestock economy differed in sev- ZATION. In January 1991, while approving price changes eral ways from the old negdels. Herders went back to the that worsened the terms of trade for herders and boosted precollectivization pattern of herding a mix of stock and meat targets, the government put all herders on the lease cooperating in khot ails, or camps. The initial distribu- system for a period of five years. Meanwhile, some pro- tion of livestock was based almost entirely on family size posed immediate and full decollectivization as China had and age, and livestock ownership has not, as many done in Inner Mongolia in 1983, while the negdel leader- expected, become concentrated in a small class of ship, supported at least passively by most herders, sought entrepreneurial herders. The number of herding house- to maintain the negdel structure but improve the terms of holds with more than 200 head of stock rose from 12.3 trade and perhaps allow a free market in animal goods. percent in 1995 to 14.5 percent in 2000, yet the number Demchungdongrub, Prince 141 of households with fewer than 30 head simultaneously respectful abbreviation of Demchugdongrub) attained his decreased from 33 percent to 26.7 percent. With the majority and was enthroned as prince. removal of the negdel administration and many town and Despite China’s 1911 revolution, the young prince city residents moving back to the countryside, there was was a QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) loyalist, keeping his considerable confusion and conflict over usufruct rights queue, or braided ponytail, and opposing the Chinese- to favored camping spots. (The pastures are held in com- educated nationalist Mongols. After the victory of the mon by all SUM, or district, residents.) Where herders Chinese Nationalist Party in 1928, he opposed the had been moved from traditional family routes under the administrative reforms of the KHARACHIN Mongol politi- negdels, they now moved back to strengthen their old cian Wu Heling (Ünenbayan b. 1896). family claims. By 1933 the Japanese had occupied Manchuria, Decollectivization in Mongolia took place simultane- including eastern Inner Mongolia. From October 1933 ously with a serious bout of inflation and a breakdown in Prince De, based at Batukhaalga (Bailingmiao), led a urban-rural trade. As a result herders held on to animals movement of China’s remaining Inner Mongolian BAN- rather than marketing them. The number of livestock NERS to demand autonomy from China’s Nationalist gov- slaughtered for consumption dropped sharply from 1992 ernment. In 1934 China’s ruler, Chiang Kai-shek, agreed to 1995, while the total number soared from 25.2 million to form a Mongol Political Council, but Japanese infiltra- head in 1993 to 33.5 in 1999. By 1998 the currency had tion of the strategic CHAKHAR area and subversion from stabilized, and a new private network that had replaced local Chinese warlords opposed to any autonomy para- the old state companies and marketing levels first lyzed the council. reached and then in 1999 exceeded 1990–92 levels. With autonomy thwarted, Prince De used Japanese Private livestock herding has proved, however, weak assistance to create first a Mongol army and then a mili- in infrastructure. Hay mowing, fodder crops, and wells tary government in February 1936. Using units only have not been maintained. Traditional herding skills were nominally under Prince De’s control, Japanese advisers replaced under the negdels by professional livestock man- then provoked the army into a losing battle with Fu agement, which has now disappeared. Survival rates of Zuoyi in September–November 1936, which greatly dam- young animals decreased from 94.4 percent in 1990 to aged the prince’s prestige. The Japanese invasion of North 90.5 percent in 1999. The tendency of new and less China of August 1937, however, drove Fu Zuoyi west and skilled herders to hug settlements or natural water delivered most of central and western Inner Mongolia to sources has increased pasture degradation. The vulnera- Prince De’s government. By this time he favored the edu- bility of these large herds was highlighted by the ZUD cated “Young Mongol” nationalists. (winter disasters) of 1999–2000 and 2000–01, which In October 1937 Prince De set up an autonomous reduced the livestock to 26.1 million head by late 2001 government in HÖHHOT, yet by September 1939 the chief and cut survival rates of young animals in 2000 to 83.5 Japanese adviser, Kanai Shoji, forced his nationalist gov- percent. International aid and government relief pre- ernment into a merger with two Chinese collaborationist vented a humanitarian catastrophe, but the future success regimes to form the Mongol Border (Mengjiang) govern- of private herding appears to depend on both a revival of ment, with its capital in Zhangjiakou (Kalgan). Only with traditional herding skills and mobility and infrastructural the transfer of Kanai Shoji did Prince De gain back more investment by local sum (district) governments. than nominal authority in the government, renamed the See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; COL- Mongol Autonomous State, in August 1941. Wearied by LECTIVIZATION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; MONGOLIA, constant political struggles, Prince De redirected his STATE OF. attention to educational, publishing, and economic Further reading: Melvyn C. Goldstein and Cynthia reforms among the Mongols. M. Beall, Changing World of Mongolia’s Nomads (Berkeley: During the Soviet-Mongolian invasion of Japanese- University of California Press, 1994). occupied Inner Mongolia in August 1945, De Wang fled to Beijing. His four children in Sönid Right Banner near the frontier surrendered to the Soviet-Mongolian forces and deer stones See ELK STONES. were taken to Mongolia and enrolled in schools. While the Chinese Nationalists did not treat him as a collaborator, De Demchungdongrub, Prince (De Wang, Prince Teh) Wang remained semiretired. In January 1949, however, he (1902–1962) Conservative prince of the high steppe who attempted again to secure Mongol autonomy in far western became the leader of the Inner Mongolian autonomous ALASHAN, one of the few regions not under the advancing movement under the Japanese Chinese Communists. In the end he fled the Communist Born in Sönid Right Banner (modern Sonid Youqi), Dem- advance and crossed over the border to independent Mon- chugdongrub was a prince in SHILIIN GOL, the most tradi- golia in December but was arrested and extradited to China tional and conservative Inner Mongolian league. His on September 18, 1950. At the same time his children in father died just before his birth, and in 1919 Prince De (a Mongolia were arrested or sentenced to internal exile. 142 Demid, Gelegdorjiin Sentenced by the new Chinese government as a DECOLLECTIVIZATION, and market economy followed. Cul- counterrevolutionary, Demchugdongrub did hard labor turally, a new period of national assertiveness, religious in the Fushun coal mines until his release on April 9, renaissance, and pop culture began. 1963. He died on May 23, 1966, on the eve of the Cul- tural Revolution. ORIGINS OF THE MOVEMENT Reviled by Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian Com- The 1990 revolution, like the 1921 REVOLUTION, was munists, Prince De is still respected by most INNER MON- overwhelmingly an affair of young city dwellers. The GOLIANS. Very stubborn by nature and conscious of his movement leaders were virtually all born between 1954 privileges as a prince, he transmuted this will and class and 1964. While a number had rural backgrounds, most feeling into an insistence on the Mongols’ right to be had some training in other Soviet-bloc countries and treated as equals by neighboring powers. worked in white-collar nonmanagerial positions: journal- See also JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS. ists, lecturers, teachers, and researchers in fields such as Further reading: Sechin Jagchid, The Last Mongol economics, philosophy, biology, and physics. While the Prince: The Life and Times of Demchugdongrub, 1902–1966 movement coincided with a religious revival, the leaders (Bellingham: Western Washington University Press, 1999). were strongly secular. Another crucial part of the revolution was older Demid, Gelegdorjiin See DEMID, MARSHAL. reformers who stayed within the Mongolian People’s Rev- olutionary Party (MPRP). By arguing against repressive measures and taking over the leadership of the ruling Demid, Marshal (Gelegdorjiin Demid) (1900–1937) party when the old guard resigned, they were essential to Mongolia’s commander in chief during the early buildup the peaceful success of the revolution. These reformist against Japan leaders, such as P. Ochirbat (b. 1942), the Buriat D. Demid was born in Setsen Zasag banner (modern Byambasüren (b. 1942), and the Kazakh union chief Q. Ikhtamir Sum, North Khangai), and in addition to herd- Zardyhan (b. 1940), were generally Moscow educated. ing livestock he followed his father as a carpenter and All eventually broke with the MPRP, but only after the caravaneer. In 1921 he volunteered for the People’s Party’s establishment of the multiparty system. partisan army and in 1922 joined the second class of The democratic movement had no living connection Mongolia’s fledgling military academy. After serving as a with the pre-1940 resistance and unlike democratic course instructor in cavalry and as a company captain for movements elsewhere in the Soviet bloc had no support three years, in 1926 he entered the Red Army military from an emigre population. The movement leaders were school in Tver’. In 1929 he became director and commis- animated by anger at the compulsory obeisance to Soviet sar of Mongolia’s military academy. In March 1930, dur- Russian models and sorrow and shame at the regime’s ing the Eighth Party Congress at the height of the LEFTIST betrayal of Mongolia’s past. They were frustrated with PERIOD, he was appointed Mongolia’s commander in Mongolia’s backwardness and felt stifled by conformist chief. With the NEW TURN POLICY in June 1932, Comman- and careerist thinking. Most saw the 1921 revolutionaries der in Chief Demid became one of Mongolia’s top leaders. as basically good men whose cause had been slowly In 1936 he was made marshal. Demid’s program for the twisted by dogmatic Soviet advisers. Rising living stan- military emphasized technological modernization. From dards and the pervasive regime propaganda about Mon- 1930 to 1936 the number of armored cars increased 20 golia’s glorious achievements ironically created a times, trucks 17 times, airplanes 4 times, machine guns revolution of rising expectations, which was amplified by 12 times, and artillery 6 times. While opposed to exces- East Asian economic successes and the reforms in China. sive reliance of Soviet advisers, Demid opposed Prime The seeds of the democratic revolution were Minister Gendün’s subordination of the party to the gov- planted by the Soviet ruler Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies ernment and by late 1935 advocated inviting Soviet of glasnost’ (openness, Mongolian, il tod) and pere- troops into Mongolia. He survived Gendün’s downfall but stroika (restructuring, Mongolian, öörchlön shinechlelt) on August 22, 1937, died of food poisoning while on a from 1985 on. In Mongolia openness allowed increased train to Moscow. Soon after his death he was denounced criticism of the legacy of YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL, Mon- as a Japanese spy. golia’s ruler from 1952 to 1984. Politicians, academics, See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; REVOLUTIONARY and ordinary citizens who had been exiled or disgraced PERIOD. in that period were exonerated. Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, Mongolian students saw firsthand the move- 1990 Democratic Revolution The 1990 democratic ments against Soviet control that culminated in the elec- revolution bloodlessly overthrew 70 years of one-party toral victory of Poland’s opposition union Solidarity, the rule and ideological conformity and created a new politi- fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, and the cal system based on pluralism, respect for human rights, execution of Romania’s Communist ruler Nicolae and competitive multiparty elections. PRIVATIZATION, Ceaucescu on December 25. 1990 Democratic Revolution 143 In 1988–89 several semilegal or underground stu- By this time the movement had crystallized into dent and youth organizations pushed the bounds of three groups, all led by academics. The MDA had reached acceptable “openness.” The biophysicist B. Batbayar (b. 30,000 members by January 21 and held its first congress 1954) began circulating his Büü mart! Martwal sönönö on February 18, demanding the replacement of the whole (Don’t forget! If you forget you perish) under the party and government leadership and a cessation of pseudonym “Baabar.” The work criticized Russian exploitative MINING contracts with the Soviet Union. expansionism in Mongolia, meditated on the contrast of Meanwhile, the Democratic Socialist Association, formed utopian promises and bloody reality in the French and around “Baabar” (B. Batbayar) on January 22, and the Russian revolutions, and reevaluated Mongolian history, New Progressive Association (NPA) was organized on highlighting the Tsedenbal era’s cronyism, ecological February 16. On February 24 the Mongolian Student disasters, Russification, and moral crisis. With the news Association (MSA) convened the three associations, of Eastern European events, a group of students at the which issued a common communiqué and began cooper- Mongolian National University began discussing a new ating. These three associations with the MSA itself National Progress Party. Finally, on December 2–3, became for two months the four “democratic forces.” In 1989, at a Conference of Young Creative Artists certain March the three associations formed parties: the Mongo- members of the above groups, encountering a tentative lian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party, and approval of the MPRP leaders attending, founded the the National Progress Party, respectively. The parties soon Mongolian Democratic Association (MDA) with the each had their own newspapers, although paper short- ostensible aim of furthering perestroika. The leader was ages kept publication irregular. The differences among SANJAASÜRENGIIN ZORIG. the organizations were mostly of tone and social circle, with the rather more academic and moderate Democratic DEMONSTRATIONS Socialists contrasting with the more populist and aggres- The new association leaders were worried about a crack- sive Democratic Association. down and rushed to develop support. On December 10, International Human Rights Day, a date they hoped HUNGER STRIKES would give the government pause before cracking down, On March 7, after the MPRP Politburo member Ts. Nam- they held an outdoor meeting that gathered 300 people, srai rejected the demand for resignation and a new lead- demanding a constitutional amendment ending the ership, 10 Democratic Association members began a MPRP’s one-party rule (required under the 1960 CONSTI- hunger strike in Sükhebaatar Square. Over the next two TUTION), respect for human rights, a new election for the days prodemocracy demonstrations spread to the Great People’s Khural, a free press, abolition of special provinces, while loyalist organizations, too, began to privileges for government leaders, market socialism, and organize to “defend our party” (i.e., the MPRP) and to an investigation of the past errors and crimes of the Mon- oppose the democratic movement. The top MPRP leader- golian leaders and the MPRP. To avoid a violent reaction, ship, however, had no stomach for the mass repression the movement leaders continued to affirm socialism that would be necessary to crush the democratic move- (albeit in its “market” form), doffing their hats at one ment now, particularly as support for such a move could point in memorial to Lenin and strictly prohibiting per- be expected only from China, not Russia. Shrewdly gam- sonal ridicule of serving leaders. The demonstrators sang bling that the MPRP still had the support of the majority, as their anthem “Song of the Bell” (Khonkhny duu), the party’s first secretary, JAMBYN BATMÖNKH, and his col- whose lyrics by S. Tsogtsaikhan of the folk-rock band leagues sacrificed their careers to refashion the MPRP as a Soyol Erdene (Culture Jewel) spoke of an awakening of democratic party. the Mongolian people. In roundtable discussions the two sides came to a In responding to the demonstrations the Mongolian face-saving compromise. While not agreeing to an imme- leadership was paralyzed by Moscow’s indecisive attitude diate resignation of either the Politburo or the Great Peo- and demands from figures in the party itself, such as ple’s Khural, the question of a totally new leadership Deputy Premier Byambasüren, for much swifter reform. would be presented to upcoming party and state con- From December to February demonstrations increased in gresses, and the hunger strike was called off. Batmönkh size and frequency, despite symbolic concessions from the publicly announced the compromise in a radio and tele- government, such as the removal of the Stalin statue in vision address on the evening of March 9. On March front of the State Library on February 22, 1990. On Sun- 12–14 at the plenary meeting of the MPRP Central Com- day, March 4, 100,000 persons gathered in front of Vic- mittee, the entire MPRP Politburo resigned, the Tseden- tory Cinema before marching to Sükhebaatur Square in bal legacy was denounced, and multiparty democracy front of the government palace to demand that a special accepted. On March 21–23 the Great People’s Khural congress of the MPRP be called to dismiss the current replaced the old legislative and government leaders. A leadership, separate the party and government, and elect draft law legalizing multiple parties was introduced on a new multiparty Provisional People’s Assembly. April 1. 144 1990 Democratic Revolution Despite these agreements the democratic coalition, Party 5.95 percent, and the Social Democrats 5.52 per- formalized on April 15, still demanded a Provisional Peo- cent. In the new Great People’s Khural, elected in a first- ple’s Assembly and an immediate separation of party and past-the-post system, this resulted in 357 seats for the government. While the government vainly requested an MPRP, 16 for the Democrats, five for the National end to demonstrations, demonstrators and Government Progress Party, and four for the Social Democrats. (There Palace guards at Sükhebaatur Square almost came to were 36 nonparty deputies and nine from the youth blows on April 26, until Zorig calmed the crowd. Car- league.) In the proportional representation Little State toons ridiculing the new leaders appeared, while on April Khural the MPRP took 31 seats, the Democrats 13, the 28 the government passed a law authorizing force to dis- National Progress Party three, and the Social Democrats perse unlawful demonstrations. A day later the KHÖWS- three. GÖL PROVINCE government arrested Democratic Party Despite its clear victory, the MPRP was not interested organizers, and a new hunger strike began in Mörön in retaining sole power. By 1990 the economy was (Khöwsgöl’s capital). On May 4 this new crisis, too, was already in trouble as gross domestic product sank from resolved, as the speaker of the Great People’s Khural 10,546.8 million tögrögs in 1989 to 10,281.4 million in voided the Khöwsgöl arrests while defending the limits 1990 (in 1986 prices), while inflation, formerly on demonstrations as consistent with human rights. unknown, reached 52.7 percent by 1991. The first confer- Instead of a Provisional Assembly, a Little State Khural ence of the Mongolian Unemployed Persons Association would be directly elected by proportional representation. on August 9 underlined the importance of the gathering economic crisis. The crisis was linked to that of the THE CAMPAIGN whole Soviet bloc, but the Soviet Union, on the verge of On May 10 the long-awaited Great People’s Khural met disintegration itself, had neither the ability nor interest to and amended the 1960 Constitution to prepare for multi- assist Mongolia. In this context the MPRP delegates real- party elections to its next session and to the Little State ized that securing aid from Western countries was essen- Khural. Parties registered, and on May 15 a 75-day cam- tial and that some painful adjustments were in store. For paign season began, with the election commission both purposes it would be helpful to have the democratic chaired by Mongolia’s cosmonaut J. Gürragchaa. The forces associated with the government, rather than out- challenge for the democratic parties in facing the MPRP’s side. Thus, while P. Ochirbat was elected president unop- institutional advantages was made clear by the official posed and D. Byambasüren prime minister, the vice membership data presented at party registration: Demo- presidency was reserved for one of the new parties. The cratic Party, 7,200; Social Democrats, 2,900; National victory of the Social Democrat R. Gonchigdorj (b. 1954) Progress Party, 1,800; MPRP, 94,000. Smaller parties rep- over the Democrat Zorig for the vice presidency further resenting single-issue agendas, such as ecology or those embittered Social Democrat–Democrat relations. D. Gan- in the private economy, also existed. Public organizations bold (b. 1957), economist and leader of the National such as the Women’s Association and the MONGOLIAN Progress Party, and D. Dorligjaw (b. 1959) of the Demo- REVOLUTIONARY YOUTH LEAGUE also registered as parties. cratic Party were brought in as deputy prime ministers. Despite a pledge to swear off direct state subsidy, the MPRP’s continuing vast financial resources gave it a THE NEW REGIME colossal advantage. Financial assistance to the new par- The formation of the new multiparty government and ties was so meager that the National Progress Party legislature marked the stabilization of the 1990 Demo- donated its share to charity in protest. cratic Revolution. The 1992 CONSTITUTION institutional- In the pressure of the campaign, the Democratic ized multiparty democracy, but the prime practical task Forces coalition broke down. On June 27 the Democratic was to manage Mongolia’s ongoing economic crisis. By Party decided unilaterally to boycott the campaign and summer 1992, in a backlash against the hardships of the was publicly denounced by both the Social Democrats transition and scandals associated with what the MPRP and the National Progress Party. The MDA leader and portrayed as feckless young Democrat officials, the Mon- hunger striker G. Boshigt (b. 1942) was expelled for golian electorate gave the MPRP 72 of 76 seats in the new opposing this policy, and he bitterly denounced his for- legislature. The new MPRP deputies were largely provin- mer comrades as “Stalinists.” By pushing back the date of cial officials quite out of tune with the reformist wing of the election, summoning local officials to ULAANBAATAR to the MPRP. One of the officials who had resigned in March order them to cease obstructing opposition party activi- 1990, P. Jasrai (b. 1933), now returned as prime minister. ties, and inviting foreign observers, P. Ochirbat brought In 1994 demonstrations in Sükhebaatur Square were the Democrats back into the election, although the coali- banned. Even so, the 1990 revolution was irreversible, tion remained ruptured. and the MPRP worked through democratic means until On July 22–26 the election and the runoff were held. in 1996 it was voted out of office by a reformed Demo- The MPRP won 51.74 percent of the vote, while the cratic Coalition. Religious, press, and associational free- Democrats received 24.33 percent, the National Progress doms won in 1990 remained intact. desertification and pasture degradation 145 Vital parts of these freedoms were the new associa- tions that emerged from February 1990 to represent pre- viously ignored social groups and points of view: the Believers’ Association, the Free Labor Party (representing those in the private economy), the Green Party, the Asso- ciation of Unemployed, and the Human Rights Associa- tion. Previously party-controlled institutions such as the Mongolian Trade Unions and the Mongolian Revolution- ary Youth League, both of which had given facilities and assistance to the fledgling democratic movement, elected new independent leaders in March 1990. While these new or reformed organizations did not succeed as actors in the electoral process, they did place a strong stamp on the values and interests of the new democratic society. See also MONGOLIA, STATE OF. Further reading: Tom Ginsburg, “Nationalism, Elites, and Mongolia’s Rapid Transformation,” in Mongo- lia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 247–276; György Kara, “Baabar’s ‘Don’t Forget!’ Analysis of a Mongolian Social Democrat’s Trea- tise, 1990,” Acta Orientalia 46 (1992–93): 283–287. Demotte Shahnama The earliest surviving master- piece of Persian painting, the Demotte Shahnama was produced at the Mongol court late in the IL-KHANATE. First composed by Firdausi (d. 1020) of Tus in 1010, the great epic Shahnama, or Book of Kings, gives a legendary account of the historical dynasties of Iran. Ironically, the Alexander killing the Habash monster, from the Demotte epic achieved great popularity with Iran’s foreign rulers, Shahnama. This scene may also be seen as an allusion to including the Turkish Seljük dynasty, the Mongol Il- Chinggis Khan’s soldiers meeting the jiaoduan beast (presum- ably a rhinoceros) near the Indus River. Yelü Chucai used this Khans, and the Turco-Mongol Timurids. In 1334–35, it occurrence to convince Chinggis Khan to abandon his aim to underwent a major revision by Hamdullah Mustaufi return to Mongolia via India and Tibet. (Opaque watercolor, Qazvini (b. 1281–82). The only known copy of the illus- gold, and ink on paper. 59.05 × 39.69 centimeters. Denman trated Demotte Shahnam survived more-or-less intact Waldo Ross Collection. Photograph© 2003 Museum of Fine until shortly before World War I, when the French art Arts, Boston; 30.105) dealer Georges Demotte cut out the illustrations for sepa- rate sale and discarded the rest. As reconstructed by art historians, the original manuscript contained about 280 Khans, 1290–1340, ed. Julian Raby and Teresa Fitzherbert folios with perhaps 120 illustrations, of which 58 survive. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 95–218. The illustrations focus on themes of royal legitimacy, death, and mourning, the fantastic, and the intrigues of women. While art historians agree that the illustrations Derbet See DÖRBÖDS. allude to episodes from Mongol history along with their ostensible subjects from the Shahnama, there is no con- desertification and pasture degradation In the sensus on the exact episodes represented. The manuscript 20th century desertification has become a serious prob- as a whole, clearly prepared for a learned court audience, lem in Kalmykia and Inner Mongolia. In Buriatia deserti- indicates the high appreciation of Iranian culture and its fication has not yet begun, although pasture degradation fusion with Chinggisid legitimacy at the court of Abu- is severe. In independent Mongolia, while much of the Sa‘id Ba’atur Khan (1317–35) or his immediate successors. pasture is mildly or moderately degraded, desertification Further reading: Oleg Grabar and Sheila Blair, Epic is not yet a pressing issue. Images and Contemporary History: The Illustrations of the Desertification in Inner Mongolia was early on rec- Great Mongol Shahnama (Chicago: University of Chicago ognized as a serious problem. By 1988 the total pasture Press, 1980); Abolala Soudavar, “The Saga of Abu-Sa‘id had shrunk to 78.8 million hectares (195 million acres) Bahador Khan: The Abu Sa‘idname,” in Court of the Il- from about 88 million hectares (217 million acres) in 146 De Wang the 1960s. Of this the usable pasture was only 63.5 mil- 650,000 “ecological emigrants,” mostly Mongols, off the lion hectares (157 million acres). By 1995 the situation steppe to cities and stable farming areas. was accelerating, with 15 percent of Inner Mongolia’s land See also ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FLORA. area desertified into bare gravel, salt flats, or dunes, and Further reading: Chen Shan, “Inner Asian Grassland another 45 percent was estimated to be in the process of Degradation and Plant Transformation,” in Culture and desertification. Droughts in 1999 and 2000 and a locust Environment in Inner Asia, vol. 1, The Pastoral Economy plague in 2002 covering Inner Mongolia from ULAANCHAB and the Environment, ed. Caroline Humphrey and David to KHINGGAN leagues exacerbated the crisis. In Mongol Sneath (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1996), 111–123; areas of Xinjiang and Russia’s Buriatia and Kalmykia virtu- E. Erdenijab, “An Economic Assessment of Pasture Degra- ally all pastures are degraded, and in Kalmykia up to 80 dation,” in Culture and Environment in Inner Asia, vol. 1, percent of the territory is affected by desertification, with The Pastoral Economy and the Environment, ed. Caroline about half severely or very severely affected. Humphrey and David Sneath (Cambridge: White Horse Pasture experts generally identify four main causes of Press, 1996), 189–197; Hong Jiang, “Culture, Ecology, and desertification and pasture degradation: 1) plowing up of Nature’s Changing Balance: Sandification on Mu Us Sandy vulnerable pasture and use of heavy agricultural machinery, Land, Inner Mongolia, China,” in Global Desertification: which lead to topsoil blowing off in the spring winds; 2) Do Humans Cause Deserts? ed. J. F. Reynolds and D. M. general overstocking of livestock, which increases the pres- Stafford Smith (Berlin: Dahlem University Press, 2002). sure on the forage and changes the vegetation from nutri- tious grass-legume assemblage to a less nutritious or even De Wang See DEMCHUGDONGRUB, PRINCE. harmful sedge-forb assemblage; 3) a change in animal com- position from large animals to sheep and goats, such as karakul sheep and CASHMERE goats, whose hooves are didactic poetry Traditional Mongolian literature con- sharper and foraging more destructive; and 4) lowered tained several genres of didactic poetry, all very popular. mobility, which results in rapid degradation of overused Folk poetic genres including the “THREES OF THE WORLD”; pasture. (Since nonuse does not restore pasture as rapidly proverbs of course have substantial didactic content, as do as overuse degrades it, the lower use of remote pasture does many songs. Sanskrit and Tibetan didactic verses trans- not compensate for the degradation of accessible pasture.) lated by the 17th century included Nagarjuna’s A Drop of This decrease in mobility is itself the result of several Nourishment for the People (Arad-i tejiyekhüi dusul), and Sa- factors including: 1) the simple increase in rural human skya Pandita’s TREASURY OF APHORISTIC JEWELS. These were and livestock densities in Mongolia and especially Inner both collections of aphoristic quatrains that made frequent Mongolia; 2) forced sedentarization for political reasons in reference to Indian fables, explained in commentaries. The Buriatia and Kalmykia and parts of Inner Mongolia; 3) a Oyun tülkhigür (Turquoise key, often mistranslated as Key shift to less hardy animals crossbred with high-yield Euro- of wisdom), despite its attribution to CHINGGIS KHAN, is a pean breeds, which need more well water and stall feeding; collection of probably 17th-century Mongolian proverbs and 4) the tendency of poorer and less skilled herders to specifically inspired by these models. The verses are of “hover” around small towns and fixed installations for irregular length and not consistently alliterated. ease, cultural benefits, and to minimize transportation The literary form is much more refined in the genre costs when nomadizing or selling animal products. of surgal shilüg (teaching verses, modern surgaal shüleg). While the problem has long been recognized, pro- The well-known surgal (teaching) of Ishidandzanwangjil posed solutions have usually predicated maintaining or (or Dandzanwangjil, 1854–1907), an INCARNATE LAMA even increasing the tendency to sedentary cash-based and physician in ORDOS, exemplifies the classic form. ranching and so have been either ineffective or even Each verse, or stanza (shilüg, from Sanskrit shloka), con- harmful. In Russia since 1990 the general economic crisis tains four head-rhyming lines (shad, from Tibetan). Each and the shift to subsistence livestock have at least tem- line contains six trochees and a concluding dactyl, with a porarily reduced agricultural acreage and cut back over- cesura after the first four trochees. Sinners excoriated stocking of sheep. In China the government in 1984 took include oppressive banner rulers, ungrateful children the important step of prohibiting further agricultural col- who devote themselves to romance, indulgent parents, onization but a year later ordered rangeland privatized uxorious husbands, ignorant lamas, those who kill ani- and fenced while encouraging hay mowing and fodder mals for sacrifices, children who stint funerary expenses crops. Intended to encourage responsible care of the pas- for deceased parents, opium smokers, drunkards, and so tures, these policies have sharply reduced mobility and on. Arguments used to enforce good behavior include the actually increased degradation. Since 1999, as dust pains of hell, repaying the grace of the Qing emperor, storms filled with Inner Mongolian topsoil have covered and, most insistently, the precious opportunity of human Beijing and even at times crossed the Pacific Ocean, the birth, which should be used to collect merit. Chinese central government has intervened, ordering vast The composition among the Mongols of surgal areas fenced off and planning to move as many as shilügs in Tibetan began with the first Tibetan-language dinosaurs 147 writers in Mongolia, such as the First Zaya Pandita of Museum of Natural History (AMNH), which was origi- Khalkha Lubsang-Perenlai (1642–1715). The THIRD MER- nally looking for mammal and human fossils. Finds of GEN GEGEEN LUBSANG-DAMBI-JALSAN (1717–66) is the first the dinosaur Protoceratops with well-preserved eggs at the known author of extensive surgal shilügs in the MONGO- Flaming Cliffs of Shabarakh Usu (currently called Bayan- LIAN LANGUAGE. His poems show several patterns of strict zag, in Bulgan Sum, South Gobi) changed the direction of isosyllabic PROSODY. Some surgals were written in the research. Soviet paleontologists surveyed Mongolia from seven-foot lines later used by Ishidandzanwangjil, while 1925 on, but large-scale work began only with the others were cast in seven-foot couplets. The concluding 1946–49 Mongolian Paleontological Expedition headed section of an untitled surgal used eight-feet lines, each by I. A. Efremov, which shipped 120 metric tons (132 describing a fault of a particular people and concluding short tons) of bones from Mongolia, chiefly found at with the exclamation ichigüritei (shameful!). DANZIN-RAB- Nemegt and Altan Uul sites (Gurwantes Sum, South JAI later copied this device for his poem Ichige, ichige, and Gobi). Paleontological work in Mongolia ceased for a it also (directly or indirectly) inspired the Kalmyk poet decade but began again with the Polish-Mongolian Pale- Boowan Badma (1880–1917). ontological Expedition (1963–71) and the Joint Soviet Since it was directed to a simple audience, didactic (later Russian)-Mongolian Paleontological Expedition poetry eschewed the involved style of the Sanskrit and (1969 on). These later expeditions trained Mongolian Tibetan courtly poetry (kavya or snyan-ngag). Poetic skill paleontologists and shared specimens with the Mongo- was expressed through images or juxtapositions that lian Academy of Sciences. Since 1990 the AMNH has strikingly illustrated the evil and foolishness of behavior again sponsored exhibitions. that contravened the expectations of religion and state. Mongolia’s dinosaur fossils virtually all date from the The aim of an original and appealing vehicle for an Cretaceous period (currently dated to 138–63 million old message was exemplified in the genre of üge, or years ago). Cretaceous deposits in Mongolia span the speeches. Featuring words put in the mouth of animals or entire period except for the final stages, and are divided inanimate things, they formed a particularly piquant way into Early and Late. A distinctive feature of the Mongo- of expressing moral lessons. In the famous “Conversation lian dinosaur fauna is their inland distribution, contrast- between a Sheep, a Goat, and an Ox,” for example, the ing with the littoral distribution of most other Cretaceous abbot Agwang-Khaidub (or Agwang-Lubsang-Khaidub, dinosaur sites. The two pterosaur genera known from 1779–1838) pictures these three animals trussed up in a Mongolia, for example, appear to have eaten either monastery courtyard. The sheep and ox are sure it cannot insects or freshwater fish, in contrast to the usually be because they are to be slaughtered, since the monks marine types known elsewhere. recite so often the Buddha’s prohibitions on killing. They Mongolia’s Late Cretaceous presents probably the are, of course, destined for slaughter, and the author criti- world’s richest assemblage of large and small theropods cizes the lamas’ surrender to habit and convention in (meat-eating and “ostrich” dinosaurs), with seven major doing what they know is wrong. lineages and perhaps 25 species documented. Particularly Traditional didactic poetry flourished into the 20th fine specimens include the complete Velociraptor skeleton century. In Kalmykia aphorisms and surgal shilügs both found at Tögrög (Bulgan Sum, South Gobi), the approxi- revived as exemplified by Boowan Badma’s Chiknä khujr mately 20 skeletons of Oviraptor uncovered at Ukhaa Tol- (Ornament of the ear, 1916). Loroisambuu (1884–1939) god (Gurwantes Sum, South Gobi), several skeletons of in Ordos observed in his surgal that even with a Gallimimus of varied ages from Nemegt, and several com- steamship one cannot escape the sea of samsara. Soon, plete skeletons of the massive tyrannosaurid Tarbosaurus however, social changes replaced the traditional didactic from Nemegt. poem with new Soviet and Chinese models. Among herbivorous dinosaurs sauropods have been See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; LITERATURE; MUSIC; found in all levels of the Mongolian Cretaceous, includ- SANGDAG, KHUULICHI. ing two skulls similar to Diplodocus, but none of the Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “Conversation skeletons is complete. The bipedal ornithopods are well between a Sheep, a Goat and an Ox,” New Orient 5 represented in Mongolia, with iguanadontians in the (1986): 9–11; Henry Serruys, “Two Didactic Poems from Lower Cretaceous and hadrosaurs (“duck-billed” Ordos,” Zentralasiatische Studien 6 (1973): 425–483; N. dinosaurs) in the Upper Cretaceous. Finds of both types S. Yakhontova, “The Oyun Tülkigür or ‘Key to Wisdom’: are quite similar to European and North American exam- Text and Translation Based on the MSS in the Institute for ples. With the exception of the hadrosaur Saurolophus, of Oriental Studies at St. Petersburg,” Mongolian Studies 23 which 15 skeletons were found at Altan Uul, most of the (2000): 69–137. finds are incomplete. The ankylosaurs (armored dinosaurs usually regarded as vegetarian, although anteating has dinosaurs Mongolian dinosaur exploration began with also been suggested) appear in Mongolia in the late the 1922–25 Central Asiatic Expedition of Roy Chapman Lower Cretaceous and last through the final Cretaceous Andrews (1884–1960) sponsored by the American deposits. At present, however, pachycephalosaurs (“dome- 148 Dolonnuur Assembly headed” dinosaurs) are known in Mongolia only from ern Duolun) to welcome the Khalkhas’ submission and Late Cretaceous sediments. The ceratopsians, an order announce the reconciliation of Chakhundorji and the restricted to eastern Asia and western North America, are Zasagtu Khan in the person of the late Shara’s brother represented in Mongolia by two very well-documented Tsewangjab. On May 30 the emperor personally received genera, Psittacosaurus of the Lower Cretaceous and Proto- the homage of and gave rewards to the Jibzundamba ceratops of the middle Late Cretaceous, both of which are Khutugtu, the Tüshiyetü Khan, the Setsen Khan, Tse- quite small and archaic in appearance. More than 80 wangjab, and 549 other Khalkha representatives seated skulls of Protoceratops from Mongolia illustrate every on the right and a comparable number of Inner Mongo- stage of growth from egg to adulthood. A few other cer- lian and EIGHT BANNERS nobility seated on the left. The atopsian genera are known by fragmentary remains, but assembly closed on June 3, and the emperor returned to the massive horned ceratopsians such as Triceratops have Beijing with the Jibzundamba Khutugtu. In 1701 Tse- so far not been found in Asia. wangjab officially succeeded as the new Zasagtu Khan. Due to the well-drained soils with high pH that formed the two countries’ red beds, Mongolia and China Dongxiang language and people (Santa, Tung- have the world’s most extensive remains of dinosaur eggs, hsiang) Although virtually nothing definite is known of sometimes with beautifully preserved embryonic skele- their early history, the Dongxiang, at 373,872 (1990), are tons inside. The vast majority of Mongolian eggs are Late the most numerous of the nationalities who speak a Cretaceous. About 13 “oogenera” (genera defined by egg “peripheral” Mongolic language. As Muslims in China’s types) have been described for Mongolia. Embryos link Gansu province, the Dongxiang have always been inti- one oogenus in the dinosaurid-spherulitic category with mately linked to China’s Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslim) therizinosaurs (a herbivorous theropod family), while people. context links others with sauropods and various hadrosaurs. The therizinosaur and sauropod eggs were ORIGINS incubated underground in moist soil. The dinosauroid- The name Dongxiang (Eastern Village) was originally a prismatic type includes Roy Chapman Andrews’s original toponym east of Linxia. No contemporary records mark eggs associated with Protoceratops. Finally, embryos of the formation of the Dongxiang nationality. The two chief both Oviraptor (a beaked theropod) and of true birds pieces of evidence are 1) the group’s Mongolic language, have been found in ornithoid-type eggs, which were laid which indicates connections with the MONGOL EMPIRE in dry conditions with parental care. and more recently with the Mongolic-speaking Buddhist See also ARCHAEOLOGY; FOSSIL RECORD; SOUTH GOBI Tu and Muslim Bao’an people nearby, and 2) their self- PROVINCE. designation as “Santa,” derived from “Sartaq,” Mongolian Further reading: Michael J. Benton, ed., The Age of for “Turkestani” and/or “Muslim.” Dongxiang scholars Dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia (Cambridge: Cambridge see themselves as a people formed by deported Turkesta- University Press, 2000). nis, both soldiers and artisans, under Mongol officers who were settled in northwest China (see SEMUREN). The continuing prestige of immigrant sayyids (descendants of Dolonnuur Assembly At this assembly in Dolonnuur Muhammad’s son-in-law ‘Ali) and sheikhs (Sufi or from May 30 to June 3, 1691, the KHALKHA nobility offi- Islamic mystic masters) among the Dongxiang illustrates cially submitted to the QING DYNASTY. For 15 years the the importance of connections to the outside Islamic Khalkha’s two main rulers, the western or Zasagtu Khan world. Another theory sees the Dongxiang as an offshoot and eastern or Tüshiyetü Khan, had been engaged in dis- of the Tu people who converted to Islam under Hui influ- putes. In autumn, 1687, the Oirat GALDAN BOSHOGTU ence. The name “Santa” would then have been adopted in KHAN intervened on the side of the young Zasagtu Khan its sense of “Muslim.” Shara. The Khalkha Tüshiyetü Khan Chakhundorji (r. 1655–99) then killed Shara and Galdan’s brother. In reply LANGUAGE Galdan invaded Khalkha in spring 1688, driving the Dongxiang language belongs to the Qinghai-Gansu sub- Tüshiyetü Khan, his brother the great INCARNATE LAMA family of the Mongolic languages. A number of phonetic, known as the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, and vast morphological, and semantic innovations are shared with numbers of other Khalkha nobles and commoners into Tu and Bao’an: the common use of Turkish tash, “stone,” flight to the Inner Mongolian border. There, after appeals for Mongolian chuluu, a tendency to aspirate unaspirated by Chakhundorji and the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, the initial stops when followed by an aspirate stop (for exam- Qing emperor Kangxi (1662–1722) allowed the Khalkhas ple, Middle Mongolian batu, “firm,” becomes putu in to enter Inner Mongolia and receive relief grain. Dongxiang or pad¹ in Tu), anomalous unrounding of the While Manchu armies invaded Mongolia and ö (for example, Middle Mongolian dörben becomes ji¹ron defeated Galdan, a great assembly was held at the Inner in Dongxiang and deeren in Tu), and the development of Mongolian religious and trade center Dolonnuur (mod- the verb “to place” from Middle Mongolian talbi- to tai- Dörbed Mongol Autonomous County 149 (Dongxiang) or taii- (Tu), and so on. While they all tend lord Ma Bufang relied heavily on Islamic recruits, and to eliminate diphthongs (Middle Mongolian a’ula, conscription was very onerous. The Dongxiang army “mountain,” becomes ula in Dongxiang and ulaa in Tu), deserter Mutefeile (Ma Muge) led a widespread antitax these languages do retain the Middle Mongolian initial h- rebellion in 1943. (for example, hula’an, “red,” becomes Dongxiang khulan Although all are Muslim, the Dongxiang are divided and Tu fulaan, and hüker, “cattle,” becomes Dongxiang into many sects. In 1954 77,616, or 67 percent, were fugi¹ and Tu fugor). affiliated with one of nine menhuan, or Sufi lodges (the Dongxiang differs substantially from Tu, however, in “Old Teaching”), and 532 mosques existed in Dongxiang ways that reflect its pervasively Chinese environment. territory. The Dongxiang Ma Wanfu (1853–1934), after Semantically, Dongxiang shows a large number of Chi- making the pilgrimage to Mecca, came under the influ- nese loanwords, including basic vocabulary such as gao ence of Wahhabism, and on his return to Gansu he (Chinese hao, “good”), naidz (Chinese nai, “milk”), m founded a Chinese branch of the anti-Sufi Ikhwan (Mus- khai (Chinese xie, “shoes”), the numbers above 20, as lim Brotherhood, or “New Teaching”) movement. well as all of its modern political, administrative, and Although he excoriated Chinese accretions to Islam, his technological terminology. Religious terms are Arabic and movement did not become politically hostile to the Chi- Persian. Phonologically, while Dongxiang does show the nese Republic. tendency of Tu to drop first-syllable vowels, it, like Chi- In the People’s Republic of China the Dongxiang dis- nese, has no initial consonant clusters. Phonemic vowel tricts were reunited as a Dongxiang autonomous area in length and vowel harmony have both disappeared. The September 1950 (defined as an autonomous county in syllable-final consonants have been simplified to -n; 1955). The native ethnonym Santa, which in practice where the originally Mongolian word has some other meant simply “Muslim,” was rejected and the previously consonant, it is either changed (Middle Mongolian sar- purely geographic term Dongxiang adopted for the taq, “Turkestani, Muslim” to Dongxiang santa) or nationality. In 1981 nearby Jishishan county, with more dropped (ghar to qa). The Chinese copula verb shi, “to than 8,000 Dongxiang, was made a Bao’an, Dongxiang, be,” is used in sentences as a kind of topic marker after and Salar nationality autonomous county. the subject. In 1982 more than 145,000 of the total 279,397 Virtually all Dongxiang people speak the Dongxiang Dongxiangs lived in the Dongxiang Autonomous County language. The three dialects, Suonanba, Wangjiaji, and in Gansu’s Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, where Sijiaji, pose no problem of intercommunication. Inner they formed more than 77 percent of the county’s total Mongolian linguists devised a written language for population of 187,310. Despite this high percentage, only Dongxiang in the early 1980s, but it is not in general use; about 60 percent of the higher county officials and 59 writing is done in Chinese. percent of the party members were Dongxiang. Almost 97 percent of the Dongxiang are engaged in agriculture. HISTORY Dongxiang county is one of China’s poorest, and with Since the Dongxiang were, like the Hui, generally regular fewer than 10 percent of school-age children in primary subjects of the Chinese county administration and mostly schools and illiteracy among those six and over reaching lacked autonomous institutions, they did not have the almost 90 percent, the Dongxiang were China’s least edu- political visibility of the Tu and the Yogur. One tusi, or cated nationality. hereditary “aboriginal official,” did operate in Dongxiang, See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; BAO’AN LANGUAGE living in Baihe village and administered several dispersed AND PEOPLE; ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MONGOLIC hamlets with his surname, He. This lone tusi’s authority LANGUAGE FAMILY; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; YOGUR LAN- was curtailed around 1725 and abolished early in the GUAGES AND PEOPLES. 20th century. Further reading: Henry Schwarz, Minorities of North- Dongxiangs participated in the revolt of the pro- ern China: A Survey (Bellingham: Western Washington scribed Jahriya sublineage of Naqshbandi Sufis (Islamic University Press, 1984); ———, “A Script for the Dongx- mystics) in 1781, and as a result several villages were iang,” Zentralasiatische Studien 16 (1982): 153–164. destroyed and Dongxiang Islamic activity was subjected to imperial regulation. Ma Wuzhen of the Dongxiang Doquz See TOGHUS KHATUN. was one of the local leaders during the great Hui revolt of 1862 before surrendering in 1872 and being enrolled in the Qing army. Dongxiang men also participated in Dörbed (of western Mongolia) See DÖRBÖDS. the rebellion of the Mufti menhuan (Sufi lodge) in 1895–96. Dörbed Mongol Autonomous County (Dorbod, Under the Chinese Republic, with the suppression of Durbote, Durbet) Located in northeast China’s Hei- Ma Zhongying’s 1928 rebellion, the Dongxiang territory longjiang province, Dörbed county had about 235,675 was divided in 1930 among four counties. The Hui war- people in 1990, of whom 42,775 (18.15 percent) were 150 Dörbet Mongols. In 1982 the Mongol population numbered böds had split into the “Lesser” Dörböds (actually larger 32,429, almost 16 percent of the population. The county in number) under the Tundutov princes (descendants of has 44 villages that are all or mostly Mongol. Dörbed lies Dalai Taishi’s third son, Toin), and the “Greater” Dörböds on the eastern bank of the Nonni (Nen) River, south of under the Khapchukov princes (descendants of Dalai Qiqihar in marshy, low-lying ground. In 1987 the total Taishi’s fourth son, Ombo Daiching Khoshuuchi). The number of livestock in Dörbed (excluding pigs) was Lesser Dörböds live in northern Kalmykia, while the 147,414 head, of which 29.5 percent were oxen, 14.5 per- Greater Dörböds live around Lake Manych-Gudilo. cent milk cows, 19 percent horses, and 37 percent sheep Meanwhile, the Dörböds in the Oirat homeland and goats. In 1988 707,000 hectares (1,747,000 acres) remained a major tribe of the ZÜNGHARS. In 1753, as the were cultivated for a total yield of 100,200 metric tons Zünghar principality disintegrated, the “three Tserens”— (110,450 short tons) of grains and soya. Average income Tseren, Tseren Ubashi (both descendants of Ombo Daich- that year in the Mongol villages was 260 yuan. Surveys of ing Khoshuuchi), and Tseren-Möngke (descendant of the county’s mainly Mongolian villages found that 78 per- Dalai Taishi’s younger brother)—surrendered to the QING cent of the Mongols there could speak Mongolian. DYNASTY (1636–1912). First given pastures along the The Dörbed were an important clan among the Mon- Baidrag River (northern BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE), the gols in the 12th–13th centuries. Submitting to the QING Dörböds were resettled in 1759 in modern UWS PROVINCE. DYNASTY in 1624, the Dörbed clan was organized into a The Dörböds were formed into 16 BANNERS of the Sain banner in Jirim league ruled by descendants of CHINGGIS Zayaatu Left and Right LEAGUES. The Dörböd nobility’s KHAN’s brother Qasar. In 1900 the Russian-managed Chi- approximately 15,000 subjects included many BAYADS and nese Eastern Railway was extended through Dörbed terri- a small number of captured Turkestanis, or KHOTONGS. tory, and after 1913 massive state-sponsored colonization Until the 1880s Dörböd society and economy dif- established three Chinese counties there as the Mongols fered significantly from that of the Khalkhas to their were sedentarized. west. Governmental duties were lighter, monasteries were The Japanese excluded Dörbed banner from fewer, and Chinese merchants rarer. While basically pas- Manchukuo’s Mongol autonomous provinces of Khing- toral and nomadic, as many as one-fourth of the Dörböd gan established in 1932. After 1945 the Chinese Commu- households also practiced some irrigation agriculture, as nists established a new banner government, and in did monasteries, and local handicrafts were also pre- October 1956 it was converted to an autonomous county. served to a greater degree than in Khalkha. From the See also INNER MONGOLIANS; KHORCHIN. 1880s, however, Dörböd socioeconomic trends converged with those of the Khalkhas. After Mongolian indepen- Dörbet See DÖRBÖDS. dence in 1911, separatist feeling remained strong among the Dörböds into the 1930s. The Kalmyk adventurer DAMBIJANTSAN was at first welcomed in 1911 as a kins- Dörböds (Dörwöd, Dörbed, Dörbet, Derbet) The man, and the Dörböd monasteries of Tegüs-Buyantu and Dörböds are a tribe of Oirat Mongols. (Oirat tribes were Ulaangom were centers of anticommunist disturbances in not consanguineal units but political-ethnic units.) A 1930. Even Dörböd officials in the revolutionary govern- Dörben clan existed within the MONGOL TRIBE in the ment, such as Badarakhu (Ö. Badrakh, 1895–1941), pro- 12th–13th centuries, but the Dörböds appear as an Oirat posed secession from Khalkha and direct annexation to tribe only in the latter half of the 16th century. What the Soviet Union. Many Dörböds achieved high office, their relation, if any, is to the Dörben clan of the however, under YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL and JAMBYN BAT- 12th–13th centuries is unclear. (Dörben and Dörböd both MÖNKH, Mongolia’s rulers from 1952 to 1990, who were mean “the four” and may have originated independently. both Dörböd. The Dörböds in Mongolia, numbering The word is written Dörböd in the CLEAR SCRIPT, Dörwd in Cyrillic-script Kalmyk, and Dörwöd in CYRILLIC-SCRIPT 25,700 in 1956 and 55,200 in 1989, are the largest west- MONGOLIAN.) ern Mongolian yastan, or subethnic group. The Dörböd and Zünghar tribes were ruled by collat- See also KALMYK REPUBLIC. eral branches of the Choros “bone,” or lineage. In 1616 Further reading: Arash Bormanshinov, “The Buzava Russian diplomats identified the Dörböds’ Baatur Dalai (Don Kalmyk) Princes Revisited,” Mongolian Studies 16 Taishi as the most powerful Oirat prince. In 1677 Dalai (1993); 59–63; ———, “Prolegomena to a History of the Taishi’s son Solom-Tseren (d. 1684?) joined the KALMYKS Kalmyk Noyans (Princes). I. The Buzâva (Don Kalmyk) on the Volga with 4,000 households, occupying the west- Princes,” Mongolian Studies 14 (1991); 41–80; Uradyn ernmost pastures. In 1699 a body of Dörböds joined the Erden Bulag, “Dark Quadrangle in Central Asia: Empires, Don Cossacks, eventually becoming the Buzava Kalmyks. Ethnogenesis, Scholars, and Nation-States,” Central Asian Trapped west of the Volga, the Dörböds could not join Survey 13 (1994): 459–478. the 1771 FLIGHT OF THE KALMYKS east and hence domi- nated the remaining Kalmyks. By 1806 these Volga Dör- Dorjeev, Agvan See DORZHIEV, AGWANG. Dorzhiev, Agwang 151 Dorjieff See DORZHIEV, AGWANG. warning the Tibetans of the futility of resisting Britain’s 1904 incursion into Tibet, Dorzhiev followed the Dalai Lama in flight to Mongolia. Sent from there to appeal to Dorjiev, Agvan See DORZHIEV, AGWANG. the czar, Dorzhiev found that Russia’s involvement in the Russo-Japanese War precluded any assistance. Dorzhiev’s Dornod See EASTERN PROVINCE. last visit to the Dalai Lama in autumn 1912 came as Tibet and Mongolia were securing their independence with the Dornogov’ See EAST GOBI PROVINCE. fall of China’s last dynasty. After parting from the Dalai Lama for the last time, he passed through Mongolia and in January 1913 negotiated a formal Tibeto-Mongolian Dörwöd See DÖRBÖDS. alliance. From 1898 Dorzhiev also began touring both Buriat Dorzhiev, Agwang (Agvan Dorjiev, Dorjeev, Dorjieff) and Kalmyk monasteries, advocating reform of the reli- (1853–1938) Buriat lama who advised the Thirteenth gious life of Buddhist monks in Russia. He instituted Dalai Lama and promoted Buddhist learning in Russia tsanid studies in four Khori monasteries in 1898 and in Agwang Dorzhiev’s ancestors were Ekhired Buriats of Kalmykia after 1900 and gave mass lay initiations to the Verkholensk who in 1811 migrated east to the lands of KALMYKS. In Kalmykia, isolated from other Buddhist cen- the Khori Buriats’ Galzuud clan. His father, Dorzhi ters since the 18th century, Dorzhiev’s activities were Iroltuev, and mother, Dolgar, lived in the ulus (district) of especially important and controversial. The chief Kalmyk Kharashibir’ on the Uda (Buriat, Üde) River (35 kilome- lama protested as unsettling innovations the new-style ters, or 22 miles, northeast of Onokhoi). tsanid schools and Dorzhiev’s preaching against snuff and His parents were devout Buddhists, and Agwang liquor, but the aristocrat Tseren David Tundutov sup- received lay initiations as a boy and made a pilgrimage to ported him. Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). By reading hagiogra- In Buriatia controversy arose with Russian Orthodox phies and the SUTRA OF THE WISE AND FOOLISH, Dorzhiev missionaries, who protested Dorzhiev’s plans for a Bud- was inspired to leave his new wife and become a monk. dhist temple among his native Ekhired shamanists west In 1873–74 he and his teacher, Baldan-Choimpel, fol- of LAKE BAIKAL. To this controversy was added in 1910 lowed a party of Khalkha nobles going to Lhasa to escort Dorzhiev’s proposed datsang, or Buddhist college, in St. the infant EIGHTH JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU back to Mon- Petersburg. Despite Orthodox opposition, a committee of golia. His teacher had also secretly agreed with the Rus- scholars, explorers, artists, and Kalmyk princes lobbied sian Geographical Society to bring back information on for the czar’s approval, and with 50,000 gold rubles Tibet. donated by the Dalai Lama at their last parting in 1912 After returning to Khüriye and being ordained as a and 30,000 rubles gathered by Dorzhiev himself from gelüng (full-fledged monk), Dorzhiev visited his family Buriat and other donors, the St. Petersburg datsang was before making a pilgrimage to China’s sacred Wutai built between 1913 and 1915, the first Buddhist temple Mount. From there he reached Lhasa in 1878, where he in a European city. joined the Mongol monks in Lhasa in the sGo-mang dat- Dorzhiev’s also tried to reform the script of the sang (college) of ’Bras-spung Monastery. After 10 years of Buriat Mongols. In 1905 he created a printing house, study of tsanid (higher Buddhist studies) curriculum, he Naran, in St. Petersburg and a press in the Atsagat medi- received the most prestigious Lharamba degree and was cal datsang near his hometown. In fall 1905 Dorzhiev given advanced initiations along with the young Thir- designed a new script to unify the Buriat language. teenth Dalai Lama (1876–1933), to whom he remained Called the Vagindra script from Dorzhiev’s Sanskrit pen ever devoted. While editing a new bKa’-’gyur edition, name, the script was a semiphonetic improvement of Dorzhiev widely praised the czar’s tolerance of Buddhism the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT based on Buriat dialects. and advocated a pro-Russian policy for Tibet. This advo- Although he was assisted in this endeavor by secular cacy revealed his Buriat origin (Russian subjects were not intellectuals, the Vagindra script made no headway then allowed in Tibet) and made him political enemies, against official Russian opposition, and by 1921 but in 1897–98 he was sent by the Dalai Lama to Russia Dorzhiev himself had abandoned it. via India and Beijing to propose Russian protection of The outbreak of the Russian Revolution in March Tibet. 1917 (February in the Old Style) was a welcome develop- From then on Dorzhiev shuttled several times ment for Dorzhiev. Dorzhiev maintained good relations between Russia and Lhasa with letters for the Dalai Lama with socialist intellectuals such as ELBEK-DORZHI and the czar and lavish gifts of gold butter lamps, gilding, RINCHINO and hailed the proclamation of freedom of reli- food, cloth, and temple hangings for the Tibetan monas- gion, which allowed Buddhism to expand freely to the teries. The British began to see him as the evil genius western Buriats. The later Communist persecution of the behind the Dalai Lama’s anti-British policy. After vainly “Jesus long-hairs” (Russian Orthodox priests) he saw as 152 D. Ravjaa just retribution for their persecution of Buddhism. Even long after duguilangs had become armed organizations so, during the Civil War the St. Petersburg datsang was with open leaders. closed down until 1924, and Dorzhiev was arrested while The earliest known duguilang occurred in 1828 in touring Kalmyk monasteries. Released through the inter- Ordos. Duguilangs were formed to send petitions to league vention of Russian scholars, he continued his work in authorities against banner rulers, to intimidate unpopular Kalmykia, seeking to rebuild the devastated tsanid or abusive banner officials, to enforce community norms, schools. and to defend the banner territory against encroachment, With the end of the civil war and the revival of Rus- whether by other BANNERS, Chinese colonization, or for- sia’s Oriental policy, Dorzhiev was invited to the Septem- eign missionaries. Since the laws of the QING DYNASTY ber 1920 conference of the Toilers of the East at Baku and (1636–1912) did not allow subjects directly to sue their addressed the Communist Party Politburo with Rinchino own banner ruler (see ZASAG), the duguilangs had to use a month later. In letters accompanying offerings to the the threat of violence or riot to force the league authorities Thirteenth Dalai Lama, Dorzhiev argued that the Com- to relent. Where the duguilangs were better entrenched, munists, with their policy of helping weak nations, might they engaged in direct action, mobbing their targets and still prove friendlier to Tibet than was Britain or China. then frightening or torturing them into good behavior. Dorzhiev advocated the elimination of lamas’ private The first known example of this type of vigilante action property on both Buddhist and Communist grounds and was around 1884, also in Ordos. Repression from the participated actively in the First All-Union Buddhist authorities could likewise be severe. Strong banner rulers Congress in January 1927 in Leningrad, which supported often meted out their own tortures, while the Qing law this policy. At the same time, he argued publicly that, punished insubordination with exile to a Chinese pro- unlike Christianity, Buddhism supported the Soviet regime. vince for the ringleaders, with enslavement of their family, He also defended the reputation of Buddhist medicine. and 100 lashes and cattle fines for the rest. In 1931, with increasing antireligious persecution, Membership in the duguilangs included commoners, Dorzhiev was confined to Leningrad. On May 30, 1935, TAIJI (petty nobility), and often banner office clerks and the lamas of the Leningrad datsang were arrested. militia leaders. The Ordos duguilangs from the beginning Dorzhiev was deported in January 1937 to the Atsagat saw one of their tasks as protecting Buddhism and the medical datsang, where he was arrested on November 13 cult of CHINGGIS KHAN (see EIGHT WHITE YURTS). A on the fabricated charge of being a leader of a Japanese duguilang league in 1913 in Üüshin was sealed with a spy ring doing “wrecking work” in the collectives and khanggal, or Buddhist offering of bull’s blood to the preparing an armed insurrection. He died of heart failure dogshin (fierce) protector deities. After 1911 the role of in prison on January 29, 1938. lamas in these movements increased. See also BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT; BURIATS; Quite similar struggles against misrule have been doc- MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL; THEOCRATIC PERIOD; TIBETAN CUL- umented from elsewhere in Mongolia as far back as the TURE IN MONGOLIA. 18th century, although without the name duguilang or its Further reading: Alexandre Andreyev, “An Unknown trademark round-robin signatures. From the late 19th cen- Russian Memoir by Aagvan Dorjiev,” Inner Asia 3 (2001); tury, duguilang organizations spread to Khalkha. Famous 27–39; Thubten J. Norbu and Dan Martin, Dorjiev: Mem- duguilangs included that led by Ayushi (1858–1939) of oirs of a Tibetan Diplomat (Tokyo: Hoka Bunka Kenkyu, Darkhan Zasag banner (modern Tsetseg Sum, Khowd) and 1991); John Snelling, Buddhism in Russia: The Story of that formed against the impious and drunken prince of Agvan Dorzhiev, Lhasa’s Emissary to the Tsar (Shaftesbury, Khurts Zasag banner (modern Erdenetsagaan Sum, Sükhe- Dorset: Element, 1993). baatur) in 1919. The lamas of the western Mongolia Dör- böds in 1913 also used vigilante action, surrounding the banner ruler’s palace-tent and forcing him to hear their D. Ravjaa See DANZIN-RABJAI. accusation. They called this “setting up a screen” (khashig bosgokhu). The Dörböd lamas’ Tegüsbuyantu rebellion dughuyilang See DUGUILANG. against the leftist antireligious policy of 1930 began as a similar movement. The growth of Ordos duguilangs from occasional duguilang (dughuyilang) Duguilangs were a special activities to permanent organizations was ironically form of popular protest in ORDOS (southwest Inner Mon- begun by the authorities themselves. In 1900 Ordos golia), which after 1900 evolved into relatively perma- rulers responded to Boxer emissaries, then favored by nent vigilante organizations. The name duguilang, or the Qing court, by encouraging duguilangs to attack “circle,” referred to the members’ manner of both assem- Catholic missionaries. When the Qing dynasty turned bling and signing their letters. By sitting and putting their to forced colonization (in part to pay Boxer repara- names in a circle, they prevented the identification of a tions), the powerful duguilang movement moved into ringleader who could be punished. This custom persisted opposition (see CHINESE COLONIZATION; NEW POLICIES). Dzungar 153 Üüshin had 12 and neighboring Otog eight permanent GÖL PROVINCE. The 36 households that actually herd rein- duguilangs, effectively dividing the banners into semi- deer are divided about equally into North (Züün) and independent districts. South (Baruun) Taiga bands. The Uighur-Uriyangkhai in After the 1912 fall of the Qing, the Üüshin northeastern Khöwsgöl also call themselves Dukha (see duguilangs actually seized control in Üüshin in 1913, TUVANS). putting government in the hands of a gong hui (public The North Taiga band was organized under the QING assembly), a kind of representative assembly of the DYNASTY from 1755 to 1912 as part of the Tozhu (Toja) duguilangs. By 1920, however, the Ordos rulers and the Uriyangkhai banner. With Mongolian independence, the Chinese authorities had crushed the duguilangs, disarmed Tozhu banner became part of Tuva, soon annexed by Rus- the people, and prohibited assembly. Only in Otog, where sia, leaving only this band on the Mongolian side of the the ruler was an ineffectual opium addict, did the eight frontier. The South Taiga group fled over the frontier separate duguilangs remain a force, able to challenge local from Tuva to avoid collectivization and conscription in strongmen but not to rule. the 1930s–40s. At first the Mongolian government In 1924 Ordos duguilang leaders exiled in Beijing treated both groups as illegal aliens, repeatedly deporting petitioned the revolutionary government in Mongolia for them back to Tuva. In 1956 the government finally gave assistance. In 1926 Soviet-supported Inner Mongolian them Mongolian citizenship, settling them at a fishery revolutionaries armed the duguilang leaders Öljeijirgal station at Tsagaan (Dood) Nuur Lake on the Shishigt (Shine Lama, 1866–1929) and the INCARNATE LAMA River. A market remained for furs and deer antlers, how- Jamyangsharab (1887–1946), who ruled Üüshin and ever, and in 1985 the government organized a fur-trap- Otog banners, respectively, as military strongmen until ping and reindeer-herding state farm in Tsagaan-Nuur their deaths. The last recorded duguilang in Ordos drove Sum (district) to employ some Dukha. In 1995, with eco- the Chinese Nationalist office out of Khanggin (Hanggin) nomic liberalization, the reindeer herds were privatized. banner in 1950. Inbreeding among the reindeer, poaching by outsider Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, Young Mon- hunters, and cancellation of the government wolf-control gols and Vigilantes in Inner Mongolia’s Interregnum program have damaged the Dukhas’ living. Decades, 1911–1931 (Leiden E. J. Brill, 2002); C. R. Baw- Further reading: Batulag Solnoi, Purev Tsogtsaikhan, den, “A Joint Petition of Grievances Submitted to the and Daniel Plumley, “Following the White Stag: The Ministry of Justice of Autonomous Mongolia in 1919,” Dukha and Their Struggle for Survival,” Cultural Survival Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 30 Quarterly 27.1 (spring 2003); 56–58; Alan Wheeler, “The (1967): 548–563; Sh. Natsagdorj, “Arad Ayush the Com- Dukha: Mongolia’s Reindeer Herders,” Mongolia Survey, moner,” in Mongolian Heroes of the Twentieth Century, no. 6 (1999): 58–66. trans. Urgunge Onon (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 1–42; Henry Serruys, “Documents from Ordos on the Dundgov’ See MIDDLE GOBI PROVINCE. ‘Revolutionary Circles.’ Parts I and II,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 97 (1977); 482–507 and 98 Dzabkhan See ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. (1978); 1–19. Dzakhachin See ZAKHACHIN. Dukha (Tsaatan) The Dukha are Mongolia’s only rein- deer herders, known to the Mongolians as Tsaatan, or “reindeer people.” The Dukha, who speak the Tuvan lan- Dzavhan See ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. guage, numbered about 80 households in the 1990s and lived in the northwest of Mongolia’s far-northern KHÖWS- Dzungar See ZÜNGHARS. E East Asian sources on the Mongol Empire While usually impersonal in tone, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, plied the occasion for the earliest writings by Chinese scholars in the employ of the Mongols. In 1228 and Tibetan sources cover the MONGOL EMPIRE from Changchun’s disciple, Li Zhichang (1193–1256), and beginning to end and supply vast amounts of informa- Chinggis’s Confucian secretary, YELÜ CHUCAI, wrote tion. Chinese writings on the conquest begin in 1221 opposing accounts, entitled Xi yu ji (Notes on a journey with the Meng-Da beilu (A complete record of the Mong- to the West, translated as Travels of an Alchemist) and Xi TATARS) of Zhao Gong, an envoy of the Song, which is the yu lu (Record of a journey to the West), respectively. Li first written account in any language of the Mongol con- Zhichang’s work is usually published with a number of quest and the only one written during the reign of CHING- Mongol decrees written for the Taoist patriarch. Qubilai’s GIS KHAN himself. Later the Song envoys Peng Daya and interviews with Chinese Confucians in the 1240s pro- Xu Ting combined their accounts to produce the impor- duced several accounts, of which the Lingbei jixing (Trav- tant Heida shilue (A sketch of the Black Tatars, 1237). In els north of the range, 1248) by Zhang Dehui Zhao Gong’s time the Song considered using the Mongols (1194–1274) is extant. Wang Yun (1227–1304) in the as allies against the Jin, but by Peng and Xu’s time, the Zhongtang shiji (Records of the secretariat’s office) Song saw the Mongols as their new northern rival, and described QUBILAI KHAN’s early conferences with his Con- attitudes hardened. Few records on the Mongols from fucian ministers. writers serving the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY in North China Su Tianjue (1294–1352) collected prose writings of have survived. The Runan yishi (The lost cause at Runan, Chinese scholars under the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY, such translated as Fall of the Jurchen Chin) of Wang E as memorials, prefaces, and obituaries, in his Guochao (1190–1273) described the Jin dynasty’s last stand in wenlei (Anthology of the dynasty) and used the biograph- 1234. In 1260 QUBILAI KHAN ordered the collections of Jin ical material to compile the Guochao mingchen shilue records to prepare the defunct dynasty’s history, but dis- (Sketches of the dynasty’s eminent ministers, 1328). The agreement over how to handle the issue of legitimacy latter work, which assembled biographies of North Chi- long delayed publication. A commission under the Mon- nese, Mongols, and a few SEMUREN (Central and West gol grand councillor TOQTO’A (1314–56) finally pub- Asians) dating from the time of Chinggis Khan to the lished the Jin shi (History of the Jin) and the Song shi accession of Ayuribarwada (titled Renzong/Jen-tsung, (History of the Song) in 1344 and 1345. Both sources 1311–20), was the first Chinese summation of Mongol contain valuable information, although the Mongol edi- rule. Su portrayed the Yuan as a true Confucian dynasty tors eliminated much sensitive information from the Jin that unified the previously divided world. He focused on shi in particular. Chinese Confucians but also praised the Mongol noble- Taoist writings on the Mongols began with Chinggis men who assisted them in fighting against corrupt offi- Khan inviting the Taoist adept MASTER CHANGCHUN to his cials. Geng/shen waishi (The unofficial history of 1380), mobile court in Afghanistan. The journey of the Taoist written by Quan Heng in the succeeding MING DYNASTY, Changchun to Chinggis Khan’s court in Afghanistan sup- chronicled the Yuan from 1328 to its fall in 1368 in jaded 154 Eastern province 155 but objective terms. The Zhuo geng lu, a wide-ranging monks in Iran. In 1285 another Chinese monk translated compendium of anecdotes and miscellaneous informa- Chinese historical records into Tibetan. Kun-dga’ rDo-rje tion by Tao Zongyi (fl. 1360–68), and the imperial cook- (1309–64) incorporated these translations into his pio- book, Yinshan zhengyao (1330), by the Uighur Hu Sihui neering general history of Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism, (Qusqi), reflect different facets of Yuan society. the Hu-lan deb-ther (composed 1346–63). The invaluable The Yuan dynasty sponsored little public history 1434 genealogical encyclopedia rGya-Bod yig-tshang writing in Chinese. (On the court chronicle, or Veritable (Sino-Tibetan records), by Shribhutibhadra (Tibetan Records, see MONGOLIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL dPal-’byor bZang-po), quoted wholesale from Yuan law EMPIRE.) One of the few extant official historical works is codes and documents about Tibet, giving the most the Ping Song lu (Record of subjugating the Song) by Liu detailed surviving picture of myriarchy (khri-skor, Mon- Mingzhong (1243–1318). Official publications on law gol tümen) organization in sedentary regions. Other mon- and administrative policy include two extant collections uments of the new Tibetan historiography under the of administrative decrees, the Yuan dianzhang (compiled Mongols include the Si tu’i bka’-chems, or testament of 1320–22) and the Tongzhi tiaoge (1321), which are Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan (1302–64), and the memoirs extremely valuable despite being written in an often of the INCARNATE LAMA Rang-byung rDo-rje (1284–1339) impenetrably literal translation from Mongolian into Chi- at the Mongol court, incorporated into the 1775 history nese. The dynasty also sponsored a complete digest of of his Karma-pa lineage, Karma Kam tshang brgyud-pad. Yuan administrative history in more readable Chinese. See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CONFU- This Jingshi dadian (Compendium on administering the CIANISM; FOOD AND DRINK; MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL; TAOISM world, 1330) has mostly been lost, although its chapter IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. prefaces and its chapters on Mongol horse administration Further reading: Dan Martin; Tibetan Histories: A and the Korean and Burmese conquests have survived. Bibliography of Tibetan Language Historical Works (Lon- After the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in 1368, don: Serindia, 1997); Lao Yan-shuan, “The Chung-t’ang the new Ming dynasty rapidly compiled the YUAN SHI shih-chi of Wang Yün: An Annotated Translation with an (History of the Yuan, 1370) using sources such as the 6Introduction,” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1962; Jingshi dadian and the Guochao mingchen shilue as well as S. Bira, “Some Remarks on the Hu-lan Deb-ther of Kun- a host of others, mostly now nonextant. Because the dga’ rdo-rje,” Acta Orientalia 17.1 (1964): 69–79; Hok- sources are not usually identified, it is thus a digest of lam Chan, China and the Mongols: History and Legend many of the Chinese accounts of Mongolian history. under the Yuan and Ming (Hidershot, Hampshire: Ashgate, In Korea the Kory˘o sa, or standard history of the 1997); Hok-lam Chan, The Fall of the Jurchen Chin: Kory˘o dynasty (918–1392), compiled in Chinese in 1451 Wang E’s Memoir on Ts’ai-chou under the Mongol Siege under the succeeding Choson ˘ or Yi (1392–1910) dynasty (1233–1234) (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1993); Peter H. according to the same annals-treatises-biographies format Lee and Wm. Theodore de Bary, ed. Sources of Korean Tra- as the Yuan shi, contains unusually detailed accounts of dition, vol. 1, From Early Times through the Sixteenth Cen- the Mongol invasions and occupation. Other Korean tury (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997). sources include the annalistic Tongguk t’onggam (Com- prehensive mirror of the eastern kingdom, 1484) by S˘o Eastern Mongols See INNER MONGOLIANS; KHALKHA. K˘ojong, and Ikchae-chip, the complete works of the poet and scholar Yi Chehy˘on (1287–1367). The earliest extant history of Vietnam, Ngô S˜i Liên’s –Dai Viêt Su’ K´y Toàn Eastern province (Dornod) One of the original Thu’ (Comprehensive volume of the historical records of provinces created in the 1931 administrative reorganiza- Vietnam, 1479) makes use of earlier annals to describe tion, Eastern province occupies Mongolia’s far eastern the Mongol invasion. The An Nam Chí Lu’o’c (Annan frontier with the Hulun Buir region of Inner Mongolia in zhilue, Sketch of Annam), compiled in Chinese by Lê Tác China. It also abuts central Inner Mongolia and Russia’s (Li Ze), a Vietnamese defector to the Yuan who settled in Chita district. It was renamed Choibalsang province (after China in the 1280s, covers the Yuan invasions of Vietnam Mongolia’s then ruler MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG) in 1941 but from the Yuan perspective. was changed back to Eastern (Dornod) province in 1963. The most important Chinese Buddhist source on the Composed entirely of KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolution- Mongols is the Fozu lidai tongzai (Complete records of ary Setsen Khan province, the province has received as the Buddhist patriarchs through history), by Shi Nian- immigrants Buriat Mongols from Russia, BARGA Mongols chang (b. 1282), which covered Buddhist activities in from HULUN BUIR, and ÜJÜMÜCHIN Mongols from central China chronologically up to 1331. Chinese Buddhist Inner Mongolia. The province’s 123,600 square kilometers monks also played a key role in transmitting information (47,720 square miles) are occupied mostly by Mongolia’s about China to other cultures. RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL- low-lying eastern steppe. Khökh Nuur Lake, at 554 meters ULLAH’s history of China was derived from a compilation (1,818 feet) above sea level, is Mongolia’s lowest spot. Its like Nianchang’s, transmitted by two Chinese Buddhist population of 35,100 in 1956 increased to 74,200 in 2000. 156 East Gobi province Eastern’s total livestock herd is 826,600 head. Dornod’s trial sector serving domestic needs. After 1970 Soviet capital, Choibalsang, had a population of 41,700 in 2000, assistance created a hothouse of industrialization that making Eastern one of Mongolia’s most urbanized transformed Mongolia’s lifestyle and foreign trade profile. provinces. The city was originally Sang Beise-yin Khüriye, Moving from a Soviet-bloc economy to a globalized econ- a monastery town and seat of the grand duke of Achitu omy after 1990, small-scale provincial industries were Zasag banner. It was renamed Bayantümen in 1923 and devastated, leaving the decollectivized herds and the vast Choibalsang in 1941. Linked to the Soviet Union by a rail- Soviet-era mining enterprises as the main economic pil- way constructed for military purposes in 1938–39, lars. Through all these transformations, however, the Choibalsang was developed as a food-processing and light Mongolian economy has been plagued by persistent trade industrial city, powered by the nearby Aduunchuluun coal imbalance and dependence on foreign aid. mine, and accounting for 2.7 percent of Mongolia’s whole industrial output in 1985. It also had a major Soviet mili- ANIMAL HUSBANDRY tary presence. The 1990 transition to an open economy The elimination of the nobility and the monasteries, struck Eastern province particularly hard. Light industries together with the failure of the first attempt at collectiviza- and arable agriculture have almost collapsed, and unlike tion in 1930–32, left medium-scale private pastoral herders elsewhere, animal husbandry has not picked up the slack. as the majority of the rural producers. From 1941, to boost By 2000 unemployment had grown to 12.6 percent, the exports to the Soviet Union, a system of compulsory sale at highest in Mongolia. state-set low prices was implemented. This system pro- See also BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA; duced major increases in output of all animal commodities DAMDINSÜREN, TSENDIIN; MINING; SOVIET UNION AND MON- except for those such as sheep wool and beef cattle, which GOLIA; YADAMSÜREN, ÜRJINGIIN. were already heavily commercialized. Growth in produc- tion of most animal products slowed in the mid-1950s, when, following an analysis of the government’s agricul- East Gobi province (East Govi, Dornogov’) One of ture expert, N. Jagwaral, the government accepted that the original provinces created in the 1931 administrative only collectivization could create growing output without reorganization, East Gobi lies in southwestern Mongolia the rise of social stratification. with a long frontier with Inner Mongolia in China. The Completed by 1960, collectivization did not live up urban province Gobi-Sümber (see CHOIR CITY) was to its promise. In general, by moving the herders away carved out of its territory in 1994. Its territory lies from subsistence production, collectivization somewhat mostly in KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Tüshi- increased the average income generated per animal. Mod- yetü Khan province with some taken from Setsen Khan est increases in total output despite a diminishing rural province. The province’s 109,500 square kilometers population showed that while collectivization was not (42,280 square miles) are mostly pure gobi (habitable making a great contribution to the national economy, it desert), with a dry and hot climate. Its population has was allowing resources and labor to be diverted to other increased from 23,400 in 1956 to 51,100 in 2000, but fields without causing serious shortages. The most still slightly fewer than one person inhabits every two important change in animal husbandry was an invest- square kilometers (1.3 per square mile). The TRANS-MON- ment in strategies to avoid winter-spring die-off: wells, GOLIAN RAILWAY, completed in late 1955, made East corrals (khashaa), and fodder. Gobi’s mineral resources accessible; these include the oil wells at Züünbayan and the fluorspar mines at Khar- CREATING NEW ECONOMIC BRANCHES Airag. The railway border town of Zamyn-Üüd serves The leaders of Mongolia in the 1950s were firmly com- both visitors from China and transit passengers. The mitted to creating a diversified economy. The addition of 1,036,600 head of livestock (2000 figures) have a typical wheat sheathes and a cogwheel to the national seal in gobi composition, with relatively many camels (29,800 1960 expressed the regime’s aspirations, one that were head), sheep (453,900 head), and goats (344,600 head). realized in the 1970s and 1980s. The capital, Sainshand, had 25,200 people in 2000, and With Soviet grain supplies cut off during WORLD WAR posted Mongolia’s hottest recorded temperature of II, Mongolia created a crash program to expand grain 40.8°C (105.4°F). American atlases frequently misiden- FARMING and flour milling. After the war, however, the tify Sainshand as Buyant-Uhaa. The museum of the program lapsed. In March 1959, with the Soviet Union province’s famed author DANZIN-RABJAI (1803–56) is the embarking on its Virgin Lands program, the party city’s principal cultural attraction. announced the goal of making Mongolia self-sufficient in See also GOBI DESERT; MATRILINEAL CLANS; MINING; grain. Vast amounts of equipment, including 5,400 trac- SANGDAG, KHUULICHI. tors, were imported from the Soviet Union to create a mechanized agricultural sector. Most arable agriculture economy, modern In 1940 Mongolia had a private took place on state farms. Mongolia achieved self-suffi- herding-based economy, with a small state-owned indus- ciency in grain by 1970. economy, modern 157 The earliest industries in Mongolia were coal and to 48.9 percent in 1990, while animal husbandry’s and gold MINING. In spring 1934 the opening of the Industrial agriculture’s share fell from 64 percent to 15.7 percent. Combine in ULAANBAATAR, which united a 1,000-kilowatt coal-fired power plant with factories for woolen clothing, THE PLANNED ECONOMY felt, tanned hides, sheepskins, and shoes, began the Mon- From 1948 to 1990 the Mongolian economy was devel- golian light industrial sector. This development of light oped according to FIVE-YEAR PLANS on the Soviet model. industry continued during World War II and afterward. Specifying quantity and prices of both the inputs and out- In 1949 Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock companies began puts of all economic enterprises, the planning process mining and drilling for uranium, fluorspar, and oil in was oriented primarily to produce higher output figures eastern Mongolia and the Gobi, although the results were for desired commodities rather than toward the most effi- disappointing. cient satisfaction of needs. As such, it was quite well Purely military needs required Mongolia’s first rail- suited to the Mongolian leaders’ desire to produce a way between Borzya and Choibalsang, built in 1938–39. diversified range of products as a good in itself. The long-planned line from ULAN-UDE to Ulaanbaatar was At the same time the Mongolian leaders at many finally completed in 1949, and the SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE points sacrificed efficiency and profitability to social har- mandated a further extension to China in 1956. Air mony. Consumer prices were essentially fixed despite transport began in 1947 and connected all provinces with constant increases in production costs, particularly after the capital by the mid-1950s. Mongolia’s road system the 1970s. Enterprises were never closed, even when remained rudimentary, however, as the relative ease of chronically unprofitable. These policies were sustainable driving over the open steppe made paving less urgent. only due to the continuous supply of Soviet aid. A domestic construction and building materials At the same time the creation of new branches of industry had begun by 1930, with brick, whiting, and production was at all points dependent on Soviet aid and woodworking mills. A peculiarity of the construction hence on Soviet priorities. Estimates of Soviet aid to industry was, however, the prevalence of non-Mongolian Mongolia in the 1980s range from 11 percent to 33 per- labor. Japanese prisoners of war (1945–47), Soviet sol- cent of Mongolia’s total gross national product. Mongolia diers in penal units for surrendering to Germany and was assigned a role within Soviet-bloc planning primarily other offenses (1947–56), Chinese guest workers as a producer of raw materials. The development of mas- (1956–63), and Soviet construction workers (1960–69) sive capital-intensive enterprises when Mongolia had no built most of what a visitor now sees in central Ulaan- indigenous heavy industry increased both Mongolia’s baatar. dependence and its balance of payment problem. From A new city, DARKHAN, apparently first planned with 1960 to 1990 Mongolia regularly ran trade deficits of Chinese labor and a steel mill in mind, was redirected in 25–30 percent, with the difference being made up by 1961 into a Soviet–Eastern European–Mongolian project Soviet loans. Even within arable agriculture, the appear- built around factories producing construction materials, ance of self-sufficiency was illusory, as the heavily mecha- as well as metalworking and repair shops and clothing nized agriculture depended on continuing supplies of and food-processing industries. After 1972 Japanese repa- equipment, spare parts, fuel, and even seeds from the rations built the Gobi CASHMERE factory in Ulaanbaatar, a Soviet Union. Given Mongolia’s geopolitical importance significant advance into international-quality cashmere to the Soviet Union in the SINO-SOVIET SPLIT, however, and camel hair knitted goods. constant deficits were not a problem. In the 1970s and 1980s Mongolia entered full scale While industrialization did steadily increase labor into mining, opening the ERDENET CITY copper-molybde- productivity, the high prices of necessary imported inputs num ore-dressing plant, one of the 10 largest in the were reflected in the steadily worsening situation in spe- world. In EASTERN PROVINCE, SÜKHEBAATAR PROVINCE, and cific consumption of materials. The amount of tögrögs in EAST GOBI PROVINCE fluorspar, tungsten, uranium, and material expense required for one tögrög of national aluminum mines were vastly expanded. Based on these product rose from 0.7 in 1960 to 1.3 in 1986. Capital investments Mongolia now supplies 15 percent of the productivity declined as well: 1 tögrög of fixed installa- world’s fluorspar. To fuel these energy-hungry plants and tion produced 0.77 tögrögs of national income in 1960 to warm Mongolia’s apartment dwellers through the win- but only 0.24 tögrögs in 1990. ter, massive investments in electricity, thermal power pro- duction, and coal production created a coal–thermal THE MARKET ECONOMY power–nonferrous mines triangle that proved to be the By 1986 Mongolian economists were well aware of the most robust portion of Mongolia’s new economy. efficiency problems, while the East European nations As a result of these developments, the composition of (and to a lesser degree the Soviet Union) were expressing Mongolia’s output changed radically. The share of indus- dissatisfaction with the seemingly bottomless pit of Mon- try (including mining, manufacturing, and utilities) in golian aid. Such complaints were swallowed up in the the gross national product rose from 12.7 percent in 1940 collapse of the Soviet Union as a whole, which led in 158 economy, modern 1991 to the cessation of all aid, cancellation of all ongo- the slack in the late 1990s. Concerns about overstocking ing projects, and complete chaos in the international were underlined by two successive ZUD (winter disasters trade on which Mongolia depended. With democratiza- in spring 2000 and 2001), which cut livestock to 26.1 mil- tion Western nations and multilateral lending institutions lion in 2001 and threatened the livelihood of scores of suddenly became a new source of aid, currently averaging thousands of herding families. The decline in fodder pro- US $320 million annually. Stimulated both by Western duction and wells that the collectives formerly encour- advice and by Mongolia’s own desire to emulate the suc- aged have exacerbated vulnerability. Private construction cess of other Asian nations, Mongolia embarked on a of simple roofless khashaas (corrals) has not compensated rapid program of PRIVATIZATION and free trade. The for this weakening pastoral infrastructure. results have so far been mixed, with many of the prob- In the second half of the 1990s the wholesale and lems attributable to an incompetent and corrupt banking retail trade sector, now almost wholly privatized, sector. accounted for almost half of Mongolia’s economic growth The immediate difficulties of the transition were and became second to agriculture in total production. severe. The gross domestic product (GDP) fell from a The mixed public–private transportation and communi- high of 10,546.8 million tögrögs in 1989 to 8,193.6 mil- cations sector has likewise made a strong recovery. The lion tögrögs in 1993 (in 1986 prices). Inflation, unknown construction industry, notoriously inefficient before in consumer goods for decades, reached 325.5 percent in 1990, was devastated by the transition, and privatized 1992. At the same time pervasive shortages led to construction has only slowly picked up the slack. rationing for the first time since WORLD WAR II. By 1994, Mongolia’s foreign trade profile has dramatically however, inflation had fallen to a manageable 66.3 per- changed. In the 1920s Russia received Mongolia’s cent, free consumer prices had resolved the shortages, exports, but Mongolian consumers preferred Chinese and rationing was lifted. Since 1995 the GDP has risen goods. Now, with Mongolian consumers showing strong from 550,253.7 million tögrögs to 632,640.7 million preferences for European goods, the opposite prevails: tögrögs in 2000 (1995 prices), an increase powered by China buys 59 percent of Mongolia’s exports and supplies recuperation in the trade and repair, mining, and trans- only 21 percent of its imports, while Russia supplies 34 port-communications sectors. By 2000 inflation had percent of Mongolia’s imports but purchases only 10 per- fallen to 8.1 percent, and the tögrög’s value against the cent of its exports. A new trend is exports to the United U.S. dollar had stabilized. States (20 percent in 2000); clothing manufacturers else- The opening of the 1990s fundamentally shook up where in Asia take advantage of America’s lack of import the Mongolian economy. (It also changed statistical prac- quotas on Mongolian clothes to ship clothing compo- tices, which makes comparison sometimes difficult.) nents to Mongolia, where assembly is finished for export Manufacturing has been almost wiped out, going from to the United States. around 70 percent of total industrial output in 1990 to 27 Early on in the transition, the collapse in the tögrög’s percent in 2000. Grain and fodder farming have likewise purchasing power slashed imports, leading in 1993 to virtually collapsed, with sown acreage dropping from Mongolia’s first trade surplus since World War II. In 790,000 hectares (1,952,090 acres) in 1990 to 210,000 1996, however, low prices for copper and cashmere dev- (518,910 acres) in 2000. Truck farming for urban popula- astated Mongolia’s exports, particularly to the European tions has, however, increased steadily. Union, South Korea, and Japan. Wildfires that year also Mining has weathered the transition well and now damaged the economy, as did the summer droughts and produces more than 50 percent of Mongolia’s total ZUD of 1999–2000 and 2000–01. Since then Mongolia has industrial output and supplies 40–50 percent of total again funded large trade deficits by continuous loans exports. The other two legs of the 1980s heavy-indus- from foreign patrons. trial triangle, power and coal, have also remained From 1996 to 2001, unfavorable price trends and zud important, although coal output has declined. The min- conditions kept Mongolia’s overall growth rate a modest ing and power industries, which remain mostly state 2–3 percent. By 2003, however, growth had increased to owned, have benefited from both foreign aid and foreign an annual 5 percent. Future plans for Mongolia include a investment. Direct foreign investment in gold, petroleum, refinery to complement its renewed oil production and copper extraction promises continued growth in the financed by international aid and a zinc mine funded by mining sector. Chinese capital. Several large companies, including the Decollectivized animal husbandry at first showed national airline, MIAT, and Gobi Cashmere Company, are very powerful growth, as the number of livestock shot up slated for privatization. In 2000 the Mongolian govern- from 23 million in 1988 to 33.5 million in 1999, while the ment announced its intention to seek investment for a agricultural share of GDP rose from 19.2 percent in 1990 “Millennium Road” project to build a paved east–west to 37 percent in 1999. The breakdown in state-owned trunk road across Mongolia. trading organs kept herders from being able to market See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; COLLEC- their surpluses until private trading companies picked up TIVIZATION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; DECOLLECTIVIZATION. education, traditional 159 Further reading: Tumuriin Namjim, The Economy of EDUCATION IN THE EMPIRE PERIOD Mongolia: From Traditional Times to the Present, ed. William Under the MONGOL EMPIRE the khans generally appointed Rozycki (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 2000); non-Mongol scribes and religious figures—Taoist, Chris- National Statistical Office of Mongolia, Mongolian Statisti- tian, Buddhist—as tutors for their children. Formal edu- cal Yearbook 2000 (Ulaanbaatar: National Statistical Office, cation among the Mongols began around 1204 with 2001); Frederick Nixson et al., The Mongolian Economy: A CHINGGIS KHAN appointing the Uighur scribe Tatar-Tong’a Manual of Applied Economics for a Country in Transition as tutor for his sons, to teach them the newly adopted (Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar, 2000); State Statisti- UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. Under ÖGEDEI KHAN the cal Office of the MPR, National Economy of the MPR for 70 Christian scribe Qadaq and the Taoist priest Li Zhichang Years (Ulaanbaatar: State Statistical Office, 1991). tutored imperial princes. QUBILAI KHAN appointed the Confucian scholars Yao Shu (1203–80) and Xu Heng education, traditional Traditional methods of educa- (1209–81) as tutors for his son JINGIM, and Abagha Khan tion in Mongolia emphasized the senses and memory. appointed the Uighur Maichu baqshi (teacher) and a Chi- Formal education began in Mongolia during the empire nese Buddhist monk as tutors for his grandson GHAZAN period. Buddhist monastic education became widespread KHAN. after 1578, and education of scribes was promoted by the From 1269 Qubilai Khan also established a system of administration in the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) BAN- local schools in the provinces intended to educate young NERS (appanages). Mongols in the new SQUARE SCRIPT. The Mongolian (On the early pioneers of a modern-style education, see school system was capped by a Mongolian School for NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS. On modern education among Sons of the State in the capital. In 1315 this educational the Mongols of Russia, see BURIATS and KALMYKS. On that network was linked to an examination system, which among the Mongols in China, see INNER MONGOLIANS. On became an important path of upward mobility for Mon- modern education in Mongolia, see MONGOLIA, STATE OF; gols. In all these schools and exams, the curriculum was MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; dominated by a rather eclectic mix of CONFUCIANISM and THEOCRATIC PERIOD.) Chinese historical and administrative works. While BUD- DHISM was the court religion, the relative rarity of Bud- TRADITIONAL CHILD RAISING dhist names indicates that a monastic education was not In the MONGOL EMPIRE children began to ride as early as common among the Mongols. two or three years of age. A pillow was generally placed on the saddle when children rode. As soon as a boy could TRADITIONAL BUDDHIST AND SCRIBAL ride a little, he was given a small bow and trained to EDUCATION shoot little birds and other animals. Girls rode as well as Nothing is known of formal education between the fall of boys and sometimes learned to shoot, also. In recent cen- the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China in 1368 and the SEC- turies horse riding begins later, at around five to six years OND CONVERSION to BUDDHISM begun in 1575. of age. Early horse riding is not only practical but is held The building up of a native monastic class began in to develop courage. By age 13 or 14, children are expected 1578, when the newly converted ALTAN KHAN (1508–82) to be able to bridle, saddle, hobble, and ride even difficult and his aristocracy dedicated 108 children to be trained horses, and soon after they begin to be able to herd semi- as monks. More such officially inspired dedications wild horse herds on the steppe. occurred as Buddhism spread, although often the aristo- In unschooled pastoral families, intellectual training crats preferred to hire substitutes. By the 19th century the began at age two or three with the names of seasons, monasteries were by far the largest institution of formal directions, and familiar objects, moving on to tongue education. The basic curriculum emphasized reading and twisters and memorization games. From age 10 girls memorizing the Tibetan texts chanted during the regular began to sew, while boys began to work at carpentry and services in the Buddhist temples. Only after completing repair YURTS, saddles, and other things. Respect was this program would monks be allowed to learn the MON- inculcated by having children serve their elders food and GOLIAN LANGUAGE. Most monks entered the monasteries liquor reverently, and children were trained through pub- at eight to 10 years of age and left at around age 17, lic shaming to play harmoniously with others. Specifi- mostly with a knowledge of the Tibetan letters (see LAMAS cally pastoral skills taught included knowing the proper AND MONASTICISM; TIBETAN LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT). Of names for the different colors of livestock, for which an those lamas who stayed in the monasteries a small minor- extensive and exact vocabulary exists in Mongolian. At ity became fluent in written Tibetan and in Mongolian. the same time children’s senses were trained to see and Lamas were responsible for much, if not most, of the count things far off, to track wild animals, and to observe Mongolia- and Tibetan-language literature and history weather signs. The names of mountains and other geo- writing produced among the Mongols. graphical features marking one’s own banner territory The banners, or local administrations, of Mongolia were also memorized. under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) trained clerks for 160 Eg River banner (local appanage) administration. Many BANNERS Further reading: Y. Rinchen, “Books and Traditions maintained a small school that enrolled 15 to 25 boys. (From the History of Mongol Culture),” in Anacleta Mon- They learned how to write Mongolian in the Uighur- golica, ed. John G. Hangin and Urgunge Onon (Bloom- Mongolian script as well as Manchu, written with a ington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1972), 63–76. similar script. Penmanship was emphasized over com- prehension. Boys graduated by age 13 and from then Eg River (Egiin Gol, Egiyn Gol) Flowing from LAKE until their 60th year performed a three-month rotation KHÖWSGÖL into the SELENGE RIVER, the Eg River is 475 as a scribe every year. Because of this duty the banner kilometers (295 miles) long and drains an area of 42,400 schools were not popular, although some clerks parlayed square kilometers (16,370 square miles). Since 1991 the their skills into a career as a banner official. The Manchu Mongolian government has sought to build a hydroelec- AMBANS maintained similar schools in Khüriye, ULIASTAI, tric power plant on the Eg River 6 2/3 kilometers (four and KHOWD CITY, where Chinese was also taught. In miles) above its confluence with the Selenge but had not addition to this official scribal schooling, most officials been able to finance the project as of 2000. The prospect regularly tutored a few boys and occasionally girls in of flooding the river valley hastened archaeological inves- their home, including their own children. Of these, at tigations since 1991, and tombs dating from the Bronze least one in 10 had to be instructed in official penman- Age to the MONGOL EMPIRE have been excavated and ship and registered for the scribal rotation. The others above-ground Buddhist sites identified. were taught to read, not write, so as to avoid this duty. Among the Volga KALMYKS a decree in the 1740s fined the father of any boy still illiterate by age 15. Egiyn Gol See EG RIVER. Initial instruction for the lamas was based on simple poems in Tibetan describing the letters. Scribal instruc- Eight Banners The Eight Banners were the military tion was based mostly on DIDACTIC POETRY, such as the foundation of the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). Although Oyun tülkhigür (Turquoise key), or translated Chinese organized at first for the Qing dynasty’s ruling Manchu primers, such as the Three-Character Classic (Sanzijing). people, the Eight Banners had Mongolian and Chinese- Unsatisfied by these options, the ORDOS poet Kheshigbatu martial units as well. The Eight Banners system must not (1849–1917) composed his own alliterated primer based be confused with the autonomous banner system (see on the kind of instruction given to pastoral children. BANNERS) that governed the vast majority of Mongols Mongolian lamas also composed a number of grammati- who remained in Inner and Outer Mongolia. cal textbooks structured as “commentaries” on the no longer extant Jirükhen-Tolta (Artery of the heart) ORIGINS attributed to CHOSGI-ODSIR (fl. 1307–21). The earliest and The formation of the Eight Banners went hand in hand most widespread of these was by the ÜJÜMÜCHIN INCAR- with the rise of the MANCHU EMPIRE. By 1601 the Qing NATE LAMA Danzin-Dagba (fl. 1723–36); new traditional dynasty’s founder, Nurhachi (b. 1558, r. 1616–26) had grammars were being produced as late as the 1920s. For created the first “arrows” (Manchu, niru; Mongolian; scribal use the Qing court commissioned an official dic- sumu; see SUM), which each enrolled 300 soldiers with tionary (Khorin nigetü tailburi toli, Dictionary in twenty- their families as permanent military units. By 1615 one headings, completed in 1717) with pronunciation Nurhachi had begun combining these “arrows” into divi- guides in the Manchu script. sions (Manchu, gûsa; Mongolian, khoshuu). The divisions Statistics on traditional literacy are hard to find and were distinguished by their banners: plain yellow, white, harder to interpret. About 45 percent of the male popu- red, or blue, or bordered yellow, white, red, or blue (the lation in Khalkha and about 17–20 percent in neighbor- border was red or, in the case of the red banner, white). ing Inner Mongolian areas passed through the The Chinese name qi (banner) used for these divisions monasteries, yet few of these people could be consid- has given the traditional English name for these units. ered genuinely literate. Those officially registered as scribes were about 0.3–0.7 percent, but they were per- THE EIGHT BANNERS MONGOLS haps as little as a tenth of those tutored in reading and Mongolian units also joined the rising new dynasty. In writing in banner and home schools. A detailed survey 1621 two South Khalkha (later renamed JUU UDA league) of the Aga steppe in southern Siberia in 1908 may be taiji (noblemen) surrendered to Nurhachi with 600 representative of Mongolian areas. Of the 39,000 per- households. Nurhachi formed them into two “arrows.” sons, about 6 percent were literate best in Tibetan, 7 The number of Mongolians surrendering or donated to percent best in Mongolian, and 1 percent best in Rus- the throne by submissive Mongol lords increased, and in sian. (In Mongolia proper, Manchu and Chinese 1635 Nurhachi’s successor, Emperor Hong Taiji replaced Russian). Female literacy was less than 1 per- (1627–44), divided the now approximately 10,000 Mon- cent. In Aga’s two major monasteries about half the gols into 80 “arrows,” or sumus, organized into eight sep- lamas were considered literate in Tibetan. arate Mongol banners. By 1657 the banner soldiery was Eight White Yurts 161 approximately 32 percent Manchu, 17 percent Mongol, the Mongol banners appeared, including Fashshan (Chi- and 51 percent Chinese-martial. nese, Fa Shishan, 1753–1813) and Sandô (Chinese, San- Only those Mongols who had physically moved duo, b. 1875). In 1865 the Mongol bannerman Chongqi toward the Manchu homeland in modern eastern Liaon- (father-in-law of the Tongzhi emperor, 1862–75) won ing province were enrolled in the Eight Banners. Hong first place in the palace examinations. Taiji organized the great majority of his Mongol subjects The decline in Mongolian-language skills coincided who had remained in Inner Mongolia into quite different with an increasing use of Mongol bannermen in the Qing autonomous banners ruled by hereditary jasags (Khalkha, dynasty’s Inner Asian administration. After 1750 Mongol ZASAG) of the noble, or taiji, caste. While the Eight Ban- Eight Banners officials served frequently as AMBANS ners Mongols included a wide variety of clans, including (imperial residents) and jiangjuns (generals in chief) in the Chinggisid BORJIGID clan, Chinggisid privileges were Tibet, Kökenuur (Qinghai), Xinjiang, and Inner and not recognized in the Eight Banner system, and few offi- Outer Mongolia. Despite their ancestry, these Mongol cials were Borjigid. Arrow and banner offices were all the- Eight Banners soldiers were usually seen as “Manchus” oretically open to merit, although in reality virtually by the local Mongols. After 1901 prominent Mongol every Mongolian sumu captain passed his office to his Eight Banners officials, such as Xiliang (1853–1917) and son. Sandô, loyally implemented the Qing’s hated NEW POLI- Some Mongols in the steppe were, however, incorpo- CIES in Tibet and Mongolia. rated into the Eight Banners: the Höhhot TÜMED (1636), In the 1911 revolution that overthrew the Qing, gar- CHAKHAR (1675), and the BARGA Mongols, Solons rison bannermen and their families in China suffered (Ewenkis), and Daurs of HULUN BUIR (1732–34). While massive pogroms followed by widespread discrimination enjoying many privileges of Eight Banners membership, under the Republic of China (1911–49). Many banner- legally they were subjected to the Lifan Yuan’s criminal men denied their ancestry, particularly outside Beijing. code. These bannermen were never stationed within Discrimination eased under the People’s Republic (1949 China proper and so remained socially distinct from the on). Since 1982 many Chinese-speaking pure- or mixed- other Mongol Eight Banners people. blood descendants of Eight Banners Mongols in China proper have revived their designation as Mongols. MONGOL SOCIETY IN THE EIGHT BANNERS Further reading: Roger DesForges, Hsi-liang and the With the Manchu conquest of China in 1644, approxi- Chinese National Revolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale mately half the Eight Banners soldiers were moved to Bei- University Press, 1973); Mark Elliot, The Manchu Way: jing, while 30 percent were stationed in garrisons in the The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial strategic parts of the empire. Each garrison contained a China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001). selection of all the ethnic units and banners within the system. Thus, Mongol Eight Banners troops, numbering Eight White Yurts (mausoleum of Genghis Khan) 43,636 in 1720, were distributed throughout the empire The Eight White Yurts, or Palaces (Naiman chaghan as salaried soldiery. Within the banner hierarchy Mongols ger/ordon), in ORDOS, Inner Mongolia, was the largest and shared numerous privileges with the Manchus that were most widely honored of the many cult places of CHINGGIS denied the Chinese-martial bannermen. KHAN and his family in Mongolia. While other cult All Eight Banners officials were required to know objects were dispersed throughout northeast Ordos, the Manchu; those in the Mongol Eight Banners had to most important were kept at Ejen Khoroo (Ejin Horo), or know Mongolian in addition. Knowledge of Chinese was “the Court of the Lord [Chinggis].” The complex of sacri- also widespread. During the 18th century Mongol ban- ficial objects is also called the ONGGHON (grave or sacred nermen participated fully with Mongols from the thing) of Chinggis Khan. Since 1956 the cultic objects autonomous banners in Beijing’s active Mongolian and have been centralized in a mausoleum of Genghis Khan Tibetan-Buddhist culture. Arana (d. 1724), of the built at Ejen Khoroo by the Chinese government. Chakhar Umi clan, completed the first Mongolian trans- lation with commentary of a Chinese novel, Journey to THE OBJECTS the West, in 1721. The Menggu shixi pu (Mongolian Since the 18th century at least, the Eight White Palaces genealogy), written in Chinese and Manchu in 1735 by (Naiman chaghan ordon) have been traditionally enumer- Lomi (b. c. 1670) of the Kharachin Borjigid, fused the ated as the three yurts of Chinggis Khan’s wives (BÖRTE Mongolian tradition of the 17th-CENTURY CHRONICLES ÜJIN, Qulan, and the fictional Gürbeljin Ghoa) and five with intense Qing loyalism. Mongol bannermen were other sacred objects (Chinggis’s white horse dedicated to dedicated in their patronage of Tibetan-rite Buddhist the god Indra, his milk pail, his arrows and quivers, his temples, yet already by the 1730s there were reports that reins and saddles, and his treasury containing old writings Mongol Eight Banners soldiers no longer spoke Mongo- and sacrificial articles). All but the treasury, which stayed lian well. From the 1740s to the end of the dynasty, a close to Börte’s YURT, nomadized in different spots over number of distinguished Chinese-language poets from northeastern Ordos and the neighboring Höhhot Tümed 162 Eight White Yurts banners, congregating together at a special place only for Otog and Khanggin (Hanggin) banners with its own the great spring offering. Darkhad population. Its chief officiant, or iröölchi, (see The yurts were not the collapsible yurts used by the YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL) carried on the highly secret garli Mongols in recent centuries but archaic chomchog yurts, offering at the Eight White Palaces. squarish in plan with a bell-shaped top, which were moved only on carts. The Golden Palace (Altan ordon), OFFICIANTS or chomchog-yurt, was a double yurt, with one placed in The custodians of the sacred objects and officiants at the front as a kind of antechamber communicating by a door sacrifices were known as the “500 Yellow Darkhad,” who with the one behind as the holy of holies. In front of this were tax exempt, or darkhan (Middle Mongolian DAR- double yurt in the open was kept a black standard or QAN), hence their name. Since they were to be in eternal four-tailed standard, which was believed to be Chinggis mourning for Chinggis Khan, they were forbidden to put Khan’s war standard. Also kept nearby was a two-wheeled on mourning for other authorities. The Darkhad were of “yellow khasag-cart,” pulled by white camels. diverse clan origins and were scattered among the ban- Inside the inner chamber of the Golden Palace was a ners of Ordos along with the sacred objects of which they box or casket containing, it was believed, the remains of had custody. (These Darkhad have no relation to the Chinggis Khan and his principal wife, Börte (also written DARKHAD of northern Mongolia.) Ruling the non-Ching- Börtegeljin). The casket measured 1.20 meters long, 0.77 gisid Darkhad was a Chinggisid prince bearing the title meters wide, and .995 meters high (3.94 by 2.53 by 3.26 jinong, who was the tituler ruler of all Ordos. feet). In and around the casket were also kept other cult The Darkhad were divided into two groups of yamu- objects and manuscripts. A similar casket with remains tad (literally, government officials): the Right yamutad of existed in Empresses Qulan and Gürbeljin Ghoa’s chom- civil officials guarding Chinggis’s court, and the Left chog-yurt. yamutad of military officials guarding his standard. Those Other objects of worship associated with Chinggis of the Right were said to be supervised by BO’ORCHU and Khan’s family in Ordos included the chomchog-yurt of his descendants and those on the Left by MUQALI and his TOLUI, Chinggis Khan’s youngest son, and his wife descendants. The two wings of the Darkhad had titles SORQAQTANI BEKI, known as Eshi Khatun (First Lady). In that at the upper levels (TAISHI, taibuu, jaisang, chingsang, it was an ongghon-portrait of Tolui and his flint and belt etc.) roughly paralleled court titles in use from about buckle. This shrine was kept at the border of Ordos’s 1300 to 1500. CEREMONIES Since the 16th century the worship at the shrine con- sisted of four seasonal offerings: 1) the “Sacrifice of the White Herd of Spring” on the 21st of the last moon of spring, when Chinggis’s 99 white mares were first milked and aspersions (satsal) of mare’s milk made; 2) the “Sacri- fice of the Lake of Summer” on the 16th of the middle moon of summer, as the white mares foaled; 3) the “Sac- rifice of the Muzzles of Autumn” on the 12th of the last moon of autumn, when the milking season ceased; and 4) the “Offering of the Placing of the Hides” on the third of the first moon of winter, when the tasama, or goathide, wrapping Chinggis’s casket was anointed. In addition to these offerings, there were minor monthly offerings. All these offerings consisted of sacrificial offerings of nine sheep and one mare and aspersions of nine measures of milk liquor (sarkhud). In most offerings the meat and liquor were shared out to all the audience, who eagerly sought it as evidence of the grace of Lord Chinggis. Cer- tain others, though, were limited to the 60 Darkhad offi- ciants, or the TAIJI (descendants of Chinggis Khan). The spring sacrifice was by far the largest, and the only one in which all the “Eight White Palaces” were gathered. Dur- The coffin of Chinggis Khan and Börte being moved from the ing this sacrifice, the casket of Chinggis’s remains was put Palace of the Quiver (background) into a tent on the “yellow- on the yellow khasag-cart and driven to the “palace” of khasag cart” (foreground) after the spring sacrifice in 1935 the quiver. The night before occurred the secret garli- (Courtesy the Owen Lattimore estate) offering, in which nine sheep bones were burned both Eight White Yurts 163 outside and inside the Golden Palace to the family ong- Yisüi, and Yisügen (both TATARS and sisters). Both Ögedei ghon (sacred thing) of Chinggis Khan. The next day the and Möngke Khans are known to have attended Chinggis jinong officiated over a public offering. Khan’s ordos, and the latter is said to have “sacrificed to Apart from these calendrical rituals there was an its standard and drums.” anointing ritual held whenever the felt of the chomchog- Chinggis Khan’s descendants also established their yurts was replaced. In it a sable skin and five-colored own cult sites. His grandson BATU on the Volga kept a cloth strips were anointed and hung from the Golden cult figure (ongghon) of Chinggis Khan in a cart in front Palace’s ridgepole. Other calendrical offerings were dedi- of his palace-tent. The offerings at this shrine consisted of cated to the black four-footed standard and the quiver aspersions of the first fruits of milk, sacrifices of animals, and arrows. Darkhad lamas also performed Buddhist cer- particularly sheep and horses, in which the bones would emonies during the major sacrifices. be burned and the meat placed in the shrine and conse- Associated with the sacrificial offerings were prayers crated before being eaten, and the dedication of animals offered by the khonjin, or speaker, giving glory to Ching- to the ongghon, which would then be allowed to roam gis Khan and his companions and seeking his blessing. A freely and never be ridden. unique form of prayer was made of repetitive syllables In 1260 QUBILAI KHAN, another of Chinggis Khan’s uttered by the chargichi, or player of a sacred wooden grandsons, installed ancestral spirits in his civil capital, clapper (chargi), during the offerings of milk liquor. DAIDU. Although the rituals became more Chinese in style Called by the Mongols the “language of the gods” (TENG- after an ancestral temple was built in 1280, seasonal milk GERI), these strings of repetitive syllables are clearly fos- aspersions and prayers in Mongolian continued to be silized examples of glossolalia, or “speaking in tongues,” offered to Chinggis by shamans. By 1266 eight “halls” characteristic of ecstatic worship throughout the world (probably yurts kept in the palace temple) were arranged and first spoken in a trance state perhaps induced by the west to east for worshipping Chinggis, his father, YISÜGEI, rhythmic clapper. At present, however, the cult includes and his sons and successors up to MÖNGKE KHAN. no spontaneous or ecstatic elements. In 1292 Qubilai appointed his grandson Gammala (1263–1302) prince of Jin to supervise the great qoruq at THE CHINGGIS KHAN CULT IN THE Kilengü and Chinggis Khan’s ordos. Khans continued to MONGOL EMPIRE be buried at Kilengu, and there were now nine ordos The offerings of the Eight White Palaces as they existed rather than just four. RASHID-UD-DIN mentions constant in the descriptions of ethnographers and the memories of incense offerings to the ongghon there; presumably asper- old Darkhad men are a combination of elements dating sions and sacrifices were conducted as well. The title of from the time of the empire and innovations from about prince of Jin (Jinwang, or in medieval Chinese, Jinong), 1450–1510. The idea of eight halls and four seasonal sac- inherited by Gammala’s son and grandson, became the rifices with aspersions of mare’s milk, the garli sacrifice of title for the supervisor of Chinggis’s ordos. The remains of burning bones, the title jinong, and the physical form and Gammala’s cult center have been excavated at AWARGA. terminology of many of the objects all go back to the time of the MONGOL EMPIRE. At the same time, the names and CREATION OF THE EIGHT WHITE YURTS legends of Chinggis’s family and companions associated After the Mongol khans fled their capital, Daidu, in with the cult and the cult portraits and texts are all 16th- China and returned to the steppe in 1368, nothing is century in origin. Most important, the link with the terri- known of the cult of Chinggis Khan for almost a cen- tory of Ordos and the belief that Chinggis Khan’s remains tury, except that it must have continued in some form. are actually kept there certainly postdate 1450, when the After the 1449 TUMU INCIDENT the Mongols swarmed Mongols first occupied the area. into the Ordos area of Inner Mongolia south of the There is no serious doubt that after his death in 1227 Huang (Yellow) River. Evidently, as they poured in, in northwest China, Chinggis Khan was transported to they brought with them some of the yurts and sacred the KHENTII RANGE. The area around the grave, called the objects of the cult of Chinggis Khan. Reconstituted in “great qoruq” or forbidden ground at Kilengu, was the new territory, the cult was intertwined with apoc- guarded thereafter by men of the Uriyangkhan clan. At ryphal stories now linked to local geography and the the coronation QURILTAI of his successor, ÖGEDEI KHAN, in known fact of Chinggis’s death nearby. Qulan was 1229, three days of offerings were made and 40 maidens turned into a Korean empress, and the fictitious Gür- of good family sacrificed to him. beljin Ghoa of the XIA DYNASTY replaced the historic The center for the Chinggis Khan cult was the four Yisüi and Yisügen. These apocryphal legends were later palace-tents (ORDO) of his principal wives and the ong- incorporated into the 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES of ghon (felt, silk, or bronze anthropomorphic dolls inhab- Mongolian history. New cultic regulations were ited by his family spirits) kept in carts near them. attributed to Qubilai Khan, the supposed author of the Chinggis Khan had four ordos, each controlled by a prin- CHAGHAN TEÜKE (White history), a late 16th-century cipal wife: Börte Üjin (QONGGIRAD clan), Qulan (MERKID), apocryphal religiopolitical utopia. 164 Eight White Yurts By 1452 the title of jinong (the old prince of Jin) Chinggisid nobleman, having its own banner standard, began to appear again as a leader of the western branch of and conducting the same seasonal mare’s milk sprinkling the Mongols proper. From 1508 on the Eight White Yurts and marriage rituals sanctified by his example was, in a (Naiman chaghan ger) were one of the two centers of the sense, an incarnation of Chinggis’s realm. Mongols’ NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY. There the jinong Chinggis Khan also appeared within the Buddhist made daily incense offerings to Lord Chinggis, and the pantheon in Mongolia and even Tibet. From the 17th great khans were crowned. The Eight White Yurts were century Tibetan lamas had identified Chinggis Khan as an still mobile and on occasion accompanied the khans on incarnation of the fierce bodhisattva Vajrapani, just as the campaign. ALTAN KHAN (1508–82) at least twice dedicated Manchu emperor in China was an incarnation of the bod- conquered Mongol enemies to the service of the shrine, hisattva of wisdom, Manjushri. In Kökenuur the Tibetans and this is probably the origin of many, if not all, of the included him in worship as a local deity of the Ordos Darkhad, although legend attributed their selection from Mongols. The INCARNATE LAMA, the Third Mergen Gegeen the Mongols to Qubilai Khan. During this period the four (1717–66), composed prayers for the worship of Lord great sacrifices, the arrows and quiver, the sacred sable Chinggis and his black and white standards as part of his skin, the chomchog yurts, the Darkhad titles, and the idea nativization of Buddhist worship. of Chinggis being buried in Ordos are all mentioned. Also In 1873 Hui (Chinese Muslim) rebels raided Ordos mentioned, however, was the palace-tent of Chinggis’s and set fire to the shrine of Chinggis Khan. Many books mother, Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN, a shrine that apparently no longer in the treasury palace-tent were lost, but a timely rain is exists. said to have rescued the cult objects in the Golden Palace Ordos had the most revered but by no means the tent from destruction. In 1915 Chinese bandits again only Chinggisid cult objects. An ancient shrine of Ching- looted the shrine, although taking only gold and silver gis Khan’s brother Qasar existed in ULAANCHAB’s Muum- and leaving the other cult articles. inggan banner with 16th-century texts and cult portraits. Another cult place, where glossolalia-style prayers were THE SHRINE IN CHINESE POLITICS also read, was kept in Khalkha Mongolia until 1937. The In 1916 the government of the new Republic of China tent of Tolui and Eshi Khatun (Sorqaqtani Beki) was wor- built a brick Chinggis Khan Temple, but the Darkhad shipped among the CHAKHAR; this may be, in fact, the refused to cooperate, claiming that the structure was of ill same one later found in Ordos. The last Mongol khan, omen and that Chinggis Khan’s will forbade residence in Legdan, fled west from Chakhar to Ordos to escape the dirt walls. In 1927 the Darkhad tore the new temple down. rising Manchus in 1632 and may have brought the Eshi In May 1939 China’s Nationalist government, wor- Khatun shrine with him. Ligdan dedicated a saddle to the ried about the use Japan might make of the remains, Eight White Yurts but in 1634 fled farther west to ordered the most holy objects—the caskets of Chinggis, Kökenuur, taking the Eight White Yurts with him. and Börte and of Qulan and the black four-footed stan- dard—transported to a Taoist temple in Yuzhong county, THE CHINGGIS KHAN CULT IN THE QING Gansu. The worship was maintained by teams of Dar- Although the cult objects (possibly with Ligdan’s Eshi khad rotating from Ordos. In 1949 the cult objects were Khatun shrine added) were returned to Ordos after Lig- moved farther west to sKu-’bum (Ta’ersi) Monastery in dan’s death, the fall of the Mongol dynasty and the sub- Qinghai (Kökenuur) in a futile effort to escape the Chi- mission of the Mongols to the Qing cast the shrine into nese Communist advance. eclipse. There is no evidence of the cult of Chinggis Khan At first the new Chinese Communist government of in Ordos until 1720, when the Manchu emperor Kangxi Suiyuan province, which had jurisdiction over Ordos, recognized the cult. Manchu imperial attention increased was happy to have the cult objects gone and held the under Emperor Qianlong (1735–96), under whom all the spring sacrifices as a purely secular NAADAM, with athletic current features of the Eight White Palaces can be seen. contests and musical performances. By contrast, the eth- The title of jinong remained hereditary among the Ordos nic Mongol Communist Ulanfu and the eastern Inner nobility until 1764, when it was attached by imperial Mongolian cadres in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous order to whichever Chinggisid prince was the captain Region saw the shrine as a monument to Inner Mongo- general of the Yekhe Juu league, the administrative name lian national feeling. Championing it also strengthened for Ordos (see LEAGUE). the autonomous region’s claim to speak for the Mongols While the memories of Chinggis Khan were strongest of Suiyuan. Late in 1953 the Inner Mongolian govern- in Ordos, the cult continued to flourish in the 18th and ment petitioned to have the cult objects moved back from 19th centuries throughout Mongolia. Many banners sKu-’bum to Ordos. In 1954 Beijing agreed to move the claimed to have been the site of Chinggis’s life and burial, cult objects back, fund a new mausoleum, and annex kept standards and other cult objects, and conducted sac- Suiyuan to Inner Mongolia. Ulanfu’s attendance at the rifices and prayers in the “language of the gods.” Indeed, April 1954 celebration of the return of the caskets and every banner among the Mongols in being ruled by a standard was thus a personal triumph. elk stones 165 The new 1,500-square-meter mausoleum destroyed nected by railroad to Stavropol’; highways were subse- many of the earlier traditions. In 1956 the spring sacri- quently built to Volgograd and Astrakhan. After 1975 oil fice was moved permanently to May 15, and made the production became the major industry, currently only main one. The legal privileges of the Darkhad were accounting for 70.5 percent of the city’s industrial out- abolished, although those living near the shrine contin- put. A thermal energy plant is being planned. Elista is ued to officiate. The west wing housed the black four- Kalmykia’s center of administration, culture, and educa- footed standard, which had never before been allowed tion, including the Kalmyk State University (founded under a roof, as well as saddles, the sword, and other 1970). In 2002 Elista accounted for 31 percent of standards and cult objects from all over Ordos. The east Kalmykia’s population, more than 70 percent of its retail wing held a new chomchog-yurt for Tolui and Eshi trade and catering, and 45 percent of its industrial pro- Khatun (Sorqaqtani Beki). In the rear chamber the cas- duction. Elista has become a showpiece for the plans of kets for Chinggis and his three empresses were crowded the Kalmyk president Kirsan N. Ilümzhinov (b. 1962), into a single chomchog-yurt. These were flanked by new who is also head of the world Fédération Internationale chomchog-yurts for Chinggis’s brothers Qasar and Bel- des Échecs (FIDE) CHESS association. In 1998 Elista gütei, added to appeal to those non-Ordos Mongols who hosted the World Chess Olympiad at a newly built “City traced their ancestry to them. The front hall housed a Chess” complex. large statue of Chinggis Khan. Founded in 1865, Elista remained only a minor set- During the Cultural Revolution the Darkhad were tlement until 1928, when it was made capital of driven out, and all the tents and cult objects desecrated Kalmykia. By 1939 the city’s population had reached or destroyed. In 1979 Beijing again issued funds to 17,000. After occupation by the German army from restore the mausoleum, seek out the Darkhad, and have August 12, 1942, to January 1, 1943, Joseph Stalin exiled imitations of the old tents and cult objects made. While the KALMYKS from the territory and put Elista, renamed the mausoleum’s many Mongol visitors still treat the Stepnoi, under Stravropol’ Territory. In 1957, with the sanctuary with honor, the sense of fear and power that exoneration and return of the Kalmyks, the name Elista used to make the Darkhad speak only in a whisper was revived, and it again became capital of Kalmykia. about things such as the garli sacrifice is certainly gone. See also CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY; FUNERARY CUS- TOMS; JEWEL TRANSLUCENT SUTRA. elk stones (deer stones, stag stones) Elk stones are Further reading: Peter Alford Andrews, Felt Tents the most characteristic funerary monument of the Mon- and Pavilions: The Nomadic Tradition and Its Interaction golian Bronze and early Iron Ages (12th–5th centuries with Princely Tentage (London: Melisende, 1999), 1: B.C.E.), occurring in the KHANGAI RANGE, KHENTII RANGE, 351–386; Elizabetta Chiodo, “‘The Book of the Offerings and ALTAI RANGE of Mongolia, as well as in Transbaikalia to the Holy Cinggis Qaghan’: A Mongolian Ritual Text,” and Tuva. None are found in the GOBI DESERT or Inner Zentralasiatische Studien 22 (1989–91): 190–220 and 23 Mongolia. Made of granite or sometimes marble, they (1992): 84–144; N. Hurcha, “Attempts to Buddhicize generally range from 1.5 to 2.5 meters (4.9 to 8.2 feet) the Cult of Chinggis Khan,” Inner Asia 1 (1999): 45–58;6 tall, although examples as small as 0.8 meters (2.6 feet) Henry Serruys, “A Mongol Prayer to the Spirit of Cing- or as tall as 3.55 meters (11.65 feet) have been found. gis-qan’s Flag,” in Mongolian Studies, ed. Louis Ligeti The elk stone of Tsokhiotyn Am (Shine-Ider, Khöwsgöl) (Amsterdam: Gruner, 1970): 527–535; ———, “A shows an early example that is both cruder and less styl- Prayer to Cinggis-qan,” Études Mongoles . . . et Sibéri- ized than the “classic” elk stone. The classic elk stone ennes 16 (1985): 17–36. has several stylized upward-facing elks (British red deer, Cervus elaphus) stacked on top of one another, each with long antlers with curved tines laid along the back, legs Eleuth See ÖÖLÖD. reduced to nubs, large, round eyes, and grossly elongated lips. At the top of the stone, separated by a belt, is a solar Elista (Kalmyk, Elstä) The capital of Russia’s KALMYK disk, sometimes accompanied by a smaller disk (sun and REPUBLIC, Elista is a relatively small town situated in moon?). Various articles—bows and arrows, daggers, western Kalmykia. Covering 21 square kilometers (8 axes, mirrors, shields—may be between the deer or square miles), the city proper had a population of hanging from another belt at the bottom. Classic elk 89,682 in 1989, of which 49.7 percent were Kalmyk. It stone figures are also found on PETROGLYPHS. Elk stones has grown rapidly in the post-Soviet transition, and its are virtually always found in or near slab tombs, rectan- population reached 105,765 in 2002. The name Elista is gular grave enclosures made of large stones set on edge. from Kalmyk elstä, “sandy.” See also PREHISTORY. During the early Soviet period construction materi- Further reading: Esther Jacobson, The Deer Goddess als, woodworking, and wool, meat, and milk plants of Ancient Siberia: A Study in the Ecology of Belief (Leiden: were developed in Elista. In 1969 the city was con- E. J. Brill, 1993). 166 El-Temür El-Temür (d. 1333) Qipchaq officer who engineered the livestock growth, predator-control programs to expand 1328 coup d’état that restored the children of Haishan to the herds, fencing for railways, and farming. Hunting was throne avidly pursued by leaders such as MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG. A grandson of TUTUGH, El-Temür headed the KESHIG Logging was begun on Bogd Uul after 1929. Herds of (imperial guard) and Palace Provisions Commission for Mongolian gazelles were cut down from millions in 1950 Emperor Haishan (1307–11) of the Mongols’ Yuan to perhaps 300,000 in 1965–70. In the late 1960s the dynasty in China. Losing favor after Haishan’s death, he Przewalskii’s horse disappeared from its last refuge in the was an official in the Military Affairs Bureau in DAIDU southwestern Gobi, a victim of hunting early in the cen- when the emperor Yisün-Temür (1323–28) died at tury and later of competition from domestic livestock. SHANGDU. On September 8 El-Temür arrested Yisün- In 1972 the Mongolian government began planning Temur’s top officials in Daidu and summoned Haishan’s for environmental protection, to which regular funding sons Qoshila and Tuq-Temür to the capital. Escorted by was assigned from 1976 on. In 1975 two areas in the the Henan governor BAYAN (1281?–1340), Tuq-Temür Trans-Altai GOBI DESERT, spanning southern BAYANKHON- arrived from South China and was enthroned in Daidu. GOR PROVINCE, GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE, and KHOWD El-Temör’s and Bayan’s support from the rich central and PROVINCE, were set aside as nature reserves. In 1978 43.8 southern provinces forced Yisün-Temür’s partisans in square kilometers (16.9 square miles) of Bogd Uul were Shangdu to surrender on November 23. When Haishan’s again granted legal protection. By 1990 10 other small elder son, Qoshila, arrived from the CHAGHATAY KHANATE nature reserves were created. In 1992 the nature reserve to Mongolia, he was elected khan on February 27, 1329. system was reorganized into four levels of descending Fearing Chaghatayid influence on the Yuan dynasty, El- strictness: 1) strictly protected areas (translating Russian Temür assassinated Qoshila on August 30 and reen- zapovednik), for pristine areas of world ecological impor- throned Tuq-Temür. Under Tuq-Temür (1328–32) tance; 2) natural parks, for wilderness areas of historical, El-Temür held the court’s highest offices, controlled the cultural, or environmental importance; 3) natural Qipchaq guards, and displaced the QONGGIRAD as the reserves, dedicated to preserving particular valuable imperial QUDA (in-law family). Not personally of Confu- areas, whether ecosystems, rare species, fossil beds, or cian sympathies, he exploited the Confucians’ resentment geological formations; and 4) natural and historical mon- of Yisün-Temür’s largely Muslim faction and patronized uments, protecting natural and manmade monuments of scholarship. After Tuq-Temür’s death in 1332, El-Temür touristic, historic, and cultural importance. At present disagreed with Bayan and the empress dowager Budashiri about 8 percent of Mongolia’s territory is covered by the over the succession. Following El-Temür’s illness and nature reserve system, which is administered by the Min- death in 1333, his old co-conspirator Bayan executed his istry for Nature and the Environment. children in 1335. The Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area, with 5,300 square kilometers (2,050 square miles), remains by far environmental protection The Mongolian tradition the largest nature reserve in Mongolia. This area of the of religiously based prohibitions on damaging sacred Trans-Altai Gobi Desert preserved the habitats of the last areas developed in the late 20th century into an ecologi- remnants of the wild two-humped camel (Camelus bactri- cally based system of natural parks and strictly protected anus ferus), the Gobi bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), and areas. largest remaining herds of the wild ass, or chigetai (Equus In the Mongolian world empire damaging living hemionus hemionus). Other large strictly protected areas things around the imperial cemeteries and battue hunting include the Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area (1,200 during the calving season were prohibited. During the square kilometers; 460 square miles), with its associated hunting season in fall, however, the Mongol khans orga- Gorkhi-Terelj Natural Park (286.4 square kilometers; nized immense hunts that must have denuded whole 110.6 square miles), established in the area of the leg- areas of animals. Later, after the conversion to Buddhism, endary Burqan Qaldun mountain in the KHENTII RANGE; hunting, logging, and farming were prohibited around the LAKE UWS Strictly Protected Area (771 square kilome- monasteries. Bogd Uul, a mountain south of Mongolia’s ters, or 298 square miles, in four discontinuous areas) in largest monastery in the present capital, ULAANBAATAR, the northwest, with a large nesting waterfowl population; thus became from the 18th century a protected area. In the Nömrög Strictly Protected Area in the far-eastern Inner Mongolia the protected strip around monasteries, GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE (311.2 square kilometers; called the jaarig, was often the only area of unplowed 120.2 square miles); and the Eastern Mongolia Strictly steppe preserved from CHINESE COLONIZATION, forming Protected Area (570 square kilometers; 220 square small islands of pastoral nomadic Mongolian population miles), which protects herds of Mongolian gazelles along surrounded by Chinese farms. Buddhist didactic poets the frontier with China. The Gurwansaikhan Natural and preachers inveighed fiercely against hunting. Park, covering 2,000 square kilometers (770 square Under the Mongolian People’s Republic (1924–92) miles), protects populations of argali sheep, ibex, snow the modernizing government encouraged population and leopard, and the huge lammergeier vulture as well as sax- environmental protection 167 aul forests and dinosaur fossil sites. LAKE KHÖWSGÖL Nat- thin steppe-forest terrain; and Bayanbulag Preserve ural Park, with an area of 838 square kilometers (324 (1,000 square kilometers; 386.1 square miles) set up in square miles), was established to protect the second 1988 to protect swans, other waterfowl, and swamps in largest body of freshwater in Central Asia. Hejing county of Xinjiang’s BAYANGOL MONGOL In Mongol areas of Russia and China, environmental AUTONOMOUS PREFECTURE. The SHILIIN GOL Steppe Pre- damage has been much more severe, particularly in the serve, covering 10,786 square kilometers (4,164.5 square steppes. Farming and overstocking have caused miles) south of Shiliin Khot (Xilinhot) city, protects widespread pasture degradation and desertification, and marshy meadows, classic steppe, and sparse desert industrialization has degraded air and water quality. In forests, while the Western ORDOS Preserve (5,558.5 1969 in the Soviet Union’s BURIAT REPUBLIC, a Baikal square kilometers; 2,146.2 square miles) in Otog banner Reserve (165.7 square kilometers; 64 square miles) was and WUHAI city protects endangered desert relic flora, set up on the lake’s southern shores, joined by the Jerga including the deciduous shrub Tetraena mongolica (Zygo- Reserve in 1974 (42.2 square kilometers; 16.3 square phyllaceae) and the rockrose (Helianthemum ordosicum; miles). In 1986–87 the Soviet government created the Oistaceae). These two and the Dalai Nuur Preserve were Barguzin Strictly Protected Area (111.1 square kilome- set up in December 1997. ters; 42.9 square miles) and the Transbaikal National Since the breakup of the Soviet bloc and the easing of Park (256 square kilometers; 98.8 square miles) on LAKE political tensions, international cooperation in environ- BAIKAL’s northeastern shore and the Ol’khon National mental protection has advanced. In 1994 Russia, Mongo- Park (418 square kilometers; 161.4 square miles) on its lia, and China coordinated nature protection in the Aga western shore, while putting the entire Baikal region steppe–northeast Mongolia–HULUN BUIR triangle to pro- under special environmental supervision. In 1991 the tect the Daurian steppe ecology and many rare birds, Tunka National Park (1,183.7 square kilometers; 457 such as the white-naped crane (Grus vipio). The program square miles) was established along the upper Irkut val- includes the Dalai Lake Nature Preserve in Inner Mongo- ley. All of these areas cover taiga and mountain-taiga lia, covering 7,400 square kilometers (2,860 square areas. In 1999 the Alkhanai National Park (138.2 square miles) of lake, wetlands, and steppe (set up in 1992); the kilometers; 53.4 square miles) was created in a moun- Mongolian Daurian Strictly Protected Area (1,030 square tain-steppe area of the AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA kilometers; 397.7 square miles) in two discontinuous with several Buddhist religious sites. The saiga antelope patches near Torei Lake and the Ulz River; and the of the KALMYK REPUBLIC is protected in the Black Lands Daurskii Strictly Protected Area in Russia’s Chita Region. (Chernye Zemli) Strictly Protected Area (1,219 square Despite these extensive systems of nature preserves, kilometers; 470.7 square miles) established in 1990. Rus- loss of habitat and declines in endangered species con- sian national parks, unlike strictly protected areas tinue, even within the protected areas. Many of the pre- (zapovedniks), allow human use, and, in fact, the Tunka serves still exist more on paper than in reality, and few National Park covers the entire Tunka (Buriat, Tünkhen) are large enough on their own to offer protection against district with more than 26,000 people (61 percent of widespread desertification, particularly in Kalmykia and whom are Buriat). Inner Mongolia. Gold mining, now freed from state In 1988 the Chinese government extended its system monopoly, has damage riverine ecosystems in Mongolia. of nature preserves (ziran baohuqu) to Inner Mongolia Meanwhile, declines in the 1990s in legal effectiveness in with the Daqinggou Preserve in KHORCHIN Left-Flank China, Russia, and Mongolia and the booming market in Rear banner (Horqin Zuoyi Houqi, 81.8 square kilome- prosperous Asian-Pacific nations for blood antlers, bear ters; 31.6 square miles), protecting valuable broadleaf gall, and other wild products have made poaching harder forests. Other preserves that protect forests include the to combat. Despite the creation of the Black Lands Helan Shan Preserve in ALASHAN Left Banner (Alxa Zuoqi, Strictly Protected Area, for example, Kalmykia’s saiga 667.1 square kilometers; 257.6 square miles) set up in antelope populations have plummeted since 1998, to 1992 to protect the Qinghai spruce, the pine Pinus tabu- fewer than 18,000. In many parks coordinating natural laeformis, and wild animals, and the Hanma Preserve protection with native pastoral land use is also an unre- (1,073.5 square kilometers; 414.5 square miles) in north- solved issue. ern Genhe city, protecting since 1996 remaining patches See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; DESERTI- of primeval boreal forest in the Greater Khinggan Range. FICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION; FAUNA; FLORA; Wetland preserves in Mongol areas include the Dalai HUNTING AND FISHING. Nuur Preserve (1,194.1 square kilometers; 461 square Further reading: Caroline Humphrey, Marina miles) in Kheshigten (Hexigten) banner that protects Mongush, and B. Telengid, “Attitudes to Nature in Mon- native and migratory waterfowl; the Khorchin Preserve golia and Tuva: A Preliminary Report,” Nomadic Peoples (1,269.9 square kilometers; 490.3 square miles) in 33 (1993): 51–62; C. Finch, Mongolia’s Wild Heritage Khorchin Right-Flank Middle banner (Horqin Youyi (Boulder, Colo.: Mongolia Ministry for Nature and Envi- Zhongqi) that protects wetland waterfowl and bush and ronment and UNDP, 1999); Tsui Yenhu, “A Comparative 168 epics Study of the Attitudes of the Peoples of Pastoral Areas of takes in the performance, breaking it off unfinished, or Inner Asia towards Their Environments,” in Culture and sleepiness in the audience can cause storms or other dis- Environment in Inner Asia, vol. 2, Society and Culture, ed. asters, while performing it well can heal diseases, give Caroline Humphrey and David Sneath (Cambridge: sight to the blind, or bring success in endeavors, particu- White Horse Press, 1996): 1–24. larly the hunt. In recent years, however, such restrictions on epic performances have disintegrated. Women epic epics The epics of the Mongolian peoples, sung in allit- singers, previously prohibited, have also begun to appear. erative verse, resemble not so much the historically based The material and spiritual culture (tobacco, spy- European epics (Iliad, Song of Roland, etc.) as fairy tales glasses, Buddhist terms, etc.) and occasional historical told on a vast and heroic scale. Mongolian epics take figures (Russians, Dalai Lama, etc.) mentioned all indi- place in a timeless fantasy world in which the hero cate that Mongolian epics in their current form date (baatar) confronts the monster (mangas). The epic hero, from the late 17th century at the earliest. The close sim- while not usually of divine ancestry, has the ability to ilarity in themes between the Tibetan Geser epic and transform himself into an animal or some other form. other Mongolian epics indicates considerable mutual Sometimes the hero is alone, but sometimes he travels influence. Mongolian epics can be divided into four with his brother or companions. Most epics are built on regional types: Buriat, Kalmyk-Oirat, Khalkha, and east- one of two narrative structures: 1) the hero’s search (with ern Inner Mongolian. Epic singers of the BURIATS were the hero transformed into a snot-nosed urchin) for a the most accomplished, traditionally knowing on aver- beautiful wife whom he wins by victory in an athletic age 20 epics of 2,000 to 15,000 lines. Buriat epics, of contest; or 2) his search for his beautiful wife stolen by a which the “Abai Geser” and “Alamzhi Mergen” are the multiheaded monster who must be killed by first killing best known, reflect their primarily forest hunting cul- his extracorporeal souls. While the hero or his consort ture. By contrast, heroes of the Khalkha Mongol and often recites Buddhist scriptures, lamas who appear are Oirat epics are wealthy nomad lords living in a YURT always transformed monsters, while shamans are the with endless numbers of horses and livestock. The long monster’s assistants. (Lamas and shamans generally never JANGGHAR epic of the KALMYKS and OIRATS is the closest appear in the same epic.) The hero always has a wonder- in the Mongolian tradition to a realistic historical epic. ful and wise steed who gives him the best advice, which Khalkha epics, of which “Khan Kharankhui” (Dark the hero either follows, thus achieving success and con- Khan) was the most famous, were generally shorter than cluding the episode, or ignores, thus losing his life. If the Jangghar or Buriat epics and were sung unaccompa- dead or spell enslaved the hero must be revived by some nied; by the beginning of the 20th century the Khalkha miraculous tool brought by his horse, wife, or sister. End- epic singer’s art was often breaking down into prose less feasting concludes each episode. tales. In eastern Inner Mongolia minstrels sang epic The most distinctive feature of Mongolian epic style is tales but purely for entertainment. Based on literary pre- hyperbole. The hero’s body is made of bronze, his ribs decessors, including Indian and Chinese tales and nov- have fused into solid bone, his consorts’ cheeks flash rays, els, these minstrel tales had far more complicated and his arrows pierce mountains, his saddle cannot be lifted diverse plots than did other epics. by 70 men, his journeys cross continents, and so on. See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; HUNTING AND Characters are flat, and the difference between positive FISHING. and negative characters is always sharp. Epics are sung in Further reading: C. R. Bawden, trans., Eight North alliterative verses that tend toward parallel couplets. Mongolian Epic Poems (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, Since at least the 17th century, epics have been writ- 1982); ———, “Mongol (The Contemporary Tradition),” ten down by Mongolian singers. While epic singers usu- in Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry, vol. 1, The Tradi- ally learn to perform from another singer, often a close tions (London: Modern Humanities Research Association, relative, singers also learn new episodes from written ver- 1980): 268–299; W. Heissig, “New Mongolian Minstrel sions. The GESER epic, for example, appears to have been Poems,” Orientalia Romana 4 (1972): 1–70; Nicholas first introduced into Mongolia from Tibet entirely Poppe, The Heroic Epic of the Khalkha, trans. John R. through writing but was soon nativized as a fertile oral Krueger, D. Montgomery, and M. Walter (Bloomington, epic tradition. Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1979). Boris Ya. Vladimirtsov, Epic performances were usually sung within a narrow “The Oirat Mongolian Heroic Epic,” trans. John R. register; Oirat Mongolian epic singers sang in a special Krueger, Mongolian Studies 8 (1983–84): 5–58. voice called khäälkh (Khalkha, khailakh). Singers accom- panied themselves on a lute or fiddle depending on their region. Epic songs are believed to have a powerful effect Erbanov, Mikhei Nikolaevich (Yerbanov) (1889–1938) on the environment and thus must be performed and One of the chief founders of the Bolshevik Party in Buriatia heard carefully and reverently. Performing the epic at the Born on March 10 to the Buriat peasant Nikolai-Sukhe wrong time (e.g., in daytime or summer), making mis- (1861–1927) and his wife, Mariia Viktorovna, in Great Erdeni Zuu 169 Bakhtai ulus, or village (in modern Alair District of UST’- The province’s share of Mongolia’s total sales of industrial ORDA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA), Mikhei learned his let- product, generated overwhelmingly by the mine, leaped ters from a Russian villager before attending school in to 42 percent in 1995 before recovery of other industrial Balagansk from 1903 and a commercial course in Tomsk sectors in Mongolia reduced it to 32 percent in 2000. The from 1908. He later worked in Tomsk, Barnaul, and Mongolian government now owns a 51-percent share in Irkutsk. Associating with a social democratic group in the renamed Erdenet Concern, which has a Mongolian Barnaul in 1913, he joined the Bolsheviks in Irkutsk in director. The mine currently has about 6,240 employees, December 1917. Erbanov worked with the partisans in of whom about 600 are foreign specialists from Russia, late 1919 and participated in the execution of Siberia’s Kazakhstan, and elsewhere. Foreign investment is playing White commanders Kolchak and Pepeliaev. a major role in renovating the plant’s technology. As one of the few Buriat Bolsheviks, Erbanov became Erdenet’s manufacturing industries, however, have suf- from late 1919 the Irkutsk Communist Party organiza- fered, and unemployment has remained at more than 5 tion’s “man in Buriatia,” heading both the party commit- percent, somewhat above Mongolia’s average and well tee’s Buriat section and nonparty Buriat organizations. above that of ULAANBAATAR. From January 1922 Erbanov chaired the government of See also ECONOMY, MODERN; MINING; SOVIET UNION the new western Buriat autonomous region, and when AND MONGOLIA. the eastern and western Buriat regions were merged to Further reading: Simon Strickland-Scott, “Urban and form the Buriat-Mongolian republic in 1923, Erbanov Rural Life in Post-Communist Mongolia,” Mongolian chaired its Council of People’s Commissars. Studies 24 (2001): 7–39. Erbanov strongly defended the “nativization” policy that gave preference to Buriat cadres and promoted the Erdene Zuu See ERDENI ZUU. Buriat-Mongolian language. In 1928 he was elected first secretary of the Buriat Regional Party Committee and member of the Communist Party’s Central Committee in Erdeni Shangdzodba See SHANGDZODBA, ERDENI. Moscow. In 1937, however, he was arrested in Joseph Stalin’s GREAT PURGE and shot in 1938. Erdeni tunumal See JEWEL TRANSLUCENT SUTRA. See also BURIAT REPUBLIC; BURIATS. Erdeni Zuu (Erdene Zuu) This temple, founded in Erdenet city Erdenet city was built around the colos- 1585, is the most ancient and venerated monastery of sal Erdenet copper and molybdenum ore-dressing plant, the KHALKHA Mongols. ABATAI KHAN first built the tem- the largest mine of its kind in Asia, built from 1974 to ple in 1585 on a spot identified (correctly) by the Mon- 1983 with Soviet aid. The developing city was separated gols as ÖGEDEI KHAN’s QARA-QORUM. A monk from the from BULGAN PROVINCE in 1975 and made a centrally city Guihua (modern HÖHHOT) in Inner Mongolia per- administered city. By 1979 Erdenet’s population had formed the first consecration, and after Abatai Khan already reached 31,900. returned from his meeting with the Third Dalai Lama in By 1985 Erdenet city accounted for 17.9 percent of 1586, three main temples (zuu) were built to house the Mongolia’s total industrial output; the ore-dressing plant Buddha images and relics he had received. In the early accounted for 70.7 percent of the city’s industrial out- history of the temple Sa-skya-pa lamas played the major put, with the remainder generated by a carpet factory, a role. Only after the return of the supreme Khalkha cleric woodworking plant, and other small industries. Erdenet the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU from meeting with the was developed by the Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock Fifth Dalai Lama in 1658 was the monastery made a company Erdenet Ore-Dressing Dressing Plant, with the dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) establishment. Little building Soviet Union holding 51 percent of the stock and was done in the 17th century, but from 1701 on con- appointing the director and the Mongolian government struction of new temples and restoration of the old were holding 49 percent and appointing the vice director. virtually constant. In 1796, to mark the accession of the Soviet and Mongolian workers were integrated on the Qing’s Jiaqing emperor (1796–1820), the Khalkha lay shop floor to facilitate training of the latter. In 1990 and religious leaders undertook a particularly large- about 15 percent of Erdenet’s residents were non-Mon- scale renovation that established the monastery’s final golian, mostly Russians. layout. From 1803 to 1813 the monastery’s outer wall, After economic liberalization Erdenet’s mine became 400 meters (1,310 feet) square, was constructed with more important than ever for Mongolia. In 1994 Erdenet 108 stupas, each financed by donations from Khalkhas city’s territory was expanded from 60 square kilometers of all walks of life. Also in 1803 four great gates were (23 square miles) to 840 (324 square miles) and renamed funded by the fourth Jibzundamba Khutugtu on the Orkhon province. Orkhon’s total population reached occasion of his trip to Tibet. At its height the monastery 76,000 in 2000, of which 68,300 lived in the urban area. had 62 temples or assembly halls and thousands of 170 Erdeni-yin tobchi monks, although not all were resident. During the late ton, 1961); Tetsuo Morikawa, “The Manuscripts and 19th century the monastery declined with the financial Manuscript Families of the Erdeni-yin tobc^i,” Memoirs of the means of its patrons. The antireligious campaigns of Toyo Bunko 59 (2001): 49–86. 1937–39 left only 18 salvageable temples and assembly halls, and the site was made a museum in 1944. Since Erduosi See ORDOS. 1990 Buddhist services are once again being conducted at the site. See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, SECOND. Esen (r. 1438/1453–1454) Powerful Oirat Mongolian commander who captured the Chinese emperor Erdeni-yin tobchi (Precious summary) The most Esen was son of the Oirat TAISHI (grand preceptor, i.e., widely read of the traditional Mongolian chronicles, the regent), Toghoon Taishi (d. 1438), of the Choros clan Erdeni-yin tobchi, Precious summary, written in 1662, (possibly of Uighur origin; see OIRATS). His early cam- covers Mongolian history up to the Manchu conquest. paigns were against the Chaghatayid khans of MOGHULIS- The Erdeni-yin tobchi, written by the ORDOS noble- TAN in modern Xinjiang. Esen three times defeated and man SAGHANG SECHEN, was the second of the 17TH-CEN- twice captured the Moghuli ruler, Ways Khan (1417–32). TURY CHRONICLES. Disposing of materials similar to those In both cases Esen treated Ways Khan with the honor used in Lubsang-Danzin’s ALTAN TOBCHI (c. 1655), due a khan of CHINGGIS KHAN’s blood. The second time, Saghang Sechen created a much more unified work, however, he forced Ways Khan to grant him his sister in recasting the 12-animal dates in the more precise 60-year marriage. After his father died Esen inherited his position system, moving genealogical material into the body of the as taishi for the reigning Chinggisid khan Togtoo-Bukha work, and reordering the confused narratives of the Mon- (titled Taisung, 1433–52). In 1443–45 he subjugated the gol-Oirat conflict (1392–1517). To avoid contradictions Chaghatayid principality of Hami and the three MING with his traditional Mongolian material on CHINGGIS DYNASTY guards (wei), including the Chigil Mongolian KHAN, he used Secret History material sparingly while Guard, in eastern Gansu. In 1446–47 he also attacked the broadening the scope of his history with a lengthy discus- Ming’s THREE GUARDS (ethnically Mongols) in eastern sion of the formation of the world and a brief digression Inner Mongolia and received the submission of the on Chinese history before the Mongols. His concluding Jurchen in Manchuria. chapter on the new Manchu khans was the first Mongol Since 1439 Esen Taishi and his khan, Togtoo-Bukha, summary of the topic. In addition to the Mongolian had been sending vast “tribute” missions to China, often chronicle tradition, Saghang Sechen used Tibetan and at numbering more than 1,000 men. (The TRIBUTE SYSTEM least one Chinese history and made use of riddles and actually functioned as a kind of state-subsidized monopoly other folkloric materials. trade.) Esen encouraged hundreds of Hami- and Samar- The most valuable part of Saghang Sechen’s work is qand-based Muslim merchants to accompany his mission. his extensive coverage of events in his homeland of In response to this inflation of numbers, in winter Ordos up to the revolt against Mongolia’s last Chinggisid 1448–49 the Chinese government gave only one-fifth of emperor LIGDAN KHAN and the Manchu conquest of the agreed-upon “gifts.” Esen’s request for a Chinese 1628–35. He particularly honored the work of his great- princess was also rejected. grandfather KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI, who initi- Incensed by this slight, Esen planned a multifront ated the conversion of the Ordos Mongols to Buddhism. attack on the Ming, with Togtoo-Bukha attacking Despite his praise of the Manchus’ unification of the Liaodong, Alag Chingsang (grand councillor) attacking realms through finely graded titles, his discrete silence on Xuanfu (modern Xuanhua), Esen attacking Datong, and the 1632–36 Manchu conquest, which he witnessed per- another column attacking Ganzhou (modern Zhangye). sonally, indicated his regret over the loss of Mongolian Esen’s invasion was unexpectedly crowned with the cap- independence. ture of the Ming’s Zhengtong emperor (1436–49, reen- Saghang Sechen’s work was the most popular Mongo- throned as Tianshun, 1457–64) on September 1, 1449 lian chronicle. In 1766 the Khalkha nobleman Tsenggün- (see TUMU INCIDENT). Esen offered the emperor his sister jab (d. 1771) presented a copy to the Manchu emperor in marriage, but the emperor refused a marriage alliance. Qianlong, who had it translated and published in a trilin- The response of the Chinese officialdom, who elevated gual Mongolian-Manchu-Chinese edition. In 1829 I. J. the Zhengtong emperor’s brother to the throne, stymied Schmidt produced a German translation, the first Mongo- Esen, and he sent the emperor back in 1450. Despite the lian work translated into a European language. Tumu crisis, tribute missions continued until Esen’s Further reading: John R. Krueger, trans. The Bejewelled death. In 1450–51 Esen and Togtoo-Bukha again invaded Summary of the Origin of Khans (Qad-un Ündüsün-ü Erdeni- the Three Guards, devastating the area around the Nonni- yin tobc^i). A History of the Eastern Mongols to 1662 (Bloom- Sungari confluence. ington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1964); John R. Krueger, Esen’s religious beliefs are unclear. Esen’s grandfather Poetical Passages of the Erdeni-yin tobc^i (The Hague: Mou- Mahmud (d. 1418), bore a Muslim name, and as the price Ewenkis 171 of his marriage with Ways Khan’s sister Makhtum branch of the Manchu-Tungusic language group and is Khanim, Esen converted to Islam. Makhtum Khanim’s closely related to Even (Lamut) and Negidal in Siberia two sons by Esen, Ibrahim and Ilyas, were Muslims, yet and more distantly related to Jurchen and Manchu in Esen’s other sons were not. From at least 1446 to 1452 Manchuria. Ewenki dialects can be divided into three Esen had a Buddhist monk as state preceptor (Guoshi), broad groups: 1) Siberian Ewenki, spoken by Russia’s for whom he requested Buddhist articles. In 1446 he also Ewenkis in the Lena and Yenisey valleys, as well as (con- requested medicines and books on yin-yang and divina- fusingly) by China’s Orochen; 2) Solon Ewenki, spoken tion from the Ming. by most of the Ewenkis in China; and 3) Khamnigan, By 1451 Esen and the khan Togtoo-Bukha had a originally spoken by the Ewenkis of Russia’s Transbaikal falling out. From 1449 Togtoo-Bukha had opposed Esen’s steppe. (The term Khamnigan is simply the general policy of confrontation with the Ming. When the two Buriat-Mongolian term for all Ewenkis, but it may be quarreled over the designation of the heir of the throne, used more narrowly for the Ewenkis of Transbaikalia.) Togtoo-Bukha supported the Three Guards, who had suf- Russian linguists usually treat Solon Ewenki as a separate fered from Esen’s cruelty, and led the Mongols against the language. Oirats in 1452. Togtoo-Bukha fled in defeat when his By 1600 the Ewenkis of the Lena and Yenisey valleys own brother Agbarji Jinong (viceroy) deserted to the were successful reindeer herders. These Reindeer Ewenki Oirat side. Although promised by Esen the title of khan, wore distinctive deerskin leggings, open collarless jack- Agbarji was murdered instead, and in 1453 Esen himself ets, and aprons and lived in birchbark tepees. By contrast, took the title of Great Khan of the Great Yuan. Esen gave the Solons and Khamnigan had picked up horse breeding his son the title of taishi, an action that led his comman- and the Mongolian deel, or robe, from the Mongols. The der Alag Chingsang, who had expected to receive the title Solons nomadized along the Amur River and its northern himself, into rebellion. Esen Khan fled and was killed by tributaries in birchbark tepees, fishing, and hunting boar, the son of a man he had earlier executed. elk, and reindeer for food and tigers, sables, and lynx for Esen saw his conquests as restoring the Yuan her- furs. They also planted millet, barley, oats, and buck- itage, but his vision did not extend beyond Mongolia. wheat. Their only livestock was horses. Their tribes were Viewing the local Mongolian Chinggisids, the Chaghatay closely linked with the Daurs, a more agricultural Mon- khans, and the Ming emperor all as possessors of a com- golic-speaking people. To the west the Khamnigan were parable charisma, his aim was not conquest but the cre- another body of horse-breeding Ewenkis in the Trans- ation of a relationship in which he partook of that baikal area. They were tributary to the KHALKHA Mongo- charisma, through marriage and titles, while holding real lian princes. Also in the Amur valley was a body of power and receiving commercial benefits. The Ming’s frus- Siberian Ewenki-speaking people called Orochen by the trating resistance to this program apparently encouraged Manchus. Some were “Pedestrian” (i.e., no horses or his failed attempt to seize the throne and that charisma for reindeer) and others “Horse” Orochen. himself. The 17th- and 18th-century Zünghar rulers con- sidered themselves to be descendants of Esen Taishi. MANCHU AND RUSSIAN CONQUEST Manchu attacks from 1636–37 and Russian Cossack attacks from 1643–47 affected both the Solons and the Evenk See EWENKIS. Khamnigans. Like the Daurs, the Solons were first subju- gated by the Manchus then raided by the Cossacks and Ewenkis (Evenk, Owenk’e; Tungus) Originally rein- finally deported by the Manchus into the lower Nonni deer herders speaking a Manchu-Tungusic language, (Nen) River valley. In 1731 they were reorganized as many Ewenki (as they call themselves) were subjugated members of the Butha (Hunting) Eight Banners along by the Buriat, BARGA, and Daur clans and so came under with their Daur partners. Their lifestyle remained a com- heavy Mongolian influence. Traditionally the Ewenkis are bination of hunting (both individual and in battue), farm- called Tungus in Russia; the division and naming of offi- ing, and fishing, and they paid a regular tribute of furs. cial Ewenki nationalities was conducted inconsistently in The Manchus dispatched the Solon Ewenkis together modern Russia and China. The Ewenkis of Russia with the Daurs widely over Inner Asia as garrison soldiers. (29,900 in 1989) are actually ethnographically closer to Groups were stationed in the upper Nonni, in the HULUN China’s Orochen (6,965 in 1990) than to most of China’s BUIR steppe in 1732, and in Xinjiang after 1755. Those in 26,315 (1990) Ewenkis. Hulun Buir formed six of the Solon Eight Banners (the other two were filled by Barga Mongols). The Hulun Buir ORIGINS Solons became completely pastoral people, living in Mon- The Ewenki have been traced to the SHIWEI, who inhab- golian YURTS and herding animals like the Mongols. In ited the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE-Amur River area in 1982 roughly 38 percent of the approximately 17,420 the fifth to ninth centuries, but such a connection is Solons lived in the Butha homeland, 12 percent in the merely conjectural. Ewenki language forms the northern upper Nonni, 42 percent in the Hulun Buir steppe, and 172 Ewenkis about 5 percent in Xinjiang. Solon Ewenkis used Manchu merged the Orochen and some Khamnigans into the and sometimes Mongolian for writing, and 18th-century Ewenki nationality, while China combined Solon, Khamni- Solon generals such as Oboshi and Hailancha commanded gan, and a small body of Siberian Ewenkis into their Qing forces as far as Nepal and Xinjiang. While preserving Ewenkis, but left the Orochen as a separate nationality. their native religion, the Solon Ewenkis adopted the Mon- Russia’s vast far-northern Ewenki Autonomous Area with golian and Daur custom of OBOO (cairn) worship. its capital in Tura is only 14 percent Ewenki in population The Orochen were also moved south by the Manchus and contains only 12 percent of Russia’s scattered Ewenkis. and the “Horse Orochen,” enrolled in the banners as aux- More than 12 percent of Russia’s Ewenkis (4,300 people in iliaries to the Butha and Solon banners. The “Pedestrian 1989) inhabit northern Buriatia, Chita, and Irkutsk. All Orochen” remained outside the banner system. Both were but a small number around Aga are Siberian Ewenkis. A primarily hunters. band of these Siberian Ewenkis entered Inner Mongolia in The Transbaikal Khamnigan around Nerchinsk and the 19th century, forming along the Jiliu River China’s only the Aga steppe faced both Cossack demands for tribute population of reindeer herders (numbering 323 in 1990). and Khori BURIATS trying to occupy their pastures. Most The decision of the new Chinese Communist govern- of the Khamnigan preferred Cossack rule, and some ment to make the Daurs a separate nationality separated enrolled in Cossack regiments in the Selenge valley. The the Solons from their long-standing Daur partners. In Aga steppe was mostly taken over by the Khori, however. Hulun Buir part of Solon banner territory was separated Those Khamnigan who fled to the Manchus at this time out as the Ewenki Autonomous banner in 1958. At the were merged into the Solons. The Khamnigan chief Gan- time Ewenkis were 24.6 percent of the banner’s 10,535 timur (later Prince Peter Gantimurov) caused a long-last- people, Mongols were 36.2 percent, and Daurs 22.3 per- ing diplomatic contretemps by fleeing first to the cent. With Chinese immigration into the Dayan and Manchus and then defecting back to the Russians in Yimin coal-mining districts, the banner’s population by 1667. In 1740 Ekhired Buriats migrated east and con- 1990 had ballooned to 129,000 inhabitants, of which quered the Siberian Ewenkis of Barguzin valley northeast more than 60 percent were Chinese. Ewenkis totaled of LAKE BAIKAL. Under the Speransky system of 1822, the 8,700 (including about 300 Khamnigan), Mongols Aga Khamnigans, horse-keeping hunters until the late 21,600 (including about 5,950 Buriats), and the Daurs 19th century, were supervised by clan officials organized more than 14,000. These minorities still dominate the into the Urul’ga “Steppe Duma” and paid an annual steppe, but the steppe today account for only 14 percent three-ruble poll tax. The Siberian Ewenkis of Barguzin of the banner’s population. The banner in 1990 had and elsewhere were put under a simpler native authority. 240,000 livestock, of which 135,000 were sheep and goats. Mongolian is the socially dominant language out- MODERN CHANGES side the towns, but multilingualism and intermarriage of After 1880 Russia’s Khamnigan gradually moved to semi- Ewenkis with Mongols and Daurs are common. nomadic herding of cattle, sheep, camels, and horses. The Orochen Autonomous banner in Hulun Buir, While some of the wealthy dwelt in Russian-style houses, established in 1952, has a population of 293,800, of most lived in Buriat-style yurts and used tepees covered which only 1,900 are Orochen and another 2,800 are with birchbark or felt on hunting expeditions. Of the Solon Ewenkis. The banner is in modern China’s major 24,000 “Tungus” of Transbaikal (mostly Khamnigan with forestry area. some Siberian Ewenkis) in 1897, almost 5,000 spoke The Khamnigan of Mongolia, numbering about 300 Buriat as their first language. After 1918 many of the families, are scattered among the Buriats. They speak Khamnigan, along with some of their Buriat neighbors, only the Khamnigan dialect of Buriat Mongolian and are fled over the border into Mongolia and Hulun Buir, form- officially considered Buriats. Those in Hulun Buir, who ing the present Khamnigan communities there. Virtually still speak Khamnigan, totaled 1,600 in 1988. Those left all the remaining Khamnigan in the Aga steppe were reg- in Russia live in and around AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS istered as Buriats until the 1990s. AREA and speak Khamnigan-dialect Buriat and Russian. In From 1900 the Russian-built Chinese Eastern Rail- the 1990s, the Khamnigans of Buriatia began to revive an way crossed Solon Ewenki territory in Hulun Buir. Under ethnic consciousness as people separate from the Buriats. the Japanese occupation of 1932–45, Butha and Hulun See also DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; HUNTING AND Buir were declared autonomous Khinggan East and North FISHING. provinces, respectively. The Ewenkis and Orochens were Further reading: M. G. Levin and L. P. Potapov, The all treated as Mongols, and Mongolian was made the Peoples of Siberia, trans. ed. Stephen Dunn (Chicago: Uni- administrative language. versity of Chicago Press, 1964), 620–654; Henry In Russia and China the Communist governments Schwarz, Minorities of Northern China: A Survey (Belling- established autonomous units for the Ewenki and Orochen ham: Western Washington University Press, 1984), peoples, although their wide dispersion made territorial 171–188; Juha Janhunen, Material on Manchurian Kham- autonomy in any real sense virtually inapplicable. Russia nigan Evenki (Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society, 1991). falconry The tradition of falconry in Inner Asia, one of the great sports of the khans, has now disappeared in Mon- F become rare, and cohabitation often began without any formal marriage or wedding at all. In the 20th century golia except among the KAZAKHS of BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE, new law codes have reestablished the family on a legal who hunt with golden eagles. During the MONGOL EMPIRE basis similar to that in other modern societies. the Mongol nobles hawked with goshawks, gerfalcons, MARRIAGE peregrine falcons, and saker falcons. In the MONGOL TRIBE falconry was associated with the Kiyad/BORJIGID ruling The Mongol family in empire times was formed through moiety, whose symbol was the white gerfalcon, and under arranged marriage. The groom’s family paid a high the empire it was allowed only for the ruling family and bridewealth in livestock, which purchased rights over the captains. The required tribute of white gerfalcons from bride’s fertility (all children were now of the groom’s clan) Siberia and the Manchurian coast were very onerous, and and gave her the right to wear the BOQTA, or married the keepers of the imperial mews often bullied and woman’s headdress. The bride received from her family extorted goods from the common people. an INJE, a dowry or premortem inheritance, consisting of At the court of QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) the emperor livestock or, for Chinggisids, human subjects. There were went hawking during the winter and spring months. In the also gifts (shidkül) of clothing or household ornaments winter he hawked with eagles, taking foxes, small deer, presented by the bride’s family to the groom’s mother. and even wolves. In the early spring he hawked with fal- Such high payments could be avoided through a direct cons and hawks taking game birds and cranes. The birds exchange of daughters between two families, or through were always cast with the right hand, not the left, as in the groom working for the father-in-law before his mar- Europe. The imperial hawks and falcons had little tablets riage. (CHINGGIS KHAN did this for his wife BÖRTE ÜJIN.) of silver attached to their feet with the name of the keeper. Since marriage linked clans in a continuing connec- The Mongols today do not hawk. The Kazakhs of tion, the tie was preferably not broken, even after death. Bayan-Ölgii hawk with golden eagles, killing foxes, rab- Thus, widow remarriage was very rare except in the form bits, and occasionally wolves. The eagles are caught when of levirate marriage, in which a deceased man’s wives young and kept until they are 10, when they are released would be taken by either his surviving youngest son or, if again to breed. While kept they live together with the fal- lacking a son, a younger brother. Historical examples coner’s family and so become unusually tame. Kazakhs show the first marriage was arranged for high-born chil- cast eagles with the right hand. dren in their mid- or late teens. In polygamous families each wife had her own YURT; they camped in a line west to east, with the senior wife on the west. family Under the MONGOL EMPIRE elite Mongol families were based on polygamy and strong paternal authority. FAMILY LIFE Marriage was stiffened by the substantial payments that In the household most of the work was done by women: had to be made. By the 19th century polygamy had loading yurts and carts and driving them, herding and 173 174 family milking all livestock except horses, processing DAIRY a larger share.) Daughters also received shares through PRODUCTS, making felt, cooking, and sewing. Men herded their inje (dowry) of stock. Land was held in common by and milked livestock, especially horses, which they alone the clan and so not inherited. (See APPANAGE SYSTEM.) milked, and made bows and arrows, horse gear, carts, and CHANGES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY yurts. Their main task was hunting and making war. The family tone was strongly patriarchal. White hair The provisions in the MONGOL-OIRAT CODE of 1640 and and long beards were a sign of dignity in old men, and the KHALKHA JIRUM (Khalkha regulations) of 1709 outline youth were expected not to speak to elders unless spoken practices of marriage similar to those in force under the to. Fathers had authority over sons, elder brothers over Mongol Empire. Fathers and mothers-in-law were younger brothers, husbands over wives, and mothers-in- allowed physically to discipline their adult sons and law over daughters-in-law. At the same time, fathers and daughters-in-law within reason; daughters could be mar- older brothers were expected to avoid strictly any famil- ried from age 14 and were expected to be married by 20; iarity with their sons’ or younger brothers’ wives. ÖGEDEI and bridewealth was legally required for a legitimate mar- KHAN decreed that women who were jealous of their hus- riage. The caps set in the 1640 code for bridewealth were bands’ other wives or wore excessive finery should be extremely high, and a dowry of clothes, horse harnesses, publicly humiliated and bridewealth gathered for the and other household goods was also required. While the husband to marry another wife. While small children theoretical death penalty for adultery, running off with a were treated indulgently, older sons were expected to married woman, and elopement said to have been show rigorous obedience to their fathers. These strongly enacted by Chinggis Khan lapsed after 1600, the more hierarchical relations often prevented father–son inti- realistic heavy livestock fines remained. Divorce is not macy, and many khans were closer to their grandsons mentioned in the codes, but marital discord was generally than to their sons. settled between the two families, with the civil authorities Marital relations were complicated, although 13th- intervening only if the families could not come to agree- century travelers saw Mongolian women as remarkable in ment. Divorce was relatively rare. their docility, diligence, and lack of jealousy. Since each By 1900, however, the impression of observers was wife had her own yurt, the husband had to chose every that the earlier marriage and family system was breaking day with which wife to eat and sleep. Among the Ching- down in Khalkha and the high steppe of Inner Mongolia, gisids a surprising number followed the example of although little hard statistical evidence is available. For- Chinggis himself and were deeply attached to one main mal marriage with the payment of bridewealth became wife. Often the first marriage, arranged by the parents, rare among the poor and remained common only among was loveless and sterile, and stepmothers inherited from a the TAIJI (nobility). One factor was the increasing number father were often treated more as respected companions of boys taking religious vows in monasteries (see LAMAS and advisers than as romantic partners. Sexual liaisons of AND MONASTICISM). A man who had taken vows could not princes with maidservants were common and in the event formally marry. Thus, while most of the 45 percent of of a child being born were often regularized by a marriage Khalkha men in 1918 who were lamas were actually liv- ceremony. While many outside observers stated that the ing with wives and children, they did not pay bridewealth Mongols made no difference between children of wives and were not formally married. and concubines, the khans often favored sons by their The decline in formal marriage coincided with a rise main wife over all others, leaving sons of maidservants in female-headed households, probably due to the sex feeling alienated, particularly if the father had not for- imbalance arising from widespread monasticism as well mally married the mother. as from the economic decline after 1825. Despite the pre- sumed imbalance of men and women, polygamy seems to INHERITANCE have become statistically insignificant. In areas of the The laws of inheritance of livestock among Mongol Gobi traditional marriage disappeared among common- herders have remained roughly constant even to the pre- ers, and even long-term male-female cohabitation became sent. Among the nobility the “flock” distributed included rare (see MATRILINEAL CLANS). In Ordos all women con- human subjects as well. Upon marriage a son received a ducted some form of wedding ceremony, but the numer- share of the family stock as a premortem inheritance and ous unwed mothers would marry the khii mori (prayer lived either in a separate yurt in the camp or formed a flag), and the children would be accounted children of new camp. The favorite son, usually the youngest, lived heaven. with his father until death and inherited the remaining In CHAKHAR, eastern Inner Mongolia, and among the stock on his father’s death. This youngest child was called Daurs, however, where the influence of CONFUCIANISM the odchigin (Turkish for hearth chief) or today otgon was strong, strictures against extramarital sex grew (from od-qan, hearth khan). The youngest child inherited stricter. Among these sedentary ranchers and mixed the most, although other shares were most of the time agropastoral farmers, the new family lived in a single equal. (In the empire period the elder may have received compound with the groom’s parents and with the farming 175 extended family under strict rules of decorum and toralism,” Nomadic Peoples 33 (1993): 209–229; Herbert authority divided by age and sex. At the same time, Harold Vreeland III, Mongol Community and Kinship bridewealth disappeared, being replaced by an indirect Structure (New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press, 1957); Mei dowry (i.e., gifts given by the groom’s family to the Zhang, “Effect of Privatisation Policies on Rural Women’s bride’s, but returned with the bride at marriage). Labour and Property Rights in Inner Mongolia and Xin- jiang,” in Culture and Environment in Inner Asia, vol. 2; MODERN FAMILY LIFE Society and Culture, ed. Caroline Humphrey and David Already in the 1910s the Khalkha Mongols noticed a new Sneath (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1996), 61–96. trend in family life toward greater equality between hus- bands and wives, while from around 1920 frequent elope- farming Although Mongolia is always associated with ments without bridewealth gradually broke down the animal husbandry and pastoral nomadism, farming has custom of arranged marriages even in respectable fami- also played a perennial, albeit subsidiary, role. Since lies. After the 1921 REVOLUTION the MONGOLIAN REVOLU- 1959 the Mongolian government has developed a highly TIONARY YOUTH LEAGUE attacked wife beaters and elders extensive and mechanized agriculture. This article pri- who tyrannized their children. Similar campaigns marily describes agriculture in Mongolia proper. (For occurred among the KALMYKS and BURIATS in Russia after agricultural colonization by the Chinese in Inner Mongo- 1920 and among the INNER MONGOLIANS in China after lia, see CHINESE COLONIZATION. On agriculture in Inner 1945. Mongolia after 1911, see INNER MONGOLIAN AUTONOMOUS In all Mongol areas marriage was put on a similar legal REGION.) basis in the 20th century based on monogamy, the consent While observers from widely varying periods gener- of the bride and groom, age limits (18 in Mongolia and 20 ally treat farming among the Mongols as an innovation, in China since 1978), prohibition of bridewealth or dowry, Mongolian farming shows substantial continuity. One equal rights of divorce, general male–female equality, and reflection of this is the consistent vocabulary used for so on. The ideal of companionate marriage, romantic grain farming, including not only the names of the grains love, and the beauty and duty of motherhood were all but also of the implements, such as plows and sickles. By promoted, while the old society was castigated in part for contrast, names for vegetables and fruits vary in almost its immorality as evidenced by widespread sexually trans- all dialects and are generally borrowed. mitted diseases. Civil registration of vital events (birth, death, marriage, divorce, and adoption) was established TRADITIONAL FARMING in Mongolia in 1951. In the urban areas registering these Chinese travelers in both the 13th and the late 16th cen- events was crucial for obtaining housing and other bene- turies noted that Mongols grew millet, and cultivation fits from the state sector. methods have been documented by ethnographers from Women had always worked in animal husbandry, and the 19th and early 20th centuries. Nomadic farmers culti- labor shortages and socialist ideas of women’s social roles vated land near the spring and autumn pastures so that kept the number of urban homemakers few. Since WORLD they could be conveniently visited in sowing and harvest WAR II women’s literacy and workforce participation in time. Mongolian farming was generally dependent on independent Mongolia have become virtually equal to surface water and took place near rivers and springs in those of men. While the total fertility rate reached 8 chil- Tuva, western Mongolia (particularly around KHOWD dren in 1963, it declined to 4.5 in 1990 and 2.2 in 2000. CITY), in the SELENGE RIVER valley and its tributaries, the Marriage generally occurs at an early age (20 for women ORKHON RIVER and TUUL RIVER, and in southern Inner and 24 for men). Courtship generally includes sexual Mongolia, particularly among the Höhhot Tümed, east- relations, and pregnancy frequently sparks the decision to ern KHORCHIN, KHARACHIN, Daurs (see DAUR LANGUAGE marry. Divorce is easily obtainable but relatively uncom- AND PEOPLE) and neighboring Mongols. In some spots mon; in 2000, marriages amounted to 9 per 1,000 per- farming was done around springs or river banks where sons over 18 annually, while divorces were 0.6 per 1,000. winter flooding irrigated the land. In northwestern Mon- While female-headed households numbered 56,491, or golia irrigation systems existed with channels and even 10.2 percent, in 2000, the number of children growing up simple aqueducts made of hollow logs (onggocha/ongots). in single-parent households was only 45,262, or fewer Many of these irrigation systems were ancient, dating than 5 percent. back to the military farms created under the Mongol See also KINSHIP SYSTEM; WEDDINGS. Empire (see CHINQAI; QARA-QORUM; SIBERIA AND THE MON- Further reading: Pao Kuo-yi [Ünensechen], “Family GOL EMPIRE). and Kinship Structure of the Khorchin Mongols,” Central Much Mongolian farming was carried on by ordinary Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): 277–311; Pao Kuo-yi “Child banner members who had a traditional right to cultivate Birth and Child Training in a Khorchin Mongol Village,” any unoccupied land in the banner. Disputes over land Monumenta Serica 25 (1966): 406–439; Sara Randall, were rare and were settled by investigating whose family “Issues in the Demography of Mongolian Nomadic Pas- or clan had cultivated the land first. Near the border of 176 fauna China land tenure became more complex, with several the aim of becoming self-sufficient in grain. The crops levels of ownership. Both monasteries and the QING and technology were completely borrowed from the DYNASTY authorities at various times and places spon- Soviet Russian system and relied on mechanization and sored farming on their lands to supply monks’ and sol- fertilizers. Most arable agricultural enterprises were orga- diers’ grain needs (see ZAKHACHIN). nized as “state farms” (sangiin aj akhui), in which the During sowing the Mongols broadcast the seeds by laborers were paid employees of the state and the farm hand from a hat. A simple wooden plow pulled by an ox directors directly appointed by the central government. formed furrows and partially turned the soil. Fields were The main crops were wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and fenced with willow branches or even stacked sheep dung, fodder crops, particularly corn. While at least a few farms and scarecrows of stuffed hawks were set up. Having were set up in virtually every province, SELENGE sown the seeds, the Mongols usually moved away and PROVINCE was the main arable agriculture center. would not return until harvest time. Sometimes poor By 1960 265,500 hectares (656,050 acres) were under families (who had few pack animals and had trouble cultivation, and the 1960 harvest reached 256,500 metric moving anyway) remained in the area to watch the fields tons (282,750 short tons) of grain, 6,800 metric tons in return for part of the harvest. Harvesting was done (7,500 short tons) of vegetables, 18,500 metric tons with a sickle or knife. The simplest way of threshing was (20,400 short tons) of potatoes, and 34,400 metric tons to clear an open space with a post in the center and sim- (37,900 short tons) of fodder. From that point cultivation ply drive several oxen or horses over the grain for two or expanded until in 1985 1,240,000 hectares (3,064,040 three days. More developed farmers used a large circular acres) were cultivated, with 64 percent under plow and 36 stone over which a roller was pulled by an ox. Millet and percent fallow. In that year each hectare sown with wheat barley were the main crops, and the yield per hectare for yielded an average 1,430 kilograms (1,275 pounds per millet was around 25 kilograms (22 pounds per acre). acre), while the potato yield averaged 11,010 kilograms Wheat could yield 90–120 kilograms per hectare (80–107 (9,825 pounds per acre). The production of fodder, which pounds per acre) but without some tending it was liable in 1985 amounted to 18 percent of the total acreage, made to produce no crop at all and so was rarely planted. animal husbandry increasingly dependent on farming. Grain was stored either in a tent or in pits in the Despite the success in making Mongolia self-suffi- ground. Flour was made by mortar and pestle from earli- cient in grain, this new agriculture was heavily dependent est times. Steamed breads or boiled noodles, however, on imported inputs. As Soviet-bloc countries began to appear to have become common only after the 17th cen- demand higher prices for these goods after 1985, both tury; before then flour was usually mixed with milk or the scale and the productivity of agriculture dropped. soup. From 1991 the decline became precipitous as trade sud- denly shifted to hard currency. On a market basis the eco- FARMING IN MONGOLIA, 1911–1959 nomics of mechanized agriculture have become dubious. During the late 19th century Chinese farming in the By 2000 the wheat harvest had virtually collapsed, to Selenge valley expanded, reaching perhaps 60,000–70,000 138,700 metric tons (152,891 short tons) from 1990’s hectares (148,300–173,000 acres). With the 1911 596,200 metric tons (657,198 short tons), while the RESTORATION of Mongolian independence, many of the potato harvest was only 58,900 metric tons (64,926 short Chinese farmers fled. While the theocratic government tons) compared with 131,100 (144,513 short tons) in encouraged agriculture both in the Selenge valley and in 1990. One of the few profitable markets for grain and the former military fields around Khowd, buying potatoes is the distilled liquor industry. This decline was improved Russian farm implements and distributing the result of sharp decreases in both acreage and yields them to the local administrations, it was unable to reach per acre. Fodder production has virtually ceased. Only the earlier levels of cultivation. The revolutionary govern- vegetable farming has increased, fueled by small private ment after 1921 continued the same policy, and by 1925 plots on the outskirts of cities. The future direction of cultivation reached more than 75,000 hectares (185,300 Mongolian agriculture is uncertain. acres), much of which was still cultivated by Chinese or See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; HUNTING Russian farmers. By 1938, however, political turmoil had AND FISHING. again forced an exodus of ethnic Chinese farmers, and Further reading: Walther Heissig, “Mongol Farm- privately cultivated fields had declined to 16,000 hectares ing,” Contemporary Manchuria 3, no. 4 (1939): 79–96; (39,500 acres). During WORLD WAR II a shortage of grain Sevyan Vainshtein, Nomads of South Siberia, trans. from Russia prompted a temporary boom in both farming Michael Colenso (Cambridge: Cambridge University and milling based on indigenous technology. Press, 1980). VIRGIN LANDS FARMING In 1959 Mongolia initiated a “Virgin Lands” campaign, fauna Mongolian fauna is mostly similar to that of the imitating Soviet ruler Nikita Khrushchev’s program, with forest, steppe, and desert belts that sweep east to west fauna 177 across Eurasia. There are, however, a few distinctive STEPPE AND DESERT WILDLIFE relict species. The fauna of the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU In the past the steppe and desert fauna of Mongolia was (including neighboring areas of Transbaikalia and Inner dominated by a few large ungulates in vast flocks, but Mongolia) belongs to the Palearctic (Old World) sub- hunting and competition from domestic livestock have zone of the Holarctic (pan-Boreal) province and devastated them. The Mongolian, or white, gazelle, Pro- includes such ubiquitous Holarctic fauna as the wolf, capra (or Gazella) gutturosa, of the eastern steppe was peregrine falcon, golden eagle, crow, shrew (Sorex), vole estimated at 300,000 in Mongolia in 1965–70, while the (Clethrionomys, Microtus), and hare (Lepus). Distinctive black-tailed gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) of the GOBI East Asian fauna include the musk deer (Moschus DESERT numbered about 60,000. moschiferus) of the wooded ranges, the raccoon dog Apart from gazelles, rodents are now the only wild (Nyctereutes procyonoides) of eastern Mongolia, and the steppe or desert fauna commonly seen: marmots (Mar- Siberian tiger that up to the 20th century inhabited the mota), ground squirrels (Citellus), and pikas (Ochotona) forests of the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE in northeastern are common in the steppe, while several species of jer- Inner Mongolia. Mongolia shares with eastern Siberia boas (some endangered), hamsters, and gerbils dwell in and North America the tundra vole (Microtus the Gobi. Predators include the widespread but very wary oeconomus), arctic ground squirrel (Citellus undulatus), wolf, corsac fox (Vulpes corsac), steppe cat (Felis manul), and pika (Ochotona), while its only poisonous snake, polecat (Mustela eversmanni), and marbled polecat the shield-snouted viper (Agkistrodon halys), is a relative (Vormela peregusna). Characteristic steppe or desert bird of the American cottonmouth. life includes the skylark, magpie, great bustard (Otis tar- Within Mongolia proper, identified species include 136 dus), wheatears (Oenanthe), tawny eagle (Aquila rapax), mammals, 436 birds, 22 reptiles, eight amphibians, and 75 upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and steppe falcon fish. About 20,000 invertebrates have been identified. (Falco naumanni). The saxaul sparrow (Passer ammoden- FOREST AND MOUNTAIN WILDLIFE dri) frequents the saxaul thickets of the Gobi. Mongolia’s The forest fauna is essentially that typical of Europe and largest bird is the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus; Mon- Siberia, such as the elk or red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe golian, yol), a vast vulture of the mountains and deserts deer (Capreolus capreolus), moose, wild boar, red fox, with a wing span of 2.4–3 meters (8–10 feet). Lizards in wolverine, lynx, brown bear, and smaller rodent and the steppe and desert include the agamids Phrynocephalus insectivore fauna. Likewise, forest bird life in Mongolian, versicolor and several species of Eremias. Buriat, and Khinggan forests includes the loon, great Rare or endangered Gobi animals include the Mon- spotted woodpecker (dendrocopus major), goshawk, stone golian saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica mongolica), wild ass capercaillie, hazel hen, three-toed woodpecker (Picoides (Equus hemionus hemionus, called “chigetai” from Mongo- tridactylus), and surd cuckoo (Cuculus saturatus). The lian chikhtei, long-eared one, although the real Mongolian black kite (Milvus migrans; Mongolian, elee) is the most name is khulan), wild two-humped camel (Camelus bac- common forest raptor. Fur-bearing animals such as the trianus ferus), and Przewalskii’s horse (Equus caballus sable (Martes zibellina), ermine or stoat (Mustela przewalskii). The wild camel’s population is estimated at erminea), solongo (Mustela sibirica and M. altaica), otter, only 300 and is declining. The Przewalskii’s horse died and beaver have become rare, while the muskrat has been out in the Gobi in the late 1960s but has recently been locally introduced. In Mongolia proper, estimates in reintroduced into both the Great Gobi Protected Area and 1965–70 of forest ungulate populations included 140,000 the Khustain Reserve near ULAANBAATAR in forest-steppe elk, 100,000 roe deer, 80,000 musk deer, 40,000 wild terrain. Mongolia now has more than 60 wild horses. boar, and 15,000 moose. Rare Gobi predators include the red dhole (Cuon alpinus) The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), both wild and and the Gobi bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), estimated at domestic, is found in isolated patches of taiga forests and about 30 in 1985. alpine tundras of KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE and Buriatia. The WATER FAUNA great argali sheep (Ovis ammon), first described by MARCO The lakes and rivers of the Mongolian plateau include a POLO, and the ibex or wild goat (Capra sibirica), are the large number of waterfowl, both native and migratory. largest wild animals of the ALTAI RANGE, KHANGAI RANGE, Cormorants, great egrets (Egretta alba), ducks (mallard, and GOBI-ALTAI range and were estimated in 1965–70 at mandarin, and shelduck), geese, common terns, herring 50,000 and 100,000, respectively. Their main predator, gulls, coots, and marsh harriers (Circus aeruginosus) are aside from hunters, is the endangered snow leopard common forms; swans, Dalmatian pelicans (Pelicanus (Uncia uncia), with an estimated population of crispus), white-naped cranes (Grus vipia), ospreys (Pan- 500–1,700. Alpine birdlife includes the endemic Altai dion haliaetus), and fish eagles (Haliaetus) are less com- snowcock (Tetraogallus altaica), rock pigeon (Columba mon. The Mongolian plateau’s rivers and lakes belong to rupestris), and ptarmigan. the Pacific (ONON RIVER, KHERLEN RIVER), Arctic (ORKHON 178 fine arts RIVER, TUUL RIVER, EG RIVER, SELENGE RIVER, LAKE BAIKAL, families were expected to worship the household fire dur- Barguzin), and inland (GREAT LAKES BASIN, Valley of the ing the last lunar month in preparation for the WHITE Lakes) basins. Larger fish in the Pacific and Arctic water- MONTH (lunar new year). This date was traditionally on sheds include Baikal and Amur sturgeons (Acipenser baeri the 23rd, 24th, or 29th of the 12th lunar moon, depend- and A.schrencki), troutlike lenoks (Brachymistax lenok), ing on the region and social status of the people. Among salmonlike taimens (Hucho taimen), and pikes (Ezox). the KALMYKS, where the new year was switched to The omul (Coregonus autumnalis), a type of whitefish, is autumn, the fire sacrifice (ghal täklghn) was celebrated Lake Baikal’s main food fish. on the 22nd of the ninth lunar month. Waters of the Mongolian plateau contain a number of In rural areas today, the annual fire worship begins fauna of evolutionary-biological interest. Lake Baikal, the when the stars become fully visible. The family members world’s deepest lake, has 2,630 identified species, of all gather in new clothes before the fire, before which a which two-thirds are unique to the lake, including the table has been placed on a clean white felt. Sometimes nerpa, or Baikal seal, the world’s only freshwater pin- preceded by an incense offering, a sheep’s chest wrapped niped. The Altai Mountain dace (Oreoleuciscus potanini), with woolen yarn and decorated with strips of silk and isolated in the Great Lakes Basin, has diversified into a wrapped in the fat of the animal’s intestines is waved three number of divergent types inhabiting different ecological times in a clockwise direction with the invocational cry niches. khurui repeated three times. Once this is placed in the fire, See also ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FOSSIL RECORD; liquor, butter, jujube fruits, scraps of silk, and grains are HUNTING AND FISHING; KALMYK REPUBLIC. also added. As the fire burns high, the family bows down, Further reading: Academy of Sciences, MPR, Infor- a fire prayer is read, and then the family members make mation Mongolia (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990), 44–48. their own individual offerings or light incense sticks. A brief prostration is also made on new year’s day itself. The fire prayers occur in several distinct forms, fine arts See ANIGA; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; although all known fire prayer texts, without exception, BUDDHIST FINE ARTS; CHOIJUNG LAMA TEMPLE; DEMOTTE align the cult with the Buddhist tradition. The most com- SHAHNAMA; IL-KHANATE; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST; mon type invokes the fire as the child of Indra (Khor- MONGOL ZURAG; PALACES OF THE BOGDA KHAN; SHARAB, musta), the Buddha, or the seed-syllable ram, but also of “BUSYBODY”; THEOCRATIC PERIOD; YADAMSÜREN, ÜRJINGIIN. steel and flint, heaven (Tenggeri), Mother Etüken (the earth goddess), and CHINGGIS KHAN and his queen BÖRTE fire cult The Mongolian fire cult is an example of the ÜJIN, all implicitly identified with the household’s master widespread and ancient Eurasian worship of the family and mistress. Blessings sought include sons, daughters, fire as a symbol of family continuity. The family hearth, and daughters-in-law, a peaceful state, and a flourishing or golomt, is the symbol of the continuity of the family, so property. Similar in meter, alliteration, and formulas to that destroying the fire is equivalent to destroying the Mongolian EPICS, these prayer texts appear to date from family, and vice versa. The wedding ceremony thus the 16th or 17th century. The THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN includes both the groom contributing to the worship of (1717–66) authored a version in Tibetan-style alliterative the bride’s fire and the bride worshipping her new fam- quatrains, added a more structured ritual, and empha- ily’s fire. New family hearths are founded by an ember sized the role of Buddhist deities. Finally, a third type of from an old fire. text prescribes complex ritual actions and tantric-style Traditionally, the sanctity of the household fire has visualizations to be carried out by the officiant, clearly to been guarded by many prohibitions. One must not pour be a lama. water on the fire, cut it with a knife, or walk over it. The These differences in the ritual texts parallel differ- fire has the power to purify things that are from outside ences in the name of the deity and who conducts the the family or are polluted. Envoys to the Türk khans of ceremony. The deity of the fire is usually simply “Fire- the seventh century and the Mongol great khans of the Ruler” (Turkish, odkhan, or Mongolian, galaikhan) or 13th century were passed between two fires to purify “Mother Fire-Ruler,” but sometimes Miraja Khan, the them, a custom that continues today for the mourners at “Hermit God” (Mergen Gegeen), or “the seven sisters, funerals. Clothing or hats that have been stepped on and khans of fire” (tantric texts). In different areas and in dif- stray or borrowed objects brought to the YURT are also ferent households the mistress of the household, the purified before use by waving them over the fire. master, a respected lay ritualist, or a lama carried out the Traditionally, rituals of the fire were conducted on annual ritual. daily, monthly, seasonal, and yearly bases. Daily care con- The fire cult is unquestionably an ancient part of sisted of feeding it a small amount of grain (traditionally Mongol religious life but one that was easily incorporated fried millet) mixed with sugar and butter and reciting the into Buddhism. Unlike the cult of the ONGGHON, it was mantra om a hung three times. Monthly or seasonal wor- never opposed by Buddhist missionaries; indeed, the fire ship was carried on only by some households, but all cult is part of the oldest traditions of Indian Buddhism. flags 179 This religious confluence accounts for the fire cult’s flags In Mongolia proper (KHALKHA or Outer Mongolia) apparent increase in importance and complexity after the the SOYOMBO SYMBOL has been a constant on the flag and Buddhist conversion. an object of great veneration. In Mongolian regions of See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; LITERATURE. China and Russia, the symbolism has been more varied. Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “Buddhism The new flag of the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian inde- and Popular Ritual in Mongolian Religion: A Reexamina- pendence expressed the nation’s theocratic ideals. About tion of the Fire Cult,” History of Religions 36 (1996): three times wider than long, the flag had three pointed tails 112–139. at the upper, center, and lower fly. A thick border along the hoist, top, and bottom edges enclosed a field. In the center five-year plans The system of five-year plans, first of the field was a multicolored Soyombo symbol of Zan- adopted in the Soviet Union in 1929, was applied in abazar (see JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST) placed on a Mongolia in 1948–90 as a crucial part of a noncapitalist lotus and surrounded by an aureole of flames, a placement economy. Mongolia originally formulated a wishful five- used for fierce protector deities. On both sides of the Soy- year plan in 1931, but it was canceled by the NEW TURN ombo were written Buddhist seed syllables in Zanabazar’s SOYOMBO SCRIPT, while on the field was printed 39 lines of POLICY in 1932. In 1941 a Board of Planning, Accounting, and Control (later renamed the State Planning Commis- Tibetan prayers, as on a khii mori (wind horse, or prayer sion) began sketchy annual plans. The first five-year plan flag). Different versions were sewn in different colors, in 1948–52 again sought ambitious goals: doubling the often with brocade cloth, although the Tibetan-rite Bud- dhist colors of red and yellow predominated. output of Mongolia’s fledgling industry and increasing In the 1921 REVOLUTION the partisans raised red and livestock from 21 million in 1947 to a projected 31 mil- yellow flags bearing the Soyombo, taking advantage of lion in 1952. In fact, output in key industrial goods, such the Buddhists’ and Soviets’ shared affinity for red and yel- as coal and shoes, actually declined, while livestock num- low (or gold). The 1924 CONSTITUTION specified that the bers did not pass 23 million. Despite the disappointment, national flag of the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC be red Mongolia’s economy was governed from then on by five- with a (golden) Soyombo on a lotus in the middle. Usu- year plans (with one three-year plan in 1958–60) until ally, the flag was more-or-less square. The 1940 CONSTI- the eighth and last in 1986–90. Collectivization, com- TUTION lengthened the flag to a 1:2 ratio and replaced the pleted in 1959, theoretically brought the entire economy Soyombo with the new Soviet-style state seal, but this flag under state control. was not long used. Just before Mongolia joined WORLD From 1966 Mongolia’s five-year plans were integrated WAR II in 1945, a new design again incorporating the Soy- with the politicoeconomic planning calendar in the whole ombo was adopted. The flag, again twice as long as wide, Soviet bloc, with plans being drawn up simultaneously and was divided into three vertical stripes, the center blue and in consultation in all Soviet-allied countries. Each plan was the fly and hoist red. On the red stripe on the hoist was a drawn up by the Ministry of Finance and the State Plan- golden Soyombo without the lotus but surmounted by a ning Commission. This plan, and the detailed plans depen- five-pointed golden star. Confirmed by constitutional dent on it, were structured around using specified inputs amendment on February 23, 1949, the same basic design (labor, materials, investment, etc.) to meet specified output has been used ever since. The new democratic 1992 CON- indexes. Prices for all goods transferred between enter- STITUTION removed the Communist star but otherwise prises and nations were set by the plan. Based on the left the flag unchanged. nationwide plan, ministries drew up detailed plans for During the Republic of China (1912–49) Inner Mon- branches of the economy, provincial and town government golian autonomous movements proposed a variety of drew up plans for their regions, and finally enterprises party and state flags. In 1936 the Mongolian military gov- drew up subordinate plans for themselves. Enterprises ernment under PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB adopted a new were publicly praised or blamed for meeting or not meet- flag with a blue field and a canton with three vertical ing their quotas. The five-year plans proved effective at stripes of red, yellow, and white. In 1942, however, the directing resources to specified branches, thus helping Japanese forced the INNER MONGOLIANS to accept another Mongolia build up numerous industries from scratch, but flag formed of horizontal stripes with red, for Japan, in only at the cost of systematic inefficiency. the center. In 1946 a pan-Mongolist, pro-Soviet East With democratization and PRIVATIZATION the five- Mongolian autonomous government in Wang-un Süme year plan system was abolished. Today planning has been (modern Ulanhot) flew a flag of three horizontal stripes replaced by economic management using prices, now with the central blue and red flanking. In the center of freed from state control, as the main indicator and money the blue stripe was a crossed hoe and uurga (Mongolian supply and tax policy as the major tools. lasso pole) signaling eastern Inner Mongolia’s agropas- See also COLLECTIVIZATION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; toral economy. The Chinese Communists added a five- ECONOMY, MODERN; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; MON- pointed star above the hoe and uurga before abolishing GOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY. the flag altogether in 1949. 180 Flight of the Kalmyks After the death of AYUUKI KHAN (r. 1669–1724) Rus- sian encouragement of Christian conversions, interfer- ence in Kalmyk politics, and increasing colonization periodically stimulated the idea of returning to Züngharia (Junggar basin). Soon after her coronation Empress Catherine II (1762–96) decreed that the Kalmyk ruler’s zarghu (court or council) no longer be a privy council of the khan’s Torghud retainers but a genuine legislative body with members elected by the nobility (noyod; see NOYAN) from the KALMYKS’ three tribes (TORGHUDS, KHOSHUDS, and DÖRBÖDS) and the monasteries. This deci- sion and the empress’s program of colonization on the Volga led Ubashi (b. 1745, r. 1762–71, d. 1774) to decide to flee. The leading advocates of flight were Tsebeg-Dorji (d. 1778), whose bid for rule over the Kalmyks the Rus- sian authorities had rejected, and Tseren, who had fled from the Qing dynasty’s conquest of Züngharia and been resettled among the Kalmyks with 10,000 households. Tseren believed that Züngharia had been left empty by the Qing and that the Kalmyks could easily seize the area. In autumn 1770 Ubashi’s court crossed the Volga, ostensibly to guard against Kazakh raids. After waiting in vain for the Volga to freeze and allow the others over, Ubashi revealed the decision to the people on January 4 War flag of the theocratic state, 1911–19 (Courtesy (old style), plundered the Russian merchants and sol- Christopher Atwood) diers in the camps, and the next day set out with 30,909 households and 169,000 persons. Left stranded west of the Volga were 11,198 households. The forts on the Ural Before 1991, as autonomous Soviet socialist republics River were in rebellion and let the Kalmyks pass, but within the Soviet Union’s Russian Soviet Federated the governor of Orenburg vainly attempted to pursue Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the BURIAT REPUBLIC and them. He also notified the KAZAKHS, however, who KALMYK REPUBLIC occasionally flew a version of the harassed and plundered the Kalmyks as they moved RSFSR flags with the republics’ names or initials added across Kazakhstan. The Kyrgyz also looted their camps on. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, both the Buriat savagely near Lake Balkhash. In early August the and Kalmyk Republics designed new flags. Kalmykia’s Kalmyks reached the Ili Valley. Having lost all but a first flag, adopted in October 1992, was replaced in July third of their cattle and been reduced to 70,000 people, 1993 by one with more clearly Buddhist symbolism: a the Kalmyks could not fight, and they surrendered to yellow field with a blue circle in the center and a white the Qing. Overriding advisers suspicious of the former nine-petaled lotus in the blue circle. Buriatia in October anti-Qing refugee Tseren, the emperor Qianlong (1736–96) 1992 adopted a blue, white, and yellow horizontal tri- issued livestock, TEA, rice, sheepskins, cloth, cotton, color, adding at the upper hoist in yellow the Buddhist YURTS, and silver in great amounts in relief. Qianlong symbol of the crescent moon, sun, and flame found on saw Ubashi’s imperial audience in October at his sum- the Soyombo and Buddhist stupas. The AGA BURIAT mer palace as the culmination and vindication of his AUTONOMOUS REGION and UST’-ORDA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS Mongolian policy. In 1774 Qianlong resettled the REGION have also adopted new flags. That of Aga mixes refugees into 17 BANNERS (appanages). Ubashi, Tsebeg- the crescent moon, sun, and flame with the Russian tri- Dorji, and other “Old” Torghud and Khoshud princes of color, but the Ust’-Orda flag has no special Mongolian the Kalmyks received pastures in central and northern symbolism. Xinjiang (see XINJIANG MONGOLS). Tseren and his “New” Torghuds were resettled in the Khowd frontier (modern Bulgan Sum, Khowd). Flight of the Kalmyks In 1771 the bulk of the Kalmyks on the Volga fled increasing Russian control to try to reconquer Züngharia. Ravaged by hunger and Kazakh flora Mongolia’s vegetation ranges from the taiga attacks, on their arrival in Züngharia they had no choice forests of Siberia to the gravelly sands of the GOBI DESERT. but to surrender to the QING DYNASTY. Their descendants The vegetation of the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU (including are now the bulk of the current Xinjiang Mongols. Mongolia and neighboring areas of Transbaikalia and flora 181 Inner Mongolia) can be divided into three “pure” zones: in Buriatia along the Selenge and its tributaries, on the the mountain taiga forest (Mongolian taiga), the steppe upper Uda (Buriat, Üde), and around the Yeravna (Buriat, (Mongolian kheer), and the Gobi Desert (from Mongolian Yaruuna) Lakes and in the Barguzin (Buriat, Bargazhan) gobi). The mountain forest steppe (khangai) and the valley. Important grasses include khyalgana, or feather desert steppe are intermediate forms. On the high peaks grasse (Stipa baicalensis in the wetter east and S. krylovii of the ALTAI RANGE, the KHANGAI RANGE, the Sayan, and in the drier west), June grass (Koeleria), rye grass (Ley- the higher ranges along the Baikal there are also alpine mus chinensis), fescue (Festuca), wheat grass (Agropyron and subalpine tundra. cristata), and Cleistogenes squarrosa. Sedges (Carex), Mountain taiga forest covers KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE, legumes, and shrubs such as sagebrushes (Artemisia) and the Sayan and KHENTII RANGES, and the lower ranges pea shrubs (Caragana) form an important component of along the Baikal. The main species are the larch (Larix the flora. The east forms the Daurian-Mongolian floral sibirica in the west and L. dahurica in the east) and the zone, with more species characteristic of Manchuria. In Siberian pine or cedar (Pinus sibirica), with areas of birch solonchaks, or low-lying salt marshes, splendid feather (Betula), spruce (Picea obovata), and fir (Abies sibirica). grass (Achnatherium splendens, Mongolian ders), couch The forests usually have a thick undergrowth of shrubs, grass (Aneurolepidium; Mongolian, khiag), and wheat herbs, berries, and wildflowers, such as Rhododendron grass (Agropyron cristata) grow. Willows and poplars line dahurica, bilberry (Vaccinium vitis), and wild marsh aza- major watercourses. lea (Ledum palustre). Larch (L. dahurica) forests with The forest steppe covers the lower Khangai and areas of low-lying meadow and swamp cover northeast Khentii and the valleys of the Barguzin and the Selenge Buriatia. and its tributaries in Buriatia. Here forests of larch (Larix The steppe belt is wide in eastern Mongolia and in sibirica) in the Khangai and of cedar (Siberian pine, Pinus HULUN BUIR, SHILIIN GOL, and Aga areas but gradually nar- sibirica), pine (Pinus sylvestris), and birch in Buriatia and rows westward. Discontinuous areas of steppe are found the Khentii occupy the northern slopes, while steppe Khangai (forest-steppe) landscape. Bulgan province, 1992 (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) 182 folk art vegetation covers the southern slopes. The grass is like Perhaps the most important root plant gathered, par- that of the steppe, but with bluegrass (Poa attenuata) ticularly in forest areas, was the lily bulb (Lilium being common. This area supports the highest density of tenuifolium and L. martagon), the Mongolian name for livestock. which, tömös, later became the term for potato. Other The desert steppe stretches between the Gobi and the important roots used as flavorings included Phallerocar- steppe. (In China gobi is used for this desert steppe zone, pus gracilis (Mongolian yamaakhai), silverweed (Poten- not for drier shrub desert.) The Valley of the Lakes and tilla anserina, Mongolian, gichgene), and snakeweed the GREAT LAKES BASIN are basically desert steppe, as are (Polygonum vivparum, Mongolian, mekheer) in the forest the lower slopes of the Altai. There, feather grasses (Stipa steppe and beach grasses Psammochloa villosa and Leymus sp.), taana onion (Allium polyrrhizum), sagebrushes, and racemosus (Mongolian, suli) and the goosefoot Agrophyl- Ajania (a flowering shrub of the Asteraceae family) are lum pungens (Mongolian, tsulikhir) in the gobi zone. the most characteristic vegetation. Medicinal plants included the flowers Lophanthus The classic Gobi Desert of south-central and south- chinensis (Mongolian, sadagnagwa), Oxytropis pseudoglan- western Mongolia, ULAANCHAB, and northern ALASHAN dulosa (Mongolian, ortuuz), and Rhodiola rosea (Mongo- has a very thin vegetation cover of shrubs and semi- lian, altangagnuur), while the “camel’s tail” pea shrub shrubs such as ephedra (Ephedra przewalskii) and mem- (Caragana jubata) is boiled for medicinal teas. Leaves of bers of the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae): saxaul the juniper (Mongolian, arts) are the main incense in (Haloxylon ammodendron), tumbleweed (Salsola passe- Mongolian traditional religious ceremonies, only partially rina), and others. The trans-Altai Gobi of KHOWD replaced by artificial joss sticks. PROVINCE forms the edge of the Zünghar zone, with See also ALASHAN; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; species characteristic of northern Xinjiang. DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION; ENVIRON- MENTAL PROTECTION; FOSSIL RECORD; KALMYK REPUBLIC; PASTURES, FORESTRY, AND GATHERING KHORCHIN; ORDOS. Mongolian wild vegetation is used for fodder, lumber, Further reading: Peter D. Gunin, et al. Vegetation and culinary-medicinal purposes. As fodder it is the basis Dynamics of Mongolia (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Pub- of Mongolia’s most important economic pursuit both his- lishers, 1999); B. Gomboev et al., “The Present Condi- torically and today, animal husbandry. Mongolian pas- tions and Use of Pasture in the Barguzin Valley,” in Culture tures contain about 5,000 species of plants, of which 600 and Environment in Inner Asia, vol. 1, The Pastoral Econ- are forage species and 200 particularly nutritious for live- omy and the Environment, ed. Caroline Humphrey and stock. Standing crop ranges from 3,500–4,000 kilograms David Sneath (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, per hectare (3,120–3,570 pounds per acre) in the forest- 1996), 124–140; Sodnomdarjaa Jigjidsüren and Douglas steppe to 375–1,500 (335–1,340 pounds per acre) in the A. Johnson, Mongol orny malyn tejeelin urgamal/Forage desert steppe. Overgrazing first shortens the stems and Plants in Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar: Research Institute for then begins to cause an increase in poisonous or other- Animal Husbandry, 2003); S. Tserendash and B. wise harmful grass. Pasture degradation is significant in Erdenebaatar, “Performance and Management of Natural Mongolia and very serious in Buriatia and Inner Mongo- Pasture in Mongolia,” Nomadic Peoples 33 (1993): 9–16. lia. Cultivation or extremely heavy grazing in marginal lands can lead to full-scale desertification, a problem par- folk art See CLOTHING AND DRESS; HORSE-HEAD FIDDLE; ticularly serious in Kalmykia and southwestern Inner HORSES; JEWELRY; MUSIC; SHARAB, “BUSYBODY”; YURT. Mongolia. With transportation a key bottleneck, the main forestry centers in Mongolia and Buriatia are along the folk poetry and tales Mongolian literature has always lower SELENGE RIVER and its main tributaries, the Yöröö been closely connected to folk poetry and orally transmit- and the Uda, and the Baikal, with smaller centers in east- ted tales. This connection goes both ways: Not only do ern Khentii and western Khangai. In Inner Mongolia the writers take up folk poetic themes and genres, but also northern GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE is China’s main area written literature frequently exercises a profound influ- of forestry and has been heavily developed with railroads, ence on folk poetry. Many pieces of Mongolian poetry roads, and a vast influx of Chinese workers. first collected as “folksongs” have later been identified as Many herbs, mushrooms, and berries are collected works first written by Mongolian poets or liturgists, par- for both culinary and medicinal purposes. The sea buck- ticularly the THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN and DANZIN-RABJAI. thorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides), bilberry (Vaccinium vitis), Finally, many originally orally transmitted works were blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), currant (Ribes altissi- written down not just by ethnographers but by the Mon- mum and R. nigrum), and bird cherry (Padus asiatica) are gols themselves and subsequently circulated as literature. found throughout the Khangai and Khentii. Pine nuts While Mongolian EPICS and folk poetry are often (Pinus sibirica) are also widely eaten. Edible mushrooms given impossibly ancient dates (going back to 1000), a are collected in the Khentii. precise dating of orally transmitted works is obviously food and drink 183 impossible. By the late 18th century, certainly, one can Further reading: Damdinsurengiin Altangerel, ed., say that folk literature had essentially the cast considered How Did the Great Bear Originate? Folk Tales from Mongo- traditional today. Judging from the common Chinggisid lia (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing House 1988); ———, themes, much of the wedding poetry and FIRE CULT The Legend of Cuckoo Namjil: Folk Tales from Mongolia prayers seem to have originated in the milieu surround- (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing House, n.d.); John Gom- ing the Chinggisid restoration during and following the bojab Hangin, ed., Mongolian Folklore: A Representative reign of BATU MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?). Hunt- Collection from the Oral Literary Tradition (Bloomington, ing prayers and shamanist invocations are likely to have a Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1998); Nassenbayar et al., trans., roughly similar age. Mongolian Oral Narratives: Gods, Tricksters, Heroes, and Blessing (yörööl) and praise (magtaal) poetry were Horses (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1995); some of the most important genres of Mongolian folk Nicholaus Poppe, Tsongol Folklore: Translation of the Lan- poetry, connected to religion, games (naadam), and virtu- guage and Collective Farm Poetry of the Buriat Mongols of ally every part of everyday life (see YÖRÖÖL AND MAG- the Selenga Region (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1978); TAAL). Political addresses (jorig) were similar. Handbooks Henry Serruys, “A Genre of Oral Literature in Mongolia: for speaking appropriate words of blessing or praise at The Addresses,” Monumenta Serica 31 (1977): 555–613; every occasion circulated, particularly in ORDOS. In the Archer Taylor, An Annotated Collection of Mongolian Rid- 19th and 20th centuries Geligbalsang (1846–1943) of dles (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, KHALKHA and Gamala of ÜJÜMÜCHIN (1871–1932) became 1954). famous for their beautiful praises and blessings. Mongolian proverbs and riddles frequently appear in literature but were rarely collected by the Mongols them- food and drink Mongolian food has changed in many selves until modern times. A distinctive genre of Mongo- ways since the MONGOL EMPIRE, but mutton and tradi- lian gnomic poetry is the “THREES OF THE WORLD.” tional dairy products remain at the heart of it. Food in Mongolian epics in their present form date from the Mongolia is traditionally divided into “white foods” late 17th century at the earliest and in some cases cer- (tsagaan idee), or DAIRY PRODUCTS, and “red foods” (ulaan tainly later. The GESER epic, first printed in Mongolian in idee), or meat. White foods are the staple of the summer 1716, later became nativized as a Mongolian epic. The and red foods of the winter. This division, however, takes JANGGHAR epic appears to have taken its final form account only of the most honored foods and leaves out among the KALMYKS in the early and mid-18th century. several important categories of food: various forms of While the Jangghar is less commonly found in written grain, which even for a pure nomad supply much of the versions, both the Geser epic and the Khalkha epic Khan caloric intake, game, wild vegetables and herbs, wild Kharankhui exist in a number of manuscripts, both in the fruits and berries, and salts for seasoning. UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT and in the CLEAR SCRIPT. Mongolian animals are slaughtered in a distinctive In eastern Inner Mongolia, HULUN BUIR, eastern style. The animal is thrown on its back, and its legs are Khalkha, and old Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR), a dis- held or, with powerful animals like the horse, tied. The tinctive style of khuurchi (fiddlers’) tales, grew up. While butcher cuts a hole below the breast bone and suddenly the epics were connected to hunting magic, fiddlers’ tales reaches in and rips open the aorta, causing a catastrophic were purely for dramatic entertainment. They drew their internal hemorrhage. This slaughtering is aimed at keep- material mostly from written sources: the Geser epic, CHI- ing all the blood in the body, exactly the opposite aim of NESE FICTION such as the novels The Water Margin and Jewish and Muslim slaughtering. The blood is scooped Three Kingdoms, and Indian story cycles such as the out after the organs are removed and used for sausages. Thirty-Two Wooden Men. They were thus also sometimes Attempts to impose this slaughtering style in Muslim called bengsen-ü üliger, or “chapbook tales.” Pajai lands caused conflict in the empire period. The Mongols (1902–62) of Jarud banner was perhaps the most famous were also notorious in the empire and later for eating ani- of these fiddlers. mals that had died naturally or had been killed by wild Mongolian folktales include the widespread animal animals. fables, explanations of natural phenomena, and so on. Some can be linked to similar themes in East Asian litera- DAILY FOOD IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE ture, while others share motifs with Indian or Tibetan Travelers to Mongolia in the 13th century observed that tales. Stories about ethnic origins and historical figures the Mongols lived primarily on KOUMISS, or fermented have been widely gathered today, and such material has mare’s milk, during the summer and on mutton during found its way into many old Mongolian, Buriat, and the winter. Observers also noticed the importance of wild Kalmyk-Oirat chronicles. In Khalkha and Inner Mongolia meat in the Mongolian diet. Animals hunted included rab- many epics are now told as prose stories. bit, deer, wild boar, ibex, gazelle, and the kulan, or wild See also EIGHT WHITE YURTS; FIRE CULT; LITERATURE; ass. Muslim and Christian observers were particularly dis- MUSIC; PROSODY; WEDDINGS. gusted by the Mongols’ liking for wild rodents, such as 184 food and drink hamsters, ground squirrels, and especially marmots. Large LATER TRADITIONAL MONGOLIAN FOOD fish was also taken in the winter by ice fishing. After the breakup of the Mongol Empire, much Mongo- For important occasions meat was prepared by roast- lian food remained the same. A Chinese frontier official ing on a spit with salt as the only seasoning. For daily in 1594 described the continued dominance of mutton meals bones and meat were boiled together with seeds, and the near-absence of beef, the preparation of thick grains, and wild onions and grasses to make a thick soup meat stews, and the brewing of fermented milk liquors. (shöl). While the Mongols rarely slaughtered animals Fried millet, flour, and noodles were prepared and mixed during the summer, they were always careful to preserve with meat stews or with milk. Both meat and flour stew the flesh of animals that died naturally (again to the dis- (bantang) and noodles with meat chunks (goimon) are gust of Christian and Muslim observers). This they did still common everyday dishes. The KALMYKS on the Volga by cutting the meat into strips and drying them in the bought rye flour from Russian farmers and made a rye sun and wind. This process, still common today, pro- porridge (budan). duces borts (jerky), which can be kept for several sea- Several changes were already in progress, however. sons. The intestines of horses would be made into Hunting was declining as a source of meat. TEA entered sausages and eaten fresh. During the winter sheep were Mongolia together with the conversion to Buddhism from the only domestic animal frequently slaughtered. Horses 1578 on; tea was already an absolutely indispensable part were slaughtered only on ritual occasions, when a great of Tibetan Buddhist monastic life and soon spread to the feast was made. laity as well. Mongolian tea was made with milk, salt, and Millet was also eaten boiled in gruel at least twice a butter. Millet and meat were frequently added to it to day in winter. The millet was sometimes grown on the make it a kind of thick soup. Wooden and, for the rich, MONGOLIAN PLATEAU, sometimes received in tribute by silver bowls were used for tea, and spoons also came into noble-born Mongols, and sometimes bought by well-off use. commoners by selling sheep and skins to Uighur and During the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) these changes Chinese peddlers. amplified. The large group hunts became rare, and game Descriptions of mealtime etiquette exist only for roasted meat eaten among men of consequence. The meat became only a small part of the diet. Fishing was aban- was cut up into small pieces, and the order of eating was doned under Buddhist influence. Cane sugar and rice determined by the host. Pieces were served to the guests imported from China became more common; a special skewered on prongs. Those in charge of cutting and pre- dish for the days leading up to the WHITE MONTH (lunar senting the food were the ba’urchis (stewards), belonging new year) was millet or rice suspended in melted butter to the keshig, or imperial guards, and had a high position. and served with sugar on top. Bortsog, or breads fried in It is likely that, as is reported of the Turks, different clans animal fat, also became an important part of the meal. were assigned different parts of meat according to their Among the UPPER MONGOLS of Kökenuur and those in prestige and that part of the ba’urchi’s role was to know western Mongolia, zambaa (from Tibetan rtsam-pa), or these hierarchies. Food was eaten with the fingers, and parched barley flour, usually moistened with tea and hands were wiped on clothes or grass. dairy products and rolled into balls, began to be eaten. During the early empire the most common imported Serving styles also changed. Rather than pieces foodstuff was liquor, both Chinese rice wine and served with a skewer, festive meals were dominated by a Turkestani grape wine. CHINGGIS KHAN first saw grape metal plate piled with food, which was presented to visi- wine when it was presented to him in 1204 in tribute by tors to take what they wanted. A hospitality plate, still a Mongol tribe envoy and disapproved, as the liquor was kept regularly by every rural family and many urban dangerously strong. Certainly drunkenness was frequent ones, consisted of layers of bortsog, molded dried curd at Mongol gatherings. Singing and a kind of teasing (süün khuruud), Chinese moon cakes (yeewen, from Chi- dance accompanied the drinking of liquor, which pro- nese yuebing), öröm, candies, sugar cubes, and so on. ceeded according to a complex ritual of offering and Whole boiled mutton for ceremonial occasions, or shüüs, counteroffering. was arranged on a plate with the four legs sticking out, At the court of the Mongol rulers in China, as seen in the fatty tail covering the rear and the boiled head on top, the Yinshan zhengyao (1330), a cookbook by the Uighur often with a piece of süün khurud crowning the head. The Hu Sihui (Qusqi), Turkestani and Middle Eastern influ- more respectable Mongols adopted a combination of ence on Mongolian food was very strong. Noodles chopsticks and a knife, both carried in a wooden sheath became a major part of the diet, and Mongolian soups and hung on the sash. Eating with the fingers and knife were enlivened with spices such as cardamom and Mid- was still common, however. dle Eastern ingredients such as chickpeas and fenugreek The Mongols during this time adopted a variety of seeds. The khans enjoyed genuine Turkish or Middle Chinese-style dumplings and steamed buns. These Eastern dishes such as sherbet, the pastries börek and gül- included mantuu (from Chinese mantou), a fluffy steamed lach (an early version of baklava), and the bread yufka. and leavened bun, bänshi (from Chinese bianshi, simple foreign relations 185 food), or dumplings of meat stuffing wrapped in a thin mented milk liquor) are also sold in packaged format, skin and boiled in soup, khuushuur (from huxianr, today while zöökhii (cream), tsötsgii (sour cream), yogurt xianrbing), a flattened patty stuffed with meat, vegetables, (tarag), and fermented mare’s milk (koumiss) are mostly and salt and fried on a griddle, and especially BUUZ (from sold unpackaged and seasonally. Unhomogenized milk baozi). Another form of food adopted from China was and European-style butter, called maasal from Russian round griddle cakes made with leavened dough and fried maslo, is also regularly available commercially. Pork and (bin, from Chinese bing, pancake) or roasted (gambir, fish remain relatively unfamiliar foods. from Chinese ganbing, dry pancake). In Inner Mongolia restaurants and hotels generally Roasted meat became almost unknown except in cer- serve Chinese fare, and most Mongols are now familiar tain districts such as Alashan. Apart from boiling in a with highly spiced food. Noodles, buns, and dumplings wok, another cooking method is to use hot stones to are made in ways very close to the Chinese, but milk tea, cook an animal in its own skin. This method is used for fried millet, traditional dairy products received from rela- both marmots (tarwagany boodog) and sheep and goats tives in the countryside and the higher percentage of (khorkhog). In the latter case water is also added to make meat differentiate the urban Mongol diet from that of a broth. their ethnic Chinese neighbors. In eastern Inner Mongo- lia pork is now common, and melted pork fat sometimes MODERN CHANGES replaces butter in traditional dishes. In the 20th century European and Chinese cuisine has See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; FARMING; exercised a powerful influence on Mongolian food. In HUNTING AND FISHING. both areas cheap distilled liquors with alcohol contents Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- ranging from 45 percent (Mongolian vodka) to 60 per- quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- cent (Chinese baijiu) have become the main liquor, far sity Press, 2001); Paul D. Buell, “The Mongol Empire and outstripping native milk liquors. Turkicization: The Evidence of Food and Foodways,” in In Mongolia since the 1930s the state-owned hotels The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai- and restaurants have served a completely European fare. Preiss and David O. Morgan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), Chopsticks are no longer used, having been replaced by a 200–223; Paul D. Buell, Eugene N. Anderson, trans., A varying combination of European utensils and the tradi- Soup for the Qan: Chinese Dietary Medicine of the Mongol tional knife and hands. Fried millet also disappeared Era as Seen in Hu Szu-hui’s Yin-shan cheng-yao (London: from independent Mongolia’s traditional cooking in the Kegan Paul International, 2000). 1930s with the breakoff of economic relations with China. Beef has become a major part of the Mongolian foreign relations From 1911 to 1989 Mongolian for- diet, although still less consumed than mutton and goat’s eign policy relied on the northern power (Russia/Soviet meat. Bread, once unknown, is now served with every Union) to secure independence from the southern power meal among urban Mongolians, yet the Mongolian palate (China, and from 1931 to 1945, Japan). From 1989, with remains in many ways quite traditional, tending to a the breakup of the Soviet bloc, Mongolia has pursued a combination of fatty (dairy and animal) and salty or new foreign policy based on evenhanded relations with sweet and strongly averse to hot spices. Even today 88 Russia and China while promoting relations with both percent of the Mongolians’ consumed fat is of animal or “third neighbors” and multilateral institutions to promote dairy origin, the highest percentage in the world, yet its independence and security. cholesterol levels remain relatively low. Vegetables include cabbage, onions, potatoes, carrots, and radishes. RUSSIAN PATRONAGE AND ATTEMPTS AT The main seasoning is black pepper, although Chinese RECOGNITION, 1911–1928 spices are again being used since 1990. Fruits include While the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence apples, watermelons, and imported oranges and tanger- relied on Russian patronage, the new theocratic govern- ines. Urban families buy wild chatsargana, or sea buck- ment persistently sought recognition from outside pow- thorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides), and pine nuts (Pinus ers. On October 29, 1912, Mongolia’s foreign ministry sibirica) in season; chatsargana is made into juice. announced to all foreign powers its independence and Milk tea, noodle soups, flour stew (bantan), fat-fried asked to open relations. At this time the international breads (bortsog), griddle cakes (bin, gambir), and fried treaties governing China’s status allowed for spheres of noodles are standard fare in both urban and rural areas. influence, such as Russia’s in Mongolia, but precluded Urban families still try to secure a full shüüs for the White any change in China’s formal frontiers. Hence, all the Month, while sausage and onion slices, potato salad, and addressed powers ignored the proposal. Late in 1913 the heaps of buuz, washed down with vodka, are served for foreign minister, PRINCE KHANGDADORJI, met with a guests and special occasions. Rural families still produce Japanese officer, “Kodama Toshimasa” (real name Odate the full range of milk products; of these aaruul (a kind of Kamikichi), in an effort to open relations, but the Rus- wormlike sweetened hard cheese) and shimiin arkhi (fer- sians got wind of the affair and it came to nothing. Only 186 foreign relations the Tibetan government, in a similar situation to Mongo- Republic of China’s recognizing Mongolia’s independence lia’s, recognized the new government in a February 4, on January 6, 1946 (see PLEBISCITE ON INDEPENDENCE), 1913, treaty signed in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). while the second led to Mongolia’s unsuccessful first In 1915 the KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY officially application for membership in the UNITED NATIONS (UN). defined Outer Mongolia as an area under Chinese In 1948–50 Mongolia exchanged recognition first with suzerainty, limiting its relations to Russia and China. In Albania and North Korea, then the new People’s Republic 1919, in the face of Chinese pressure (see REVOCATION OF of China (PRC), and finally the Soviet Union’s six East AUTONOMY), the theocratic emperor secretly appealed to European satellites. the U.S. and Japanese embassies in Beijing. This appeal Despite these seemingly impressive advances, Mon- and the growing American share in the wool trade led to golia’s ruler, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG (r. 1936–52), treated the opening of a U.S. consulate in Zhangjiakou (Kalgan). recognition as purely symbolic, showing no interest in After a chaotic period of Chinese and White Russian exchanging ambassadors (although the PRC on its own occupation, the 1921 REVOLUTION put Mongolia back in initiative sent an ambassador to Mongolia in 1950) or the situation of 1911: recognized by Russia, seen as a engaging in any further contacts with the countries that breakaway province by China, and ignored by the rest of recognized it. The rare opportunities of contact with the the world. On September 14, 1921, the prime minister, non-Soviet world were squandered by defensiveness and BODÔ, issued another announcement of Mongolia’s inde- suspicions. pendence and readiness to open relations with all nations. The new American consul in Zhangjiakou, MONGOLIA AND THE SOVIET BLOC, 1952–1986 Samuel Sokobin, visited Mongolia five times from August Choibalsang’s death and the accession of a new genera- 1921, but his own anti-Soviet feelings and the Mongols’ tion gradually led for the first time to real multi–nation suspicion soon led to a complete break. foreign relations, at least within the Soviet bloc. The The Soviet government, unlike the czarist, made no first step was the new prime minister YUMJAAGIIN attempt to bring Mongolia and China to the same negoti- TSEDENBAL’s visit to Beijing, the first of any Mongolian ating table, preferring to deal with each separately. From leader to a non-Soviet country, in October 1952, which 1925, however, the DAMBADORJI regime in Mongolia led to the appointment of Mongolia’s ambassador to Bei- actively sought at least informal relations with foreign jing, again the first not accredited to Moscow. In countries. By this time 124 non-Soviet, non-Chinese citi- 1955–56 Mongolia began exchanging ambassadors with zens lived in Ulaanbaatar, and American, British, and the other Soviet-bloc nations. In 1955 India became the German firms were important players in the Mongolian first noncommunist country to recognize Mongolia and wool trade. From 1926 to 1929 the Mongolian govern- post diplomats to Ulaanbaatar. (In the 1970s India’s ment sent 39 students to Germany and four to France. Soviet alliance and common hostility to the PRC became Dambadorji twice attempted to invite Japanese diplomats a basis for fruitful political and cultural relations with to Mongolia, but each time pressure from Moscow Mongolia.) In 1961 Mongolia was finally admitted to blocked the invitation the United Nations, and a mission was set up in New York. EXCLUSIVE SOVIET RELIANCE, 1928–1952 Mongolia’s admission to the Council of Mutual Eco- These attempts at an independent foreign policy led nomic Assistance (Comecon) in 1962 opened up all- Moscow to engineer Dambadorji’s dismissal in 1928. The around relations with Eastern Europe. Prodded by the leftists who controlled the new government voluntarily Soviet Union, the East European nations, especially renounced any relations with the non-Soviet world, Czechoslovakia and East Germany, financed numerous whether in diplomacy, trade, culture, or human relations, aid projects in Mongolia. Mongolian students also stud- and restricted their ties to the Soviet Union and Mongo- ied in Eastern Europe, whose more open economy and lia’s fellow Soviet satellite, the Tuvan People’s Republic. culture opened new horizons for them. Despite these Mongolia’s few veteran diplomats were exterminated in investments, the share of Mongolian trade held by the the 1937–40 GREAT PURGE. Talks with the Japanese-con- non-Soviet Comecon countries (i.e., Eastern Europe trolled Manchurian government in 1935 and 1939–40 plus Vietnam and Cuba) actually declined from 19.8 eventually resolved some frontier issues but without lead- percent in 1970 to 13.2 percent in 1985. By 1986 the ing to recognition. East European countries were expressing donor fatigue. The final days of WORLD WAR II marked a tentative Mongolia steadily expanded the number of countries rebirth of Mongolia’s foreign relations. The U.S. vice pres- with which it had relations, but such relations outside the ident, Henry Wallace, briefly visited Mongolia in May Soviet bloc and India generally had little substance. From 1944 as part of his tour of the Soviet Union and the Far 1952 Chiang Kai-shek’s Chinese Nationalists on Taiwan East. The Soviet Union’s declaration of war on Japan led revoked their recognition of Mongolian independence, to both the Sino-Soviet treaty of August 14, 1945, and and put pressure on those countries that recognized it, Mongolia’s participation in the war. The first led to the most notably the United States and Japan, to continue fossil record 187 denying recognition to Mongolia. Mongolia’s admission Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman to the UN led to the establishment of diplomatic relations (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 277–289; Serge M. with Britain (1963) and France (1964), but the U.S. State Wolff, “Mongol Delegations in Western Europe, Department’s hope to establish relations was blocked by 1925–1929, Parts I and II,” Journal of the Royal Central lobbyists for the Nationalist government on Taiwan. Asiatic Society 32 (1945): 289–298 and 33 (1946): 75–92. Japan and Mongolia opened relations just before the U.S. 1972 opening to the PRC, but by this time Mongolia, fossil record The present landmass of Eurasia can be prompted by the Soviet Union, refused any relations with divided into a number of terranes, which during the Pale- the United States. ozoic era, currently dated from 570 to 240 million years NEW MONGOLIAN FOREIGN POLICY, ago (mya), were minicontinents occupying separate tec- 1986 TO THE PRESENT tonic plates in the ocean north of Gondwanaland, then on the south pole. These terranes came together (with Mikhail Gorbachev’s more open Soviet policy allowed the the rest of the continents) to form the massive single con- establishment of U.S.-Mongolian diplomatic relations in tinent Pangea in the Triassic period (240–205 mya). Most 1987 and the normalization of Sino-Mongolian relations of Mongolia appears to have been part of the Amuria in 1989. As the Soviet bloc disintegrated in 1989–91, plate, formed from smaller units in the Ordovician Mongolia found itself for the first time truly neutral and (500–435 mya), but the Khangai-Khentii areas occupied unaligned. China and Russia in 2000 still accounted for the margins of the Siberian plate. The Amuria plate 37 percent and 23 percent of Mongolia’s foreign trade, moved northward from the southern tropics in the Cam- respectively, yet other countries—Japan, the United brian (570?–500 mya) to relatively high northern lati- States, the European Union, and South Korea—have tudes by the Triassic. become important as what Mongolia calls “third neigh- bors.” While good relations with Russia and China PALEOZOIC remain a vital priority, Mongolia has attempted to Rocks from the Paleozoic show a typical sequence of increase its freedom of action by cultivating relations marine fossils. Just before the Cambrian stromatolites with these “third neighbors,” both bilaterally and multi- (colonies of cyanobacteria, or “blue-green algae”) and laterally. Despite the occasionally acrimonious electoral oncolites (nodules of sand- or clay-covered cyanobacteria debates, particularly over relations with China, this con- or algae) are common. In the Cambrian hard-bodied sensus runs through Mongolia’s elite in all parties. forms appear, first plankton, mollusks, hyoliths (mol- Foreign aid has replaced Soviet aid in the Mongolian lusk-like fossils of uncertain classification), and bra- economy. Mongolia joined the International Monetary chiopods, and then trilobites and archeocyaths Fund (IMF) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in (reef-building spongelike animals). In the middle Ordovi- 1990, the World Bank in 1991, and became a charter cian bryozoans, bivalve mollusks, and early coelenterates member of the World Trade Organization in January appear, and in the Silurian (435–410 mya) jawless fish. 1997. International aid, of which Japan is the largest Devonian deposits (410–360 mya) show distinct zones of national source and the ADB the largest multilateral coastal, outer, and deep waters with brachiopods, tabu- source, exceeds US $300 million annually, in 1999 reach- late corals, and radiolarians (protozoan plankton with ing US $92 per capita, one of the highest levels in the siliceous skeletons) dominating the respective zones. In world. With this aid has come both fresh debt, added to the Carboniferous period (360–290 mya), fusilinids (an the existing debt burden owed Russia, and a major role of extinct type of foraminifera), bryozoans, corals, and sea multilateral aid organizations, such as the IMF, in deter- lilies (crinoids) formed vast reefs. Mongolia’s first known mining Mongolian economic policy. Aiming to solidify its land fossils, those of the giant club moss Lepidodendron, relationship with the United States, Mongolia strongly appeared in this period. Late in this period and in the supported the U.S. position in the first Gulf War of 1991, succeeding Permian (290–240 mya), as the Amurian and sent 180 troops to join the U.S.-led occupation of plate moved into higher latitudes, cooling climates were Iraq in 2003. reflected in both land plants and sea animals. See also ARCHAEOLOGY; CHINA AND MONGOLIA; ECON- OMY, MODERN; JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; MONGO- MESOZOIC LIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; MONGOLIA, STATE OF; By the Triassic the Amurian, North China, Kazakhstan, REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; RUSSIA AND MONGOLIA; SOVIET and Siberian plates had all come together, making Mon- UNION AND MONGOLIA; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. golia an inland landmass. Conifers and horsetails domi- Further reading: Alicia J. Campi, “Early U.S.-Mongo- nate the land fossil record, now deposited in rivers and lian Diplomatic Contacts,” Mongolia Survey, no. 6 (1999): lakes, which shows clear differentiation between the 47–57; J. Tumurchuluun, “Mongolia’s Foreign Policy cooler north and warmer south. In the Jurassic (205–138 Revisited: Relations with Russia and the PRC into the mya) first the cooler, then the warmer flora dominates. 1990s,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Insect fossils have also been found—cockroaches, beetles, 188 Front Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County dragonflies, and orthopterans—as well as fragmentary cooling and drying trend. Late Eocene flora included vertebrate remains. It was in the late Jurassic–early Creta- more grasses and in better-watered areas elms, beeches, ceous that tectonic developments created in Mongolia the aspens, and poplars. Rich fossil beds at Ergel Zoo (Erdene contrast of the low south-southeast and the mountainous Sum, East Gobi) and Khoyor Zaan (Khöwsgöl Sum, East north-northwest. From the late Cretaceous fossil-bearing Gobi) show new rhinoceratoid families: hyracodontids deposits become restricted to the relatively low-lying (“running rhinoceroses”), hippopotamus-like amynodon- Gobi. tids, and horse-sized indricotheres. Burrowing rodents The famous dinosaur fossils of Mongolia all date from (cylindrodontids) and field mice (cricetids) appear. A the Cretaceous period (138–63 mya), when Mongolia two-toed flightless crane, Ergilornis, and giant tortoises experienced a warm climate with large lakes. Early Creta- shared the habitat. In the late Paleogene (Oligocene, ceous flora was mostly conifers: cheirolepids (extinct 38–24 mya) Mongolia acquired true savannah conditions, conifers with juniperlike leaves) and early pines, later suc- and the fauna became more diverse, with colossal indri- ceeded by Araucaria (relatives of the monkey-puzzle tree cotheres, rodents, lagomorphs (rabbits and pikas), and and Norfolk Island pine) and gingkos. In the early Creta- piglike and ruminant artiodactyls flourishing. The small ceous the most common dinosaur form was the herbivore ancestral rhinoceros Epiaceratherium (Alloceratops) was a Psittacosaurus, progenitor of the horned DINOSAURS. Other characteristic element. fossils include herbivorous iguanadons, ankylosaurs, The Neogene period (24 mya to present) saw the sauropods, and various carnivorous theropods. Bird gradual elevation of the ALTAI RANGE and KHANGAI RANGE, feather impressions, lizards, early mammals, including the formation of the GREAT LAKES BASIN between them, placentals, and a wide variety of insects round out the and the initial formation of the current GOBI DESERT. faunal remains. Three-toed horses successively immigrating from North In the later Cretaceous vast lakes provided habitat for America, Anchitherium and Hipparion, supplied the most distinctive freshwater mollusks. The land fauna was now common remains. The Anchitherium fauna of the lower dominated by flowering plants and modern conifers. Neogene (early Miocene 24–5 mya) included an African Dinosaurs, including Protoceratops, hadrosaurs (so-called immigrant, the early shovel-tusked elephant Gom- duck-billed dinosaurs), ankylosaurs, theropods such as photherium, a small deerlike ruminant (Lagomeryx) immi- Tarbosaurus, a close relative of Tyrannosaurus, and smaller grated from Europe, and true deer (Dicroceras, “ostrich dinosaurs,” established a classic late Mesozoic Stephanocemas) native to Asia. The Hipparion fauna of the fauna, also including turtles, crocodiles, fish, lizards, and middle Neogene (late Miocene) included hornless mammals. The richness and high quality of preservation rhinoceroses (Chilotherium), okapilike early giraffids of Mongolia’s Cretaceous vertebrata make it one of the (Palaeotragus and Samotherium), field mice (cricetids), world’s leading areas for research on dinosaurs, early and mice (murids). The Pliocene (5–1.8 mya) fauna con- mammals, and other fauna. tinued with Hipparion, gazelles, steppe rhinoceroses, ostriches, flightless storks, Amphipelargus, and pheasants. CENOZOIC With the uplift of the northern mountains and the forma- Mongolia’s terrain rose in the transition from the Creta- tion of deep valleys, sedimentation and fossils (including ceous to the Paleogene (63–24 mya), accentuating the a fragmentary ape find) were for the first time since the Gobi-Khangai split as the Gobi lakes retreated. Forests of lower Cretaceous deposited in northern Mongolia. Taxodium (related to the bald cypress) and the The distribution of the mostly modern Pleistocene broadleafed Trochodendroides dominated the lower Paleo- (1.8 mya to 10,000 years ago) fauna was heavily influ- gene flora (Paleocene, 63–55 mya), while the fauna con- enced by the oscillations between glacial and interglacial tains archaic mammals typical of Asia: insectivores, periods. Mongolian Pleistocene deposits are quite poor in anagales (an extinct, mostly herbivorous order unique to fossils. Famous Ice Age megafauna—mammoths, wooly Asia), various creodonts (archaic meat eaters), condy- rhinoceroses, bisons—persisted until the very end of the larths (archaic ungulates), notoungulates (an extinct epoch and were pictured in cave art at sites such as Khoid ungulate order later restricted to South America), Tsenkher. pantodonts, dinocerates (uintatheres), and the probably See also CLIMATE; FAUNA; FLORA; GOBI DESERT; MON- egg-laying extinct mammalian order Multituberculata. GOLIAN PLATEAU; PREHISTORY. In the middle Paleogene (Eocene, 55–38 mya) early Further reading: Academy of Sciences, MPR, Infor- examples of the modern ungulate orders appear: artio- mation Mongolia (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990), 12–17. dactyls, including ancestral ruminants (tragulids) and piglike animals, and perrisodactyls, including early horses, tapirs, and brontotheres. After a warming period Front Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County (Qian in the earlier Eocene, when myrtles, laurels, maples, and Gorlos, Guorluosi) Front Gorlos Mongol Autonomous oak fossils were deposited in the Gobi, the collision of County, in northeast China’s Jilin province, had a popula- India with Asia first raised the Himalayas and began a tion of 544,302 in 1982, of which 30,762 (5.7 percent funerary customs 189 were Mongol. The banner occupies 7,219 square kilome- decomposed, at which point the bones were burned. ters (2,787 square miles) near the confluence of the Sun- Even after building a powerful Chinese dynasty, Kitans gari (Songhua) and Nonni (Nen) Rivers in the used the form of the YURT for funeral urns or coffins in a Manchurian plain and is 120–260 meters (390–850 feet) curious piece of nomad nostalgia. above sea level. Approximately 32.4 percent of the terri- tory is occupied by pastures. The 366,300 head of live- DEATH AND BURIAL IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE stock in 1982 included about 148,700 pigs and 121,900 In the MONGOL EMPIRE travelers’ accounts make no men- sheep. Corn is about 60 percent of the total grain and tion of exposure, only burial. The Mongols feared the bean harvest of more than 250,000 metric tons (275,578 contagion of death and avoided the sick. Seriously ill per- short tons). sons put up a spear with a black felt strip outside their In the 12th–13th centuries, the Gorlos (Middle Mon- yurts, which only shamans and close relatives would golian, Ghorulas) was a clan of the MONGOL TRIBE. Sub- pass. Once the person died, the relatives of the deceased mitting to the QING DYNASTY in 1625, the eastern Gorlos and his or her possessions became unclean and had to clan was organized into two BANNERS (appanages), Gorlos pass between two fires, while shamanesses sprinkled Front and Gorlos Rear banners, in Jirim league, each them with water and prayed (see FIRE CULT). Viewing ruled by descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s brother Qasar. property of the dead as unclean, the Mongol khans abol- Chinese settled Front Gorlos from the 18th century, and ished estate taxes in all the lands they conquered. the Mongols slowly became farmers. Massive CHINESE The Mongols were generally buried on open ground. COLONIZATION from 1902 sparked an uprising led by Tog- Sources describe commoners as being buried inside a yurt takhu Taiji. In 1910 the banner’s collective land system with some meat and KOUMISS (fermented mare’s milk), was officially dissolved. and beside the yurt a mare with a foal and a bridled and The Japanese excluded Front and Rear Gorlos ban- saddled gelding. One or more horses were sacrificed; the ners from Manchukuo’s Mongol autonomous provinces of meat was eaten and the head and hide hung on a pole by Khinggan established in 1932. After 1945 the Chinese the grave site. The bones, within which resided the life of Communists coopted Front Gorlos’s active Mongol the animal and which symbolized patrilineal ancestry, nationalist movement, and in September 1955 it was were burned for the dead. While the sources agree that made a Mongol autonomous county. Rear Gorlos banner men- and maidservants were buried with the khans, they was converted into Zhaoyuan county in 1956. In 1956 are not consistent in their details. The corpses of the 16,700, or 8.1 percent, of Front Gorlos’s inhabitants were khans were kept in caskets, which were moved around ethnic Mongol. Despite their small percentage of the pop- the palace-tents (ORDO) for lengthy mourning before ulation, 24.5 percent of upper- and mid-level cadres were burial. Burial caskets have been confirmed by archaeol- Mongol in 1982. ogy. Again, the sources differ on whether riches were See also INNER MONGOLIANS; KHORCHIN. buried with them, although clothing, armor, horse equip- Further reading: G. Navaangnamjil, “A Brief Biogra- ment, and other daily goods certainly were. phy of the Determined Hero Togtokh,” in Mongolian Burial took place on clan territory. People often Heroes of the Twentieth Century, trans. Urgunge Onon selected their own burial spots before their death, and if a (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 43–76. man died abroad on campaign, every effort was made to bring his body back to the chosen spot. Burial was often at the base of mountains and/or marked by a lone tree or Fuhsin See FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. copse; the branches of such trees were thereafter sacred. The Mongols carefully replaced the grass to avoid other- funerary customs Traditional funerary customs on wise marking the gravesite, although the Turks erected the Mongolian plateau have included at different times “STONE MEN” and sometimes cairns (see OBOO). and in different social groups burial, cremation, and There was an imperial cemetery for the Chinggisid many forms of “sky burial,” or exposure of the body. nobility in the KHENTII RANGE, called Kilengu in the Chi- The earliest inhabitants of Mongolia left many graves nese sources, where most of the great khans were buried. and grave monuments (see ELK STONES; PREHISTORY; This forested area was qoruq, or forbidden, to enter or to NOYON UUL; XIANBI; XIONGNU). Despite these numerous pluck so much as a branch. The other khanates established finds, survey ARCHAEOLOGY indicates that the number of their own “great qoruqs” in their lands: that of the IL- actual graves is far fewer than one would expect given KHANATE at Kuh-e-Shahu, northwest of Kermanshah, and Mongolia’s population, offering indirect evidence for that of the GOLDEN HORDE in the steppe between the Ural exposure of the dead. Medieval Chinese accounts indicate and Volga Rivers. No qoruq has as yet been excavated. that both the SHIWEI in the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE, After a death the deceased’s name was avoided and sometimes considered ancestors of the Mongols, and the no cult offered for three years. Only then, when the Mongolic-speaking KITANS of eastern Inner Mongolia flesh and bones had disintegrated and the soul become exposed their dead in trees, but only until the flesh an ancestral spirit, were sacrifices regularly offered to 190 funerary customs Casket of a Mongol burial from the 13th–14th centuries (From Dowdoin Bayar, Altan urgiin yazguurtny negen bulshiig sudalsan ni [2000].) the ONGGHON, or crude spirit figures made for the capital of DAIDU in 1270, but the burial ground in deceased’s spirit. In these rituals some sacrificial meat Kilengu was still used. and bones soaked with milk liquors (sarqud; modern Despite the emphasis on burial in the sources, it is sarkhad) were placed in holes in the ground and most unlikely that even the ritual described for common- burned, while the descendants ate the rest of the meat ers could be carried out except by the well-off. The form and liquor. Animals were also dedicated to the dead, of burial for the ordinary Mongol thus seems unrecorded. after which they were not used for common purposes. After the death of a Chinggisid prince his palace-tents THE BUDDHIST ERA (ordo) were always maintained under the care of their The Mongolian funerary customs described here, includ- mistresses. As might be expected, the funerary cult of ing human sacrifice, were still observed virtually CHINGGIS KHAN was especially important (see EIGHT unchanged in the mid-16th century. After the SECOND WHITE YURTS). CONVERSION to Buddhism, from 1575 on, Mongolian Religious changes brought about changes in funerary funerary customs underwent relatively rapid change, practices. By the 1270s Mongol nobles frequently visited although many underlying ideas remained the same. relics and tombs of Buddhist, Islamic, and Christian While exposure appears in the sources as a Buddhist saints and had Christian or Buddhist services performed innovation borrowed from Tibet, it may have long been for the dead. In the Il-Khanate, GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) practiced among ordinary people. and his brother Sultan Öljeitü (1304–16), after convert- In Buddhist funerals death was still viewed as ing to Islam, built for themselves large Islamic-style extremely polluting, and the dying person was attended mausoleums with attached on-site charitable founda- only by a lama. The lama recited to the dying in Mongo- tions. Buyan-Quli Khan (1348–58) of the Chaghatayids lian the so-called Tibetan Book of the Dead, which gave built a similar mausoleum, but the qoruq custom was instruction on how to avoid rebirth. Once the person maintained among the Muslim Golden Horde khans died, astrologers were consulted to choose an appropriate until at least the 15th century. In the Mongol YUAN buyanchi (merit maker) to prepare the corpse in the cor- DYNASTY in the east, the Tibetan ’Phags-pa Lama began rect lion’s position (assumed by the Buddha at Nirvana), holding Buddhist services in the ancestral temple in the wrap it in a shroud, and choose the proper time of day Fuxin Mongol Autonomous County 191 and direction for bringing out the corpse and the proper tions on how, where, and at what hour the body should burial site. Lamas performed services in a neighboring be removed and buried. The buyanchi’s role in preparing YURT while the deceased’s yurt was censed from the out- the corpse has been reduced to a symbolic touch but is side by circumambulating lamas. These ceremonies aver- still important, and fire purification is still practiced on aged about three days but were shorter or longer the return home, before the funeral feast. Despite these depending on astrology and the survivors’ willingness or traditional features, innovations disliked by the elders are ability to pay. From the earliest years of conversion, common: coffins, covering the corpse’s face with a human sacrifice was banned, and at first the customary KHADAG (scarf), funeral cortèges, and graveside eulogies grave gifts (clothes, armor, horses, etc.) were explicitly with the corpse’s face uncovered. In remoter areas of the assigned to the lamas instead. countryside, exposure continues, with the corpse in the Burials for ordinary people were basically by expo- lion position, wrapped in a felt, and a fire lit nearby. Even sure, although with small variations, depending on astro- there, however, the custom of covering the face with a logical calculations (drenched in water, placed on a khadag has entered the customary ritual. wooden plank, etc.). Around the body the lamas erected During the 1950s and 1960s gravesites in Ulaan- poles with dartsag, or colored strips, hanging from them. baatar imitated Russian forms, with a slab, headstone, Sometimes a wind-powered prayer wheel was also and iron railings. Since the 1970s, however, the tendency erected. Upon completion of the ceremony, the mourners has been toward more natural-looking rocks, the use of and the lama left the body, which was quickly consumed traditional symbols, and the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT by dogs or wild animals. The funeral party had to return or SOYOMBO SCRIPT for the inscription. The new practice home without looking back and, if on horseback, riding of placing a small metal yurt on the gravesite curiously furiously. The mourners and the deceased’s possessions recalls the Kitan yurt-shaped coffins and urns. In 1990 were purified by waving them over a fire and/or by a spe- exposure was once again legalized, but inhumation con- cial service of the lama in the deceased’s yurt. tinues to be the regular urban practice. Grave marking is The nobility and rich had long services of up to 49 now generally a single stone with name, dates, signature, days performed for them. Noblemen were often buried in and signs of the deceased’s life, whether Buddhist, pro- a bunkhan, or small brick pyramid, sitting in an upright fessional, or the cross of the newly spreading Christian position, praying. They and noted lamas were also some- religion. times cremated. After cremation the ashes would be gath- Further reading: Caroline Humphrey, “Rituals of ered, mixed with clay, and formed into a Buddhist statue Death in Mongolia: Their Implications for Understanding or relic to be kept in a stupa. In any case, noblemen were the Mutual Constitution of Persons and Objects and Cer- always returned to their native BANNERS (appanages). The tain Concepts of Property,” Inner Asia 1 (1999): 59–86; Jibzundamba Khutugtu and other high lamas were John R. Krueger, “The Altan Saba (The Golden Vessel): A embalmed and their bodies kept in monasteries. Mongolian Lamaist Burial Manual,” Monumenta Serica 24 (1965): 207–272. MODERN FUNERARY CUSTOMS Exposure continued to be the primary method of disposal of the dead in Mongolia into the 1950s. Early in the Fuxin Mongol Autonomous County (Fuhsin, Mong- 1920s a cemetery was opened outside ULAANBAATAR at goljin) Located in northeast China’s Liaoning province, Altan-Ölgii, where GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR and other dis- the Fuxin Mongol Autonomous County had a population tinguished revolutionary figures were buried. In 1955 the of 683,672 in 1984, of which 130,303 (19 percent) were Mongolian government prohibited exposure as a “dis- Mongol. The autonomous county occupies 6,264 square gusting remnant of the past” that perpetuated Buddhist kilometers (2,419 square miles) of hilly terrain; of its influence and class distinctions. At the same time ordi- farming villages, 128 are purely Mongol. Fuxin city, a nary Mongols were limited to four cemeteries in the capi- major coal mining center, is entirely surrounded by the tal, and access to Altan-Ölgii was restricted to high autonomous county but not included in its jurisdiction. officials, labor heroes, and other worthy personages. In the early 1980s about 90 percent of the population was (Russians, Chinese, and KAZAKHS all have separate ceme- engaged in agriculture, growing sorghum, millet, and teries.) In limitation of the Russian embalming of Lenin, soybeans. the government attempted to preserve the corpse of max- Around 1600 Fuxin’s Mongol community was formed imum leader MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG after his death, but from native Uriyangkhan Mongols of the Ming dynasty’s the embalming failed. Even so, he and the exhumed THREE GUARDS and Monggoljin Mongols migrating from remains of General Sükhebaatur were housed in a the TÜMED tümen around HÖHHOT. Submitting to the QING bunkhan, or tomb, north of Sükhebaatur Square. DYNASTY in 1629, they were reorganized as Tümed Left Despite the pressure against religious beliefs in the Banner of Josotu league under a ruler descended from Communist period, the vast majority of burials then and CHINGGIS KHAN’s companion (NÖKÖR), Jelme of the now involve lamas and traditional astrological calcula- Uriyangkhan. It was popularly called Monggoljin banner. 192 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous County In 1891 Chinese sectarian and anti-Mongol rebels of the Inner Mongolia as farmworkers, bandits, Mongol doctors, Jindandao sect ravaged Monggoljin banner for 10 days, and lamas. Even today most of the lamas in Beijing’s killing up to 10,000 and forcing many more to flee. Mon- Yonghegong Temple are Monggoljin Mongols. The Chi- golian Fuxin City was founded by Chinese settlers as a nese Communists began operating in the country after coal town in Monggoljin territory in 1902. 1945. In 1953 various Mongol nationality villages were The Japanese excluded Monggoljin banner from designated, and on October 18, 1957, Fuxin county was Manchukuo’s Mongol autonomous provinces of Khing- transformed into a Mongol autonomous county. In 1984 gan established in 1932. By that time impoverished Mongols made up about 28 percent of all administrative Monggoljin emigrants, maintaining a distinctive Mongo- officials. lian-speaking farming culture, were wandering eastern See also INNER MONGOLIANS; KHARACHIN. Galdan Boshogtu Khan (b. 1644, r. 1678–1697) Zünghar ruler who challenged the Manchus for domination DAMBA KHUTUGTU G Galdan perceived the rising status of the FIRST JIBZUN- Zanabazar (1635–1723), Chakhun- of Mongolia dorji’s brother, as a threat to the Dalai Lama’s supremacy Galdan was born the son of Erdeni Baatur Khung-Taiji among the Mongols and Oirats. Since Galdan believed (d. 1653), of the Choros clan, a descendant of ESEN Taishi he himself, in his previous life as the dBen-sa sPrul-sku, (r. 1438–54). His mother, Amin-Dara, was the daughter had actually administered monastic vows to the Jibzun- of TÖRÖ-BAIKHÛ GÜÜSHI KHAN of the Khoshud. damba in 1639, such insubordination seemed particu- Galdan, the second son of Baatur and Amin-Dara, larly insulting. was early recognized as the emanation body of the Galdan brought East Turkestan under Zünghar rule Tibetan INCARNATE LAMA dBen-sa sPrul-sku, who had for the first time, bringing the oasis cities of Turpan and been active in Mongolia. In 1656 Galdan went to central Hami under tribute in 1679 and installing the exiled Tibet and became a disciple of the First Panchen Lama Khoja Afaq, head of the White Mountain branch of the (1567–1662) and then the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82). Naqshbandi Sufi (Islamic mystic) order, over the Tarim In 1666 he returned home where his brother Sengge was Basin in 1680. Like his predecessors, he maintained close ruling the Zünghar tribe. In 1670 two of Sengge’s older relations with Bukharan merchants, through which the half-brothers, dissatisfied with their inheritance, assassi- Bukharans got safe access to the Chinese and Siberian nated Sengge. Galdan renounced his vows to avenge his markets, yet Galdan regularly raided the KAZAKHS and the brother’s death and married Anu-Dara, Sengge’s previous Ferghana valley. Unlike Sengge, Galdan maintained cor- wife and the granddaughter of Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan, the dial relations with Russia. highest authority among the OIRATS. With his victory the In 1686 at Khüren-Belcheer, a meeting was called to Dalai Lama designated Galdan Khung-Taiji (Viceroy to resolve a festering conflict between the two Khalkha the Khan). In 1676, however, Galdan imprisoned Ochirtu rulers, the Tüshiyetü and Zasagtu khans. At this meeting Tsetsen Khan, and in winter 1678 the Dalai Lama the Jibzundamba Khutugtu and the Dalai Lama’s repre- bestowed on Galdan the title Boshogtu Khan (Khan with sentative occupied seats of equal height, which Galdan the Mandate). protested as an infringement of the Dalai Lama’s preroga- Galdan saw himself as the enforcer of the Dalai tives. When Chakhundorji exploited the new Zasagtu Lama’s supreme prestige among all the Mongols and Khan’s youth to delay the agreed-on resolution, the Oirats. In turn the Fifth Dalai Lama and then the Dalai young Zasagtu Khan Shara (r. 1686–88) appealed to Gal- Lama’s regent (sde-srid or sde-ba), Sangs-rgyas rGya- dan. At that point Chakhundorji invaded the Zasagtu mtsho (r. 1679–1703), supported him to the end of his Khan and killed Shara and Galdan’s brother Dorjijab. Gal- career. Both the QING DYNASTY’s Kangxi emperor dan invaded Khalkha with 30,000 men, defeating the (1662–1722) and the Khalkha’s Tüshiyetü Khan Tüshiyetü Khan’s son Galdandorji at Tömör (early July Chakhundorji (r. 1655–99), however, publicly censured 1688) and then the Tüshiyetü Khan himself at Olgoi Galdan’s overthrow of Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan. Moreover, Nuur (August 28–29, 1688). Seeing the Jibzundamba’s 193 194 Galdan-Tseren insubordination as the root of the conflict, Galdan plun- the Zünghars made peace in 1739. The Zünghars sacri- dered and burned Khalkha’s temples and images, generat- ficed Tuva and the GREAT LAKES BASIN but received the ing deep hostility. right to send commercial delegations to Beijing every four For the next year Galdan camped in Khalkha terri- years and to Chinese border towns every three years. The tory and hoped to keep the Qing Empire, now hosting Zünghars could also trade freely with Tibet and maintain scores of thousands of refugee Khalkhas, neutral. His representatives there. After the treaty Galdan-Tseren position deteriorated, however, as Sengge’s son TSEWANG- attacked first the KAZAKHS from 1740 to 1743 and then RABTAN KHUNG-TAIJI, revolted in spring–summer 1689 prepared to assault the Russian forts that had deprived and the Qing secured Russian neutrality by the Treaty of the Zünghars of their traditional Siberian tribute, but he Nerchinsk (August 29, 1689). In July 1690 Galdan died before the campaign could be completed. moved into Inner Mongolia, ostensibly to negotiate with the Qing, while the Qing hoped his approach would bring him in range of their armies. On September 3 Qing Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery (Gandantegchinlen) armies decisively defeated Galdan at Ulaan-Budung in Originally the tsanid (higher Buddhist studies) college for Kheshigten (Hexigten) banner. Meanwhile, Tsewang- the monks of Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR), Gandan- Rabtan made himself master of Züngharia. Tegchinling, or Gandan, was from 1944 to 1989 Mongo- Galdan’s only ally remained the Tibetan regent Sangs- lia’s only functioning monastery. rgyas rGya-mtsho whose intervention dissuaded the Qing The monks of a tsanid college are full-time scholars and Tsewang-Rabtan from following up on their advan- specialized according to the branch of the scriptures tage. Only in late spring 1696 did the Qing armies finally (including tantra, astrology, and medicine) that they march into Khalkha. On June 12 General Fiyangg¯u study. A tsanid datsang (college) was established by the crushed Galdan’s 10,000 remaining men at Zuunmod. SECOND JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU in 1755, but without Qing artillery fire killed Anu-Dara, and Zünghar prison- separate facilities. In 1809 a new tsanid campus was built ers revealed the Dalai Lama’s long-concealed death, shat- on a small hill to the west of Khüriye. In 1836, having tering the Tibetan regent’s authority. Galdan escaped, but ordered the entire clergy of Khüriye to move west, away his men dwindled to 400 or 500 in March 1697. By the from encroaching Chinese shops, the Fifth Jibzundamba time the Kangxi emperor personally marched out to fin- Khutugtu (1815–42) built his palace, named Gandan- ish him off, Galdan had already died of disease near the Tegchinling (Mongolian, Tegüs-Bayaskhulangtu, Com- ALTAI RANGE on April 5, 1697. Cheated of a personal vic- plete Rejoicing), just south of the tsanid college in 1838. tory, Kangxi falsified the records to make Galdan’s death a Gandan-Tegchinling also became the tsanid college’s per- suicide on May 4. manent name. In 1855, however, the Jibzundamba Further reading: Fang Chao-ying, “Galdan.” In Emi- Khutugtus with their monks moved back to their original nent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period, ed. by Arthur W. Hum- palace near the current city center. mel (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, Behind Gandan palace were four dugangs (assembly 1943), 265–268; John R. Krueger, “Three Oirat-Mongo- halls), with two larger ones built in the marquee style of lian Diplomatic Documents of 1691,” Central Asiatic Jour- the main Khüriye tsogchin (great assembly hall). The nal 12 (1969): 286–295; Hidehiro Okada, “Galdan’s temple complexes were surrounded on all sides except Death: When and How,” Memoirs of the Research Depart- for directly south by the yurt-courtyards of the tsanid ment of the Toyo Bunko 37 (1979): 91–97. scholars. From 1911 to 1913 a striking Tibetan-style tem- ple housing a 24-meter (80-foot)-high gilt-copper image of the Buddhist deity Migjid Janraisig (Eye-Opening Aval- Galdan-Tseren (Galdantsering) (r. 1727–1745) Zün- okiteshvara) was built north of the assembly halls (see ghar ruler who made peace with the Qing Empire THEOCRATIC PERIOD). With the death of his father, TSEWANG-RABTAN KHUNG- During the anti-Buddhist persecutions the temples of TAIJI (1663–1727), prince of the Zünghars, Galdan- Gandan and Khüriye were finally closed late in 1939, and Tseren executed his Torghud (Kalmyk) stepmother for the surviving buildings of Gandan were used to house the poisoning him and exiled her son Luuzang-Shonu. administration of Central province. In 1940 the Migjid Domestically, Galdan-Tseren lavishly patronized Bud- Janraisig Temple area was placed under Soviet military dhism. He also reorganized the ZÜNGHARS into 24 command and made a firing range. The image was disman- directly ruled OTOGs (camp-districts) and 21 aristocratic tled and melted down (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST). appanages, or anggis. In 1944, on Joseph Stalin’s recommendation, Mongo- In 1730 the QING DYNASTY mobilized 60,000 men and lia’s ruler, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG, reopened Gandan as built the advance fortress of KHOWD CITY. Galdan-Tseren Mongolia’s only working monastery. The original sent two armies into Khalkha, one in autumn and winter DUGANGs having been razed, the palace’s main hall 1731, with 20,000 men, and another in August 1732, became the new tsogchin dugang (great assembly hall). with 30,000 men, but both were defeated. The Qing and The temple housed many of Mongolia’s remaining Bud- Gendün 195 The Migjid Janraisig (Eye-Opening Avalokiteshvara) Temple, stupa, and sacred pole at Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) dhist treasures, including a self-portrait and a Vajradhara Gendün (Peljidiin Genden) (1895–1937) At first a by Zanabazar (1635–1723), and a 50,000-volume library. leading leftist, he became prime minister during the conser- The total number of lamas was 100, and Gandan’s abbot vative New Turn policy and was shot during Stalin’s purges. (khamba lama) became the officially approved spokesman Gendün was born in July 1895 in Üizeng Zasag banner for Mongolian Buddhism. In 1947 Mongolian scholars (Taragt Sum, South Khangai). His unwed mother’s great aided by a few Soviet advisers intervened to save the uncle, the respected “Old Tsorji” (vicar) Namjiljab Migjid Janraisig Temple from demolition, and in 1961 it (1835–c. 1935) of Arbai Kheere-yin Khüriye Monastery was made a national cultural monument. Despite city (modern Arwaikheer), raised the boy, and the banner construction, the quarters around Gandan have remained administrator tutored Gendün in Mongolian and a little occupied by the yurt-courtyards of the lamas and their Tibetan. From age 15 he began earning a living as a cara- families. (One deliberately provocative act was the estab- vaneer, hired herder, and substitute for postroad duty. In lishment of a hunting museum directly south of the 1920–21 Gendün was mobilized into the banner militia grounds.) to fight off Chinese troops. With the advent of religious freedom in 1990, Gan- Despite escapades as a rustler, from July 1922 to dan expanded to 200 monks and underwent a full-scale March 1924 Gendün took part in Üizeng banner’s new renovation. In 1997, with government and private funds, Youth League cell, its first elective government, and its a new full-scale Migjid Janraisig statue, modeled on the new party branch. In November 1924 he became a dele- old, was dedicated. gate to the First Great Khural (assembly) in Ulaanbaatar. See also LAMAS AND MONASTICISM; PALACES OF THE Impressed by such glib talk from a country delegate, BOGDA KHAN. Prime Minister TSERINDORJI and deputy party chairman Jaddamba (N. Jadamba, 1900–41) arranged Gendün’s Genden, Peljidiin See GENDÜN. election as chairman of the Little State Khural, Mongolia’s 196 Genghis Khan titular head of state. Gendün immediately moved in with plenum, Gendün was relieved of all his duties on March the late GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR’s old tutor, Jamyan (O. 20, 1936, and exiled with his family to Crimea. On July Jamyan, 1864–1930), who taught him history and litera- 17, 1937, as part of Stalin’s GREAT PURGE, he was arrested ture, while the elder statesman TSYBEN ZHAMATSARA- at Sochi and shot as a Japanese spy on November 26. NOVICH ZHAMTSARANO taught him Russian. In 1926 he See also LEFTIST PERIOD; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVO- married Donjid, daughter of a hometown WRESTLING LUTIONARY PARTY, SEVENTH CONGRESS OF; REVOLUTIONARY champion; a year later they had a daughter, G. Tserendu- PERIOD. lam. An auto accident in early 1928 left him permanently lame. Genghis Khan See CHINGGIS KHAN. Within a few years Gendün and Badarakhu (Ö. Badrakh, 1895–1941) began leading the khödöö (rural) opposition against the city-bred party leaders, demanding Georgia (Iberia) The Mongols forced the Georgian the party follow its leftist rhetoric about relying on the kingdom to pay tribute and eventually divided it in two, poor and middle-class rural masses. In September 1927 yet Georgian cavalry fought for the Mongols in all their Gendün was dropped from the party presidium and the battles in the Middle East. Little Khural, keeping only his honorary positions as On the eve of the Mongol conquest, the Georgian head of the Mongolian trade unions and chairman of the kingdom had reached the apex of its medieval power. board of the state bank. Under Queen Tamara (1184–1211/2) and her son Giorgi At the party’s Seventh Congress (autumn 1928) Lasha (1212–23), the Georgians conquered the surround- Moscow’s Communist International (Comintern) mobi- ing Turkish emirates and raided beyond Tabriz. The core lized the khödöö faction to overthrow the party chief of the Georgian army was the aznaurs, or knights, of the DAMBADORJI, and Gendün was appointed one of three landed Georgian nobility. As it expanded the Georgian new party secretaries. When, in December 1929, the kingdom came under increasing Armenian influence. Comintern demanded the party go beyond confiscating Queen Tamara’s dynasty, the Bagratid, was of Armenian the property of the aristocracy and high lamas and move origin, as was the Zakarian (Mkharghrdzeli) family of into collectivization, annihilation of the feudal classes, Iwané, her chief commander. The land reconquered by and direct attacks on religion, Gendün, unlike his fellow the Zakarian family (roughly modern Armenia and west- party secretaries Badarakhu and Shijiye (J. Shijee, ern Azerbaijan) formed an autonomous realm within the 1901–41), began to have cold feet. He was also strongly Georgian kingdom. opposed to Badarakhu’s Dörböd separatism. From 1220 to 1228 first the Mongol generals JEBE Gendün’s muted skepticism about the leftist policies and SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR and then the Qipchaq tribesmen served him well when Stalin canceled them in May–June and Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi, both fleeing from the Mon- 1932. Badarakhu and Shijiye were exiled to Moscow, while gols, repeatedly crushed Georgian armies under Iwané Gendün became prime minister. As prime minister and sacked Tiflis, Gandzak (Ganja, Gäncä), and Gendün became the strongest advocate for the New Turn Nakhichevan (Naxçıvan). In 1232 the Mongols returned policies. He declared that the party was simply the govern- to the Caucasus under CHORMAQAN. After subduing Azer- ment’s “Red Corner” (propaganda center) and that petty baijan and Greater Armenia, Chormaqan took Tiflis in persecution of the lamas was bad for the government. He 1236, while Queen Rusudani (Giorgi Lasha’s sister) fled kept defense spending moderate and adopted the slogan to K’ut’aisi. The Georgio-Armenian nobility, led by “Get rich!” (bayajigtun) for the herders. From his first Iwané’s son Awag and cousin Vahram (Waram) of Gagi summit meeting with Stalin on November 15, 1934, how- (south of Shamkhor), submitted and agreed to supply the ever, Stalin pushed him to be tougher on the lamas. Mongol army’s needs. Most onerous for the nobility were Gendün was a disciple of the lama Puntsugtsering in demands for tangsuqs, or delicacies: gold cloth, falcons, his home banner, and in 1924 he exclaimed that the Bud- hunting dogs, and fine horses. The Mongols set overseers dha and Lenin were the world’s greatest geniuses. As (DARUGHACHI) in the cities and systematically destroyed prime minister he resumed his yearly pilgrimages to his Georgian fortifications. Under Chormaqan’s successor, teacher, a gesture important in restoring the population’s BAIJU, Armenian and Georgian forces participated in the confidence, yet he was also a boorish man whose antics sack of Erzerum (1242) and the battle of Köse Da˘gı worsened when he was drunk. Stories such as that of (1243) against the Turkish sultanate of Rum (see Gendün breaking Stalin’s pipe, while often told in Mon- TURKEY). Chormaqan and his wife Elteni’s patronage of golia as heroic acts of defiance, were, in fact, episodes of the Christian church won clerical support, but the Geor- drunken buffoonery that only exposed him to ridicule. gio-Armenian nobility, despite their submission and After tension-filled meetings with Stalin in December intermarriage with the chief Mongol families, still deeply 1935 to January 1936, Gendün finally agreed to invite resented Mongol rule. Soviet troops to Mongolia. Roundly criticized for imped- Awag negotiated the submission of Queen Rusudani ing Soviet-Mongolian friendship at the next party in 1243, and shortly before her death her son David Geser 197 attended the court of BATU (d. 1255), founder of the put forward several Bagratid candidates both in K’ut’aisi Mongol GOLDEN HORDE on the Volga, and of Great Khan and in Tiflis. One Tiflis candidate, David VI (1292–1310), GÜYÜG (1246–48) in Mongolia. After the defeat of Rum, retreated to the Caucasus Mountains and sent envoys Baiju also dispatched Vahram to free David, Giorgi both to the Il-Khans and to Toqto’a Khan (1291–1312) of Lasha’s illegitimate son, from Turkish imprisonment. He, the Golden Horde; another, Wakhtang III (1301–10), loy- too, was sent on to Batu and Güyüg. Güyüg was pre- ally led the Georgian cavalry in Il-Khan’s Öljeitü’s sented with two Davids: David Narin (“the Slim,” son of (1304–17) Gilan campaign. In 1316 the commander, the queen, 1258–93), and David Ulugh (“the Big,” son of CHUBAN, of the Suldus restored Giorgi V (1316–46) to the Giorgi Lasha, 1247–69). The khan made David Ulugh the throne in Tiflis. This king, with the support of his mater- senior king, and Baiju and Vahram set him on the throne nal relatives in the Jaqeli family, reestablished the author- in Tiflis. ity of the throne. In 1330 he reunited the divided Under MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) ARGHUN AQA of the kingdom, and when the Il-Khanate broke apart in 1335, Oirat, as governor of Iran, and Najm-ud-Din, as Batu’s he made Georgia again a major power in the Caucasus. representative in the Caucasus, took a census and See also CHRISTIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; imposed the Mongols’ DECIMAL ORGANIZATION on the CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KÖSE DAG ˘ ı, BATTLE Georgians, dividing them into six tümens (each nominally OF; LESSER ARMENIA. 10,000). The qubchiri (commuted silver tax) was fixed by Further reading: Robert Bedrosian, “Armenia during decimal unit, and evasion was harshly punished. Mean- the Seljuk and Mongol Periods,” in The Armenian People while, the financial needs of Möngke’s brother HÜLE’Ü from Ancient to Modern Times, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (1256–65), founder of the Mongols’ Middle Eastern IL- (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1977), 241–272; ———, KHANATE, pushed the qubchiri to extreme levels. Uncer- Kirakos Gandzakets’i’s History of the Armenians (New tain of Hüle’ü’s attitude and denounced by the Persian tax York: Sources of the Armenian Tradition, 1986); Robert F. farmer Khoja ‘Aziz for withholding back taxes, both Blake and Richard N. Frye, “History of the Nation of the Davids sooner or later fled to K’ut’aisi. Only in November Archers (the Mongols),” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 1262, with the execution of Khoja ‘Aziz, did David Ulugh 12 (1949): 269–399. return to Tiflis. As David Narin remained in K’ut’aisi, the kingdom was now divided. Geser The Geser epic (in Tibetan Ge-sar), originally of The appanage of Batu had long included Iran and the Tibetan origin, became widespread among the Mongolian Caucasus, and in 1251 Möngke Khan assigned Georgia to peoples. Particularly among the Buriat Mongols, it has Batu’s brother Berke (1257–66). Berke did not nomadize become a repository of native religious ideas and identity. in Georgia, but several Golden Horde princes accompa- The Geser epic is episodic in structure and in some nying Hüle’ü campaigns settled in the steppes of Azerbai- of its many versions can contain hundreds of episodes. jan and harassed the inhabitants, particularly the The main episodes of most Tibetan and Mongolian Geser monasteries. The Georgians and Armenians thus wel- versions tell of a god who is born to be a hero to suppress comed Hüle’ü’s suppression of their armies in 1262. disorders arising throughout the world. At first he is Joru Berke’s subsequent invasion and sack of Tiflis in 1266 (Tibetan, Byi-ru), a snotty-nosed boy although possessing only confirmed the Georgian preference for the IL- hidden supernatural powers. Geser comes into his own as KHANATE over Berke’s Golden Horde. a hero by defeating his wicked uncle Chotong (Tibetan, After 1262 David Narin in K’ut’aisi paid nominal Khro-thung) in a horse race and winning Rogmo the Fair homage to the Il-Khans, while David Ulugh in Tiflis was (Tibetan, ’Brug-mo) as his wife. An evil monster reduced to a minor governor. The sons and younger (Emperor of the Dragons in Tibetan, a 12-headed north- brothers of the nobles were taken into the KESHIG (impe- ern monster in Mongolian) steals another of Geser’s wives rial guard) partly as hostages and partly as hard-fighting (Me-bza’ ’Bum-skyid in Tibetan, translated as Tümen-Jir- ba’aturs (heroes) who participated in every major cam- galang in Mongolian). Geser fights to regain her and suc- paign of the Il-Khans. Like other Christian officials of the ceeds, but she drugs him into forgetting to return home. Il-Khanate, David Ulugh’s son Dmitri (1273–89) became While he is away, three kings (either of Hor/Mongols in a partisan of BUQA, vizier of Arghun Khan (1284–91), and the Tibetan versions or of Sharaigol/Yogurs in the Mongo- was executed in Buqa’s fall in 1289. GHAZAN KHAN’s con- lian versions) steal Rogmo, and Geser has to be recalled version to Islam (1295–1304) initially resulted in much to fight them. Geser also makes a peaceful trip to China destruction of churches, but he later repudiated this pol- and with his cleverness and magical powers wins the icy; even Christian monks lauded him for his reform of emperor’s daughter. Finally, Geser descends to fight the rampant abuses in Mongol administration. lord of hell and free his mother from torment there. The execution of King Dmitri in 1289 and the death Geser fights his battles with a mixture of supernatural of his uncle David Narin in 1293 opened a period of dis- might, transformations, magic weapons, and much low integration in the Georgian kingdom. The Mongols and cunning. He is also assisted by companions and his elder the powerful Jaqeli family in Samtzkhé (around Artvin) brother, who remains in heaven. 198 Ghazan Khan The earliest traces of the Geser epic are attested to in monster disguised as an INCARNATE LAMA. Rescued by one the songs of the Tibetan yogi and poet Mi-la-ras-pa of his wives, Geser tricks the monster into entering a (Milarepa, 1040–1123), which mention “Geser of flammable meditation chamber and burns him alive. Phrom,” which has been explained as “Caesar of Rome.” Buriat Mongol versions of the epic, called Abai Geser Today Geser is called in Tibetan versions “Geser of (Worthy Geser) or Abai Geser Khübüün (Worthy Boy Gling,” a principality in eastern Tibet (near modern Geser), chanted by epic singers, have abandoned the Dêgê), and the Tibetan Geser shows a basically eastern Buddhist environment entirely. All begin with a conflict Tibetan geography. The traditional rulers of Gling consid- in heaven between the 55 white gods in the west and the ered themselves descendants of Geser’s half-brother. In 44 red gods in the east. Geser, as one of the western gods, any case, the current form of the Geser episodes is pri- assists their struggle, but when the flesh of the defeated marily governed by widespread folkloric motifs, religious eastern chieftain is flung to earth, its stink causes all beliefs and practices, and the demands of an exciting nar- manner of evil; to subdue these evils Geser volunteers to rative, rather than any historical background. be born on earth. Both the hunt and the ANDA QUDA The Tibetan Geser tales are sung by bards who are (blood brother and marriage ally) relations figure promi- believed to be possessed by the spirit of Geser. A typical nently. While in most versions the names and episodes of performance of the epic, undertaken over several days, the Tibetan and literary Mongolian Geser can be seen, includes short prose narratives linking 50 to 100 songs, however faintly, in that sung by Manshud Imegenov each with about 100 lines on average. New episodes are (1849–1908) in 1906 for the folklorist TSYBEN ZHAMAT- interpreted as newly recovered memories of a previous SARANOVICH ZHAMTSARANO, the original Tibetan elements life in which the bard was a companion of Geser. While have almost completely disappeared. written versions exist, they are definitely secondary to the Consonant with his role as a minor god protecting oral versions. Among the Mongols, however, the prose Buddhism, Geser was the object of an active cult. The written versions formed the basis for the versions sung by QING DYNASTY rulers identified Geser with Guan Yu, the minstrels, such as Pajai (1902–62) of the Jarud. Yet the hero of the Chinese historical romance Three Kingdoms, Geser narrative was also taken up by true epic poets and under this form they patronized his cult as an exem- among the Oirat and Buriat Mongols (see below). plar of martial loyalty. Mongolian prayers to Geser show Fragments of Mongolian Geser texts survive from at him as a typical mounted protector deity, defending least the early 17th century. The “classic” Mongolian herds, suppressing demons, and bringing success in war, Geser, similar but not identical to any Tibetan original, hunting, and athletic contests. was block printed in Beijing in 1716, with nine chapters Geser has been one of the chief topics of investiga- mostly in prose with short versified passages. Other tion by Buriat, Mongolian, and Inner Mongolian folk- manuscripts with texts more or less parallel to the Beijing lorists, such as Zhamtsarano and BYAMBYN RINCHEN. block print also contain up to six additional episodes. Among the BURIATS the Abai Geser epic was criticized in The written Ling Geser text, by contrast, is a direct Mon- the late Stalin era, like all non-Russian martial heroes, for golian translation of a Tibetan Geser of Gling tale. its supposedly feudal character. Since 1990 Geser has The Geser epic in both Tibet and at least at first in become a key plank in Buriat national identity. This Mongolia was associated with Buddhist beliefs not of the politicization has popularized academically insupportable dominant dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) order, but of the ideas, such as that Geser began among the Buriats around “Old Order” (rNying-ma-pa) of married Tibetan lamas. 1000 and that the Manshud Imegenov version represents While born by a decree of Shakyamuni Buddha, Geser is the original, “pre-Buddhist” form. an incarnation in the Mongolian version of the god Indra See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; TIBETAN CULTURE IN (Mongolian, Khormusta Tngri), and his role is not to MONGOLIA; TSAM. teach enlightenment but to destroy the enemies of good, Further reading: Bayir Dugarov, “Geser Boyda-yin an important, although secondary, task. The Nomchi Sang: A Little-Known Buryat-Mongolian Sutra.” In Writ- Khatun Geser text appends a story of how the Dalai ing in the Altaic World, ed. Juha Janhunen and Volker Lama, contemplating the disorder of the world, has a Rybatzki (Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society, 1999), vision of Geser, who gives him instructions on how to 49–61; Robin Kornman, “Geser of Ling.” Religions of build merit and asks that he circulate these instructions Tibet in Practice, ed. Donald S. Lopez, Jr. (Princeton, N.J.: throughout the world. Even so, the popularity of the Princeton University Press), 39–68. Geser epic offended the stricter adherents of dGe-lugs-pa Buddhism; ordered by the emperor Qianlong to compose a prayer for Geser, a dGe-lugs-pahierarch sourly com- Ghazan Khan (b. 1271, r. 1295–1304) Mongol khan plained that most hold “an inhuman bully [i.e., Geser] as who converted the Middle Eastern Il-Khanate to Islam and a savior better than the lama.” Many of the stories in the undertook comprehensive reforms of Mongol administration Beijing block print have a distinctly anticlerical edge, Born on November 4, 1271, Ghazan was the son of such as that in which Geser is turned into a donkey by a Arghun, then crown prince and viceroy in Khorasan goats 199 (eastern Iran) for Abagha Khan (1271–82). From his such as Nawroz and Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani (d. 1298), but fourth year Abagha Khan took over his grandson’s educa- later he carefully weeded out suspicious officials. By 1298 tion, placing him in the ORDO (palace-tent) of his child- only his long-time Khorasanian entourage controlled the less senior wife, Bulughan Khatun (d. 1286) of the government: Qutlughshah as beglerbegi, Sa‘d-ud-Din Baya’ud and having a Chinese Buddhist monk teach him Savaji as vizier, with the assistance of RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL- Mongolian and Uighur scripts and Buddhism. After ULLAH (1247–1318), and Nurin Aqa guarding Khorasan Abagha’s death Bulughan Khatun and Arghun married with Ghazan’s half-brother Kharbanda (1281–1316). while wintering in Baghdad in 1282–83; Bulughan’s ordo By 1298 Ghazan’s attachment to Islam had become moved to Khorasan with Ghazan. Arghun became khan deep and personal. He dreamed of angels and of Ali, feel- in 1284 and left with Bulughan Khatun for Azerbaijan, ing special kinship with Muhammad’s family. While pro- leaving Ghazan in Khorasan as titular viceroy. Later, after hibiting the restoration of his father’s ruined memorial Bulughan Khatun died, Arghun had her ordo with its trea- Buddhist chapel, he honored his ancestors’ pre-Buddhist suries sealed in trust for Ghazan. worship of heaven as a kind of proto-Islamic monothe- As an adult Ghazan was both sickly and unusually ism. Ghazan also soon saw the political necessity of slight and ugly. While he hunted like other Mongol respecting the religion of the IL-KHANATE’s Georgian and princes, his favorite hobby was practicing handicrafts. Lesser Armenian client kings. From spring 1296 he Although the exclusively Islamic culture of Khorasan had renewed the traditional privileges of the Christian permeated local Mongol life, Ghazan built a major Bud- churches and cracked down on anti-Christian pogroms, dhist temple at Khabushan (modern Quchan). Despite eventually becoming friendly with the Assyrian catholi- these disadvantages, Ghazan built up in Khorasan a loyal cos (patriarch) MAR YAHBH-ALLAHA. entourage of Mongol commanders (NOYAN) such as Qut- Ghazan invaded Mamluk-held Syria three times, in lughshah (d. 1307) of the Mang’ud, Nurin Aqa (Elder) of 1299–1300, 1300–01, and 1303. Ghazan’s decisive vic- the Yürkin (d. 1303), and the Persian administrator Sa‘d- tory near Homs (December 22, 1299), in which he had ud-Din Savaji (d. 1312). In 1289 NAWROZ (d. 1297), showed great personal courage, had broken the string of scion of the chief Mongol family in Khorasan, rebelled. Mamluk victories, yet he lacked sufficient troops to ade- When Arghun Khan was murdered in 1291, renewed quately garrison Syria. After the last campaign, in which invasions by Nawroz, rebellion in Nishapur city, and Qutlughshah allowed the Mongol army to be defeated at famine in Khorasan kept Ghazan from pressing his claims Marj al-Suffar, south of Damascus (April 30, 1303), in the capital and avenging his father. By 1292 the new Ghazan ordered his beglerbegi beaten at court. khan, Ghazan’s uncle Geikhatu, had taken over most of Rashid-ud-Din’s COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES (Jami‘al- Arghun’s wives and ordos. In autumn and winter 1294–25 tawarikh) gives an extensive record of Ghazan Khan’s Nishapur and Nawroz, both exhausted by war, negotiated reforms. The continued political crisis, aggravated by the their surrenders. When Geikhatu was overthrown in Eurasian silver shortage of the 1280s and 1290s, had March 1295, Ghazan was finally free to pursue his claim emptied the Il-Khanate treasury. Ghazan Khan under- to his father’s wives, ordos, and throne. stood that being the openhanded khan of Turco-Mongol In seizing the throne, Ghazan followed the guidance ideals paradoxically required strict attention to imperial of the newly submitted Nawroz, making a rapid march to finances. From around 1300 he planned a comprehensive surprise the rival khan Baidu at Qongghor-Ölöng (near reform of Mongol administration, aiming to replace the Soltaniyeh). A thunderstorm disrupted Ghazan’s planned anarchy of PAIZA (badges) with a regulated system of taxa- night attack, however, and on May 23, outnumbered by tion. He also unified weights, measures, and coinage. The Baidu’s columns, Ghazan withdrew on Baidu’s promise to abolition of the ORTOQ system followed Islamic precepts divide the kingdom and return to Ghazan all of Arghun’s and buttressed the authority of the traditional Muslim ordos. At this point Nawroz, himself a dedicated Muslim, administrative-landlord ruling class. convinced Ghazan that he ought to accept Islam. Ghazan In his final illness he made his brother Kharbanda his and all his army formally converted in a joyous public heir. After Ghazan’s death on May 17, 1304, Kharbanda ceremony near Rayy (June 17). After keeping the (known as Sultan Öljeitü, 1304–16) retained Ghazan’s Ramadan fast, Ghazan advanced again in September. personnel and policies with little change. Nawroz’s diplomacy bore fruit when TA’ACHAR, Baidu’s Further reading: Charles Melville, “Padshah-i Islam: disgruntled beglerbegi (commander in chief), deserted. The Conversion of Sultan Mahmud Ghazan Khan,” Pem- Ghazan entered Tabriz victoriously on October 4 and broke Papers 1 (1990): 159–177. recovered his old ordos and Abagha’s wives. (One of these new wives, the younger Bulughan Khatun of the QONGGI- RAD, later bore him his only two children, a son who died goats Goats have traditionally been the least valued of in infancy, and a daughter.) On October 19 he ordered the Mongols’ five kinds of livestock, used mostly for the destruction of all churches, synagogues, and Buddhist meat, milk, skins, and hair, but not as valued as other temples. At first Ghazan Khan elevated recent adherents, livestock. The international market for CASHMERE caused 200 Gobi Desert a boom in goat populations through the 1990s. In the five kinds of livestock. This number rose to 13,709,000, year 2000 Mongolia had 10,269,800 goats. Mongolian or 34 percent, in 1965. For the next two decades the goats are herded along with sheep and have traditionally number of goats was generally fewer than 10 million. By been counted together with them. Goats and sheep are 1990 it had risen to 12,209,000, or 27 percent, of live- milked around the same time in May–June. Most male stock. sheep and goats are castrated, and the testicles are, unlike See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; DAIRY those of large animals, eaten. PRODUCTS; FOOD AND DRINK. When goats were first distinguished from sheep in Mongolian censuses in 1929, they numbered 3,339,300, or 15 percent of Mongolia’s total livestock. The number Gobi Desert Gobi (Cyrillic, gowi) in Mongolian refers of goats reached 5,631,300, or 24 percent, in 1960. Dur- to gravelly or sandy desert, drier than the grassy steppe ing the collectivization era the numbers were usually and uninhabited by marmots but still with some vegeta- fewer than 5 million, or about 20 percent, despite the cre- tion and human habitation. (Totally uninhabited land is ation of a cashmere industry in Mongolia. In 1990 the called tsöl.) The Gobi Desert occupies roughly the south- number was 5,125,700, or 19.8 percent of total. With the ern third of Mongolia proper, and while the term is not so opening of the Mongolian economy, the cashmere market commonly used in Chinese geographical classification, it boomed. The total number of goats swelled to also includes the land along China’s northern border from 11,033,900, or almost 37 percent, in 1999. The ZUD of Sönid Left Banner (Sonid Zuoqi) in Inner Mongolia to 2000 checked the rise in these numbers. Goats are partic- Barköl in Xinjiang. The Gobi Desert occupies about ularly numerous in the drier western and southwestern 775,000 square kilometers (300,000 square miles), or provinces, such as GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE, BAYANKHONGOR about 1 million square kilometers (390,000 square miles) PROVINCE, SOUTH GOBI PROVINCE, and KHOWD PROVINCE. if the mostly tsöl-deserts of ALASHAN are included. In Inner Mongolia goats numbered 2,282,000 in The Gobi is a mostly level plain 700–1,600 meters 1947, or 28 percent of the total number of the traditional (2,300–5,250 feet) above sea level and entirely enclosed Gobi landscape, east of Sainshand, 1992 (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) Golden Horde 201 within the Central Asian inland drainage basin. Annual tively few, but the province has some of Mongolia’s largest precipitation is generally less than 150 millimeters (6 herds of camels (31,800 head), sheep (847,600), and inches), and average temperatures range from 25°C especially CASHMERE-producing goats (1,003,800). In the (77°F) in July to –15° to –20°C (5° to –4°F) in January. year 2000 18,000 people lived in the capital, Altai (previ- Strong winds in the spring and fall create powerful dust ously named Yisünbulag). storms. The core of the Gobi along southern Mongolia See also SHARAB, “BUSYBODY.” and Urad and northern Alashan banners is gravelly with scattered thickets of deep-rooted xerophytic trees and Gobi-Sümber province See CHOIR CITY. bushes such as saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron), Reau- muria soongarica, and Ephedra przewalskii. To the north and east there are zones first of Gobi feather grass (Stipa Go-dan See KÖTEN. glareosa) and grey sagebrush (Artemisia xerophytica), and then of steppe needle grass (Stipa krylovii) and pasture Golden Horde (Qipchaq Khanate, Ulus of Jochi) The sage (Artemisia frigida; Mongolian agi), and finally gen- Golden Horde, founded by CHINGGIS KHAN’s eldest son, uine steppe. The Gobi zone south of the ALTAI RANGE is Jochi, unified for the first time the lands around the called the Trans-Altai Gobi. Kazakh, Caspian, and Black Sea steppes. Successors to Gobi herding emphasizes meat and semi-finehaired the Golden Horde ruled under Russian sovereignty into sheep, goats, and two-hump camels. The desert’s few the 20th century. The name Golden Horde derives from towns are mostly small administrative and retail trade the gold-hung palace-tent (horda or ORDO) at which centers; Sainshand and Saikhan Tal along the TRANS-MON- ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) received visitors. When Russian GOLIAN RAILWAY and the mining town of Bayan Oboo are chronicles mentioned “going to the Horde,” horde was the only ones with populations more than 20,000. being used in its proper sense of a nomadic palace, not See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; the later European sense of a mass of people. As the BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE; CLIMATE; EAST GOBI PROVINCE; realm disintegrated, the chroniclers referred to other ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FAUNA; FLORA; GOBI-ALTAI ordos at the center of splinter regimes: the BLUE HORDE, PROVINCE; KHOWD PROVINCE; MIDDLE GOBI PROVINCE; MIN- the Volga Horde, the Great Horde, and so on. Implicitly, ING; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU; SHILIIN GOL; SOUTH GOBI the palace-tent stood for the people gathered around their PROVINCE; ULAANCHAB. ruler. Not until the 16th century, however, did Russian Further reading: John Man, Gobi: Tracking the Desert chroniclers begin explicitly using Golden Horde to desig- (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997). nate this Mongol successor state. Persian sources of the 13th and 14th centuries, undoubtedly reflecting Mongol usage, spoke either geographically of the Dasht-i Qifchaq, Gobi-Altai province (Govi-Altai, Gov’-Altaj) Origi- “Qipchaq Steppe” (see QIPCHAQS) or dynastically of the nally named Altai province, Gobi-Altai was one of the “ulus (realm) of JOCHI,” Chinggis Khan’s eldest son and original provinces created in Mongolia’s 1931 administra- ancestor of its khans. tive reorganization. Lying in southwestern Mongolia, all of its territory was included in KHALKHA Mongolia’s pre- FORMATION OF THE DYNASTY revolutionary Zasagtu Khan province. It has a long The Golden Horde, originally the ulus, or people, of Jochi boundary with the desert areas of Gansu and Xinjiang in (d. 1225?), emerged as a separate entity earlier than any China. The province’s area of 141,400 square kilometers other of the successor states of the MONGOL EMPIRE. The (54,600 square miles) is, as its name suggests, mostly family’s early separatist tendency reflected Jochi’s alien- gobi (habitable desert) or true desert (tsöl) and is tra- ation from his father, Chinggis Khan (Genghis, 1206–27). versed from east to west by the eastern ALTAI RANGE’s par- Jochi’s successor, BATU (d. 1255?), was an immense dis- allel ranges. The area north of the Altai is part of the tance from Mongolia and suffered from gout and a repu- GREAT LAKES BASIN between the KHANGAI RANGE and Altai tation as a coward. As a result, he preferred to defend his range. That south of the Altai is part of Mongolia’s driest autonomy rather than compete for rule in Mongolia. and hottest southern zone. Here the area’s Great Gobi Perhaps in compensation for passing him over as Nature Preserves protect much of Mongolia’s rarest heir, Chinggis Khan’s original grant to his eldest son Jochi wildlife: the argali sheep, the snow leopard, the wild was exceptionally generous. Starting from the Chu River camel, the Gobi bear, and the newly reintroduced Prze- and KHORAZM, by 1242 it extended west to the Danube walskii’s horse (see ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION). Gobi- and north to the Arctic. Under the appanage system Jochi Altai’s population of 41,000 in 1956 had grown to 63,600 and his descendants were also assigned shares in the in 2000, but still slightly less than one person inhabits sedentary cities: Pingyang (modern Linfen), Zhending, every two square kilometers (0.77 square miles). Gobi- and Jinzhou (modern Jinxian) in North China, 5,000 Altai is one of Mongolia’s major pastoral provinces, with households in Bukhara, and so on. (Other princes, 2,035,100 head of livestock. Cattle and horses are rela- though, also had shares in Jochid cities such as Khorazm 202 Golden Horde and the CRIMEA.) Finally, under Chinggis Khan’s son envoys, Berke sent an army through Bulgaria effecting the ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), the Jochids exercised certain release of the envoys and forcing Byzantium’s adherence rights in the Middle East: the right to nominate the gov- to the new alliance. A second invasion in summer 1265 ernors from their own retainers, the right to receive first broke through Derbent but withdrew after Berke’s death tribute from the client kings, and the right to a fifth share in Tiflis. of all war booty. Berke’s expansive interpretation of Jochid rights also After Ögedei’s death, however, the Jochids’ rights in generated hostility in the east. In 1259 the Muslim elite the Middle East were curtailed. The regent, TÖREGENE and the Jochid retainers in Bukhara attempted to declare (1242–46), and her son GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48) Berke sovereign there, leading Alghu Khan (1260–65/6) appointed ARGHUN AQA and Eljigidei as governor and of the Chaghatayid dynasty to smash the Jochids’ Bukha- commander there, respectively. Eljigidei’s son had earlier ran appanage before invading Jochid territory in Kho- joined a group of young princes, including Güyüg him- razam and Otrar. Alghu’s successor, Baraq (1266–71), self, in publicly ridiculing Batu’s battlefield ineptitude. continued the northward pressure on the Jochids’ eastern Batu had his revenge when he skillfully arranged the domains. coronation of MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59), from the family Faced with a two-front war, Berke’s successor, a of Chinggis’s youngest son, Tolui. Batu’s surviving tor- grandson of Batu, Mengü-Temür (Möngke-Temür, mentors were all executed, and Möngke explicitly 1267–80) had to call a truce with the Il-Khans before assigned GEORGIA in the Caucasus to Batu’s brother Berke. sending an army of 50,000 under Jochi’s son Berkecher to In his own Qipchaq steppe, Batu was almost completely push Baraq south. Letters sent to Egypt demonstrate that autonomous, and Arghun Aqa personally visited Batu’s Mengü-Temür had not abandoned hope of recovering ordo several times to consult with him. Azerbaijan. In 1269, with Baraq suitably chastened, At this point Möngke mobilized a vast campaign in Mengü-Temür formed a grand alliance of the Jochids, the Middle East under his brother HÜLE’Ü (1217–65). For Chaghatayids, and Ögedeids aimed at attacking the the first time a prince, not just a non-Chinggisid NOYAN, Toluid states, especially the Il-Khanate. would be operating in the Jochid preserve west of the Amu Dar’ya. Möngke ordered princes from every branch TRIBAL STRUCTURE to participate, and several Jochid princes—Quli, Balaqan, The core of the Golden Horde was the vast steppe Dutar, and others—participated. Despite their participa- stretching from the Irtysh in the east to the Danube in the tion, Hüle’ü soon held all real power south of the Cauca- west. Jochi and his wives proved sufficiently fertile to fill sus, and did not send the accustomed portion of booty to this vast steppe. Jochi’s sons, 14 of whom are known by Batu’s successor Berke. Hüle’ü had Balaqan and/or Dutar name, divided the steppe into longitudinal strips, and their attendant shamans (bö’e) executed for sorcery nomadizing north to south along the main rivers, often in February 1260. The suspicious death of Quli sent the with hundreds of kilometers between summer and winter Jochid princes’ entourage into panic. Some fled to the camps. Despite Berke’s temporary assignment to Georgia, Qipchaq steppe, some to Egypt, and some joined no Jochid princes ever settled permanently south of the Negüder, a Jochid retainer in southern Afghanistan, who Caucasus, the Aral Sea, or the Syr Dar’ya. had been challenging Hüle’ü’s authority in Herat (see The steppe was divided between the princes of the QARA’UNAS). right (i.e., western) hand and the left (i.e., eastern) hand. During the first years of Hüle’ü’s expedition, first Jochi was succeeded not by his oldest son, Hordu, but by Batu, then Batu’s son Sartaq, and finally Sartaq’s boy his second son, Batu. Batu thus headed the right-hand Ula’achi (Ulaghchi) had died within two years (1255–57). princes, while Hordu headed the left-hand princes. Right- As a result, Batu’s brother Berke succeeded him. While hand prince Shiban’s appanage, from the Ural and Irgiz Sartaq and his son had been Christians, Berke was a Mus- valleys through the desert north of the Aral Sea and along lim, and his accession added a religious element to the the Syr Dar’ya to the Sarysu-Chu confluence, marked the developing Jochid-Hüle’üid feud. Christians believed border of the two halves. All the Golden Horde’s urban Berke had poisoned Sartaq and Ula’achi, while Muslims centers fell to the princes of the right hand. hoped Berke would oppose war on Muslims. Now, While RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH’s list of the four although the late Jochid princes had all played their part 1,000s assigned by Chinggis to Jochi—the Sanchi’ud, in the destruction of the caliphate, Berke suddenly Keniges, Üüshin, and Je’üred clans—has often been taken expressed his anger at Hüle’ü’s sack of Baghdad. In as the total number of Mongols in the Golden Horde, this autumn 1262 Berke invaded the IL-KHANATE. This incon- is clearly not so. The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS says clusive campaign marked the first battle between Mongol Jochi’s ulus had eight 1,000s, and Vassaf states that on regional powers. Stymied by his failure, Berke sought a Jochi’s death his army was divided between Batu and joint attack with Sultan Baybars (1260–77) of MAMLUK Hordu, with each receiving a tümen (nominally 10,000). EGYPT, thus allying with a non-Mongol against a Mongol Moreover, several other Mongol clans existed in the relative. When the Byzantine Empire detained Egyptian Golden Horde. Around 1300 troops and/or commanders Golden Horde 203 GHARS had built an Islamic urban civilization on the export of grain, honey, furs, slaves, and transit trade between Khorazm and the Baltic. Competing with Bul- ghar for control over the fur trade and the Volga were the Russians (including at this time the Ukrainians and Belarussians) with a rich yet insular Christian civiliza- tion. Russia’s largest city, Novgorod, was important for the Golden Horde as its only outlet to the Baltic Sea trade. The Golden Horde also contained a number of tribal peoples in the Caucasus and the Volga watershed. Cen- tered in the Caucasus foothills, but also found in pockets throughout the steppe from the Volga to the Prut, were the OSSETES (Alans), while the Circassians (Cherkes) occupied the Kuban Basin and neighboring Caucasus foothills. Both Eastern Orthodox in religion, neither was Saddle arch of gilt silver, from Ternenis village, near ever fully subdued by the Mongols. In the middle Volga, Melitopol’. The rabbit may refer to the rider’s year of birth in squeezed between the Bulghars, the Russians, and the the 12-animal cycle. Gold saddle arches with dragons (a sign of royalty) have been found in Yuan-era tombs of Inner Qipchaq steppe, were the Mordvins (including the Mok- Mongolia. (Courtesy State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg) sha), speaking a language related to Finnish and Esto- nian, and the Burtas, a Turkicized body of Ossetes. East of the Urals were the Bashkirs (Bashkort), who through the 13th century retained both the language of, and (noyan) of the Sanchi’ud, Üüshin, Je’üred, QONGGIRAD, sense of kinship with, the Hungarians. Northeast of and ÖNGGÜD clans and a tümen of the Qiyat (Kiyad) clan them were Samoyeds. The Mongols put all of these served the princes of the right hand, while noyans of the northern peoples, including the Russians and Bulghars, Keniges, Qonggirad, Jajirad, Besüd, and Arghun (a to the fur tribute. branch of the Önggüd) clans and four tümens of JALAYIR On the steppe itself the khans established several led by OIRAT noyans served the princes of the left hand. towns. By 1255 Batu had founded the new settlements of Little is known about the clans’ regional distribution, Saray (Selitrënnoye, north of Astrakhan) and Ügek although the Qonggirads and the Önggüd nomadized (Uvek, south of Saratov) at the southern and northern around Khorazm in modern Karakalpakstan. limits of his migrations. In the 14th century new cities The Franciscan friar WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK’s account flourished under sultans ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) and suggests a substantial depopulation of the native Janibeg (1342–57) on the Volga (Astrakhan, Beliamen, Qipchaqs, particularly in the west, while the glut of and the new capital, New Saray), the Kuma (Majar), the Qipchaq slaves in the Black Sea ports shows that much of Ural (Saraychik), and the Dniester (Aq-Kerman, modern the surviving population was enslaved, losing any previ- Bilhorod-Dnistrovs’kyy). The khans remained nomadic, ous clan structure. From 1400 a so-called Qipchaq clan however; Özbeg wintered near Saray and summered appeared in the Blue Horde and its successors indicating either at Bish-Dagh (Pyatigorsk) near Majar or in the that previous subtribal affiliations had been forgotten. southern Urals. The disappearance of preconquest leading CLAN NAMES, FOREIGN RELATIONS such as Ölberi and Terteroba, shows the “detribalization” inflicted on the subjugated Qipchaqs. A constant of Golden Horde foreign policy was hostility to the Il-Khans. While some rulers did not actively pur- ETHNIC GEOGRAPHY sue their claims beyond the Caucasus, none, except pos- Around the Golden Horde’s steppe core were several sibly Toqto’a (1291–1312), ever considered abandoning sedentary civilizations. To the southeast was Khorazm them. Ultimately, Sultan Özbeg’s sons and grandson pur- and its capital, Urganch, a Turkic-speaking Muslim land sued this claim to ultimate success by occupying Tabriz, based on irrigation agriculture with a long tradition of in modern Iran, in 1357–59, although they could not scholarship and trade between the Volga and Central hold on to their conquest. To outflank the Il-Khans, the Asia. The smaller cities along the Syr Dar’ya were similar Golden Horde maintained the Egyptian alliance begun by in culture. In the southwest the port cities of CRIMEA, Berke and Baybars. Although the alliance never produced inhabited by Goths, Greeks, Armenians, Anatolian Turks, the hoped-for military benefits, it did play a substantial and (after 1204) Italians, thrived on the export of grain, role in the cultural and religious life of the Horde. Geog- fish, honey, and slaves and the import of silver and luxu- raphy dictated that this alliance needed the Byzantine ries for the khans. At the Volga-Kama confluence the BUL- Empire as a third partner, and keeping Byzantium in line The Golden Horde under Özbeg Khan, 1313–1341 Golden Horde SWEDEN Finns Mekrin Tribal entity (to Sweden) Battles Ch Capitals Baltic Sea ud Samoyeds 0 300 miles Riga Zyryans TS 0 300 km GH Pskov (Komi) I Novgorod TEU TONIC KN Beloozero Vologda Ustyug Ugrians Torzhok (Khanty and Mansi) POLAND Polatsk LITHUANIA Tver’ Yaroslavl’ Cracow Smolensk Sandomierz Pinsk Rostov Mozhaysk Moscow Suzdal’ Ob Vladimir R. Oka R Volodymyr Kaluga . Nizhniy-Novgorod Sibir’ C Kozel'sk Ryazan’ Murom Tula ar p Halych Kazan’ Tyumen M t s. a Chernihiv n Kiev Mo Mordva ari thia Kulikovo Pole ks Bulghar . Ba l ha Dn Pereyeslavl HUN ol R n M t s. Burtas Tob R. GAR iestr R. Bashkir r a Y im Ish R. Irt U a Te ys Aq-Kerman . Ügek Volg h V lac h s l epr R U r a l R. en R. IA Dni gi R t LGA BU Kalka River Beliamen R. New Saray C R IM EA Qirim Azaq on D B L U E H O R D E (Tana) Constantinople Sudak Caffa I rg i z R Saray Saraychiq . Black . Ci . uR ys rca Astrakhan b aR Sea ar S ssi an Majar Kuma Em Aral Kara Kum Sinop s R. ( uni nhabi ted) L.Balkhash ish-Dagh Bish-Dagh Ter ek Osset es R. Bolat Qayaligh Aral Chu R. Almaligh Tiflis Sea Sy . Konya Erzerum rD Il i R GEORGIA ar Sighnaq ’ya (to Il-khans) Derbent Caspian Kungrad R. E Sea Urganch Ky z y l Ku m Otrar T . Talas A Ysyk-Köl ts Manghit Z M ( uni nhabi ted) N M A Sayram A IL OR Kat KH n -KH KH ha Eup hr A N AT E Khiva TAY n s Kara Kum C H A G H A Tia ate Tabriz ( uni nhabi ted) Bukhara Samarqand s R. Pamirs Golden Horde 205 necessitated land access to Constantinople, which in turn however, the Horde ruled directly. Mongol and Kho- necessitated control over Bulgaria. From Berke to Özbeg razmian noyans served as darughas, in effect governors, these requirements were more or less maintained. overseeing a staff of secretaries, customs agents, Eastward, the Golden Horde’s primary interest lay in “weighers” (customs assessors), and bazarde-tarkhans, or thwarting the Chaghatayids’ ambitions toward Khorazm market inspectors. and the Syr Dar’ya cities. From 1269 to 1284 the khans pursued this aim by encouraging QAIDU and the ECONOMY Chaghatayids’ ambitions to the south and east. From Caravan trade was the foundation of the Golden Horde’s 1284, however, the Golden Horde became wary of state finances. MUHAMMAD ABU ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA in Qaidu’s expansion and opened friendly relations with the 1332 remarked on the immensely profitable trade of YUAN DYNASTY. horses from the Black Sea steppe via Khorazm to India. Central Europe impinged on the Golden Horde pri- Furs, falcons, and slaves traveled the same route. Transit marily as a source of instability among the Russian prin- trade from China and India also passed through Khorazm cipalities. Local Jochid princes and noyans met Lithuanian to Saray and thence to Crimea. Trade from the Middle and Polish raids on southwestern Russian towns (modern East and Central Asia to Russia and the Baltic Sea passed western Ukraine) with counterraids, which were, how- along the Volga, while Persian authors describe caravans ever, often as damaging to the local Russians through passing south through Derbent into Azerbaijan during whom the Mongol soldiers passed as to the Poles or years of peace. The Horde’s Mediterranean exports, Lithuanians. notably slaves, furs, and falcons, moved out through Crimea and Azaq (Azov). This trade was taxed through ADMINISTRATION the Tamagha (Russian, tamga), or commercial tolls, col- Little is known of the Golden Horde’s formal court orga- lected in all major cities. nization. The rulers bore the title qan, “khan,” not qa’an, The principal import was metals, particularly silver. “great khan,” but were otherwise fully sovereign (see In the 1240s and 1250s the steppe and Russian KHAN). JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI stated that Batu had economies were not monetized, using cloth bolts and “door-keepers and all officials just like their Emperor.” squirrel pelts as currency. Bulghar, however, had mints By Qonichi’s time (fl. 1277–96) the left hand, too, had a that struck coins under the name of Möngke and (under separate KESHIG, or royal guard. The Horde’s great noyans Berke) ARIQ-BÖKE. Mengü-Temür and his successors stemmed from the realm’s original Mongol clans, were issued currency in their own names, and minting QUDA (marriage ally) to the sovereign, and commanded a expanded to Khorazm, Saray, and Qirim (Staryy Krym) in keshig unit, a 1,000, or tümen. In both Hordu and Batu’s Crimea. The main silver currency, however, was not family the Qonggirad were the most important quda coinage but sommo (Italian; Ibn Battuta’s sawma), an partners. ingot weighing 206 grams, or 7.3 ounces (see YASTUQ). Özbeg Khan adopted the Yuan and Il-Khanate system Russian tribute helped finance this monetarization. of having the keshig’s four three-day shift commanders The tribute to the Horde was collected at first in furs, (termed ulus emirs) countersign the khan’s orders. These sparking an intensified exploitation of the northern fur shift commands all belonged to old Mongol clans. The market. When necessary ortaqchis (tax-exempt traders senior of the four was beglerbegi, “commander in chief” operating with government capital; see ORTOQ), who and “deputy to the khan,” while another ulus emir was traded in furs and often doubled as tax farmers, undoubt- vizier. Except for the influential position of tutor to the edly supplied on ruinous interest the furs necessary to crown prince held mostly by immigrant Islamic clergy- pay the taxes. By the middle of the 14th century, how- men, there was no avenue of advancement open to low- ever, the tax was fully monetized, and the Russian princes born or non-Mongol men. inserted themselves as middlemen between the ortaqchis Evidence on local administration is fragmentary. In and the taxpayers. Wills of the Russian princes show the indirectly ruled Russian lands three censuses were even small hamlets being required to pay on a regular carried out in 1245–46, 1256–59, and 1273–74, and the basis 650 to 900 grams (23 to 32 ounces) of silver. Since entire population was registered in the Mongols’ DECIMAL silver mines did not open in Russia until the 17th cen- ORGANIZATION. Church estates were exempt from all taxa- tury, this silver must have been imported from either tion and JAM (postroad) stations and princely appanages Europe or Central Asia. Russia thus became the Horde’s were also separated out. In the 13th century basqaqs leading silver source, a fact noted by Ibn Battuta and (overseers; see DARUGHACHI) supervised administration, MARCO POLO, although they erroneously attributed the and Muslim tax farmers collected taxes, but under Toq- influx of sommo to silver mines. to’a and his successors the Russian princes took over the functions of both institutions in their own lands. Admin- MILITARY istrative trends in Bulghar were probably similar. In the The Golden Horde army was the largest of the three west- cities of Crimea, the Black Sea, the Volga, and Khorazm, ern khanates but neither as battle worthy nor as well 206 Golden Horde equipped as those of the CHAGHATAY KHANATE and the Il- Balkans, and after Qaidu’s death in 1301 he strongly sup- Khanate. During the 1357 invasion of Azerbaijan, the ported the Mongol states’ general peace of 1304, sending conventional wisdom said the Horde’s vast army was two tümens to buttress the Yuan frontier. Around 1310 “horsemen without weapons.” The bulk of the army must Toqto’a reunified the Horde’s coinage, closing down mints have been Mongol clans and their native Turkish sub- outside Saray. jects. Still, Rashid-ud-Din speaks of Russians, Hungari- Despite Toqto’a’s successes, his policies were largely ans, and Circassians being brought into both right- and reversed after this death. During the interregnum after left-hand armies, and they do figure occasionally in battle his death in 1312 his nephew Özbeg marched from Kho- accounts. In 1277 the Russian prince of Rostov won dis- razm and seized the throne. After his election Özbeg tinction in the siege of an Ossetian fortress. Islamized his titulature, taking the throne as Sultan Muhammad Özbeg and proscribing Buddhism among the POLITICAL HISTORY Mongol elite. He thus reversed the spread of Yuan culture In 1269 the Golden Horde khan Mengü-Temür had fash- that had flourished under Toqto’a. The policy of Islamiza- ioned a grand alliance of the Golden Horde, Qaidu, and tion was not applied, however, to non-Mongols. Özbeg the Chaghatay Khanate. By this alliance the perpetually also reversed Toqto’a’s peaceful foreign policy, menacing aggressive Chaghatayids were directed south against the the young Il-Khan, Sultan Abu-Sa‘id (1317–35), in Il-Khans and east against QUBILAI KHAN’s Yuan dynasty. 1318–19, 1324–25, and in 1335, but without success. Unfortunately, Baraq’s 1270 invasion of Iran failed. In the Despite Egypt’s 1323 peace treaty with the Il-Khans, east, however, there was unexpected success. In 1277 dis- Özbeg also revived Noqai’s Balkan ambitions. In Özbeg’s sident princes rebelling against Qubilai Khan captured time the left-hand princes recovered control of the Syr Qubilai’s son Nomuqan (d. 1301) and handed him over Dar’ya valley while also adopting Islam. Yuan envoys to Qaidu, who sent him on to Mengü-Temür. The Golden seem to have backed a rival candidate after Toqto’a’s Horde had never had much quarrel with Qubilai Khan, death, but in 1326 Özbeg reopened friendly relations and Mengü-Temür’s mother-in-law, Kelmish Aqa, was with the Yuan. From 1339 on Özbeg and his successors actually Qubilai’s niece. She ensured that Nomuqan was received annually 24,000 ding in Yuan paper currency treated well and tried to have him returned. from their Chinese appanages. After becoming khan Mengü-Temür’s brother Töde- Mengü (Töde-Möngke, 1280–87) converted to Islam and MONGOL LIFE, RELIGION, AND COURT CULTURE began neglecting state affairs for Sufi gatherings. As a The Egyptian geographer al-‘Umari (1301–49) wrote that ´onichi of the left hand result, collateral Jochid princes Q “when the TATARS [i.e., Mongols] took possession of [the and NOQAI (d. 1299) west of the Dnieper became effec- Qipchaq Steppe] . . . they mixed with [the Qipchaqs] tively co-khans. In 1283–84 the three sent Nomuqan and entered into kinship with them, and the land won back as a gesture of peace to Qubilai Khan, yet in the the upper hand over their natural and racial qualities Russian lands Töde-Mengü and Noqai could not agree on and all of them became just like the Qipchaqs.” At the whom to appoint grand prince, sparking a decade-long highest social levels, however, the direct exchange quda conflict. In 1287 four of his nephews overthrew Töde- marriage system limited the number of marriages with Mengü, calling him insane. The four nephews nominated non-Mongol clans. Of the 25 marriages in the Jochid their eldest, Töle-Bugha (1287–91), khan and ruled col- royal family recorded by Rashid-ud-Din, only two lectively, yet dissension increased. When Töle-Bugha involved local Turkish people (a Qipchaq and a Siberian reopened war against the Il-Khanate in 1288 and 1290, Töles). All the rest were with clans that arrived in the Noqai, by contrast, sent peace envoys to the Il-Khan. In Mongol conquest. The Horde’s letters to Egypt were writ- 1291 one of the nephews, Toqto’a, Mengü-Temür’s fifth ten entirely in Mongolian throughout their relationship. son, fell out with his brothers and fled to Noqai, who Mongolian poetry written on birchbark and SQUARE helped him seize the throne. SCRIPT fragments, unfortunately undated but probably Noqai himself remained in his territory, and Toqto’a from Toqto’a’s reign, testify to the continued use of Mon- Khan’s (1291–1312) chief adviser became Salji’udai (d. golian. By the 1380s, however, if not before, the khans’ 1301–02) of the Qonggirad, who was not only Toqto’a’s decrees were being written in Turkish. father-in-law but his grandmother Kelmish’s husband as Nomadism remained dominant in the Horde up to its well. A personal quarrel embittered Noqai’s relations with disintegration in the 15th century, and clan affiliations Salji’udai, and by 1296 Noqai was seeking alliance with lasted far longer. In Khorazm, for example, the Qonggi- the Il-Khans against Toqto’a. Finally, in 1299 Toqto’a rad and MANGGHUD (Manghit) clans retained distinct defeated Noqai, reunifying the princes of the right hand. identities into the 20th century. To the extent that seden- Meanwhile, Qaidu tried to restore his declining influence tarization occurred, it was more urban than rural. The in the Horde by sponsoring his own candidate in a civil discovery of YURTS in the courtyards of houses in New war against Qonichi’s successor, Bayan (fl. 1299–1304). Saray shows the continuing attachment to nomadism Toqto’a abandoned Noqai’s aggressive policy in the among the Horde’s urban elite. Golden Horde 207 Unlike in the Il-Khan or Chaghatay realms, Islam in After Berke’s conversion, which happened in his the Golden Horde proceeded not “up” from the con- early youth, Jochi, or perhaps Batu, assigned the Muslims quered population, but “in” from abroad and then in the Jochid army to his entourage, thus giving his “down” from the Mongol elite. Berke’s original conver- appanage a strong Islamic identity. During his reign Berke sion was due to the Bukharan sheikh (Sufi master) Saif- claimed to have converted several of his brothers and ud-Din Bakharzi, and his alliance with Egypt added most of his emirs, yet Islam did not continue as the state another element to the Horde’s Islamic culture. Like religion. A later spread of Buddhism reflected the influ- Berke, Özbeg was converted by a Bukharan sheikh, Ibn ence of Kelmish Khatun and Salji’udai and the Yuan ‘Abd-ul-Hamid, and the cosmopolitan character of the dynasty’s prestige, a prestige seen also in the numerous Horde’s Islam continued. In traveling the Horde, Ibn Chinese artistic and architectural motifs in Saray. Battuta met clerics and Sufis of most diverse origins: When Özbeg came to power he killed emirs and three Bukharans (including Ibn ‘Abd-ul-Hamid), two Buddhist clerics who resisted Islamization, not necessar- Iraqis, and one each of Egyptian, Khorazmian, Lezgian ily to convert all the Mongols but to proscribe any non- (from Dagestan), Ossetian, and Greek origin. The Cen- Muslim communal identity for them. Ibn Battuta noted in tral Asian Hanafi school of legal interpretation, which 1332 that only “some” of the ethnic Mongols actually allowed the consumption of both mead and KOUMISS, practiced Islam, yet to be a Mongol of the Golden Horde predominated, but the Middle Eastern Shafi’ites had was, from then on, to be in some sense a Muslim. Janibeg official standing, too. ordered his army into the turban and woolen cloak of the Sufi mystic. By contrast, Ibn Battuta in 1332 noted that the Qipchaqs were still predominantly Christian, and Franciscan friars carried on, despite occasional violence, an active apostolate among them. Due to its insularity, the Russian Orthodox culture had little influence on the khans. The closest Russo-Mon- gol social interaction occurred with the favored princely family of Rostov and vicinity. Gleb of Beloozero (d. 1278) received a Mongol bride at Great Khan Möngke’s court and subsequently spent years at Mengü-Temür’s court. Fedor of Mozhaysk and Yaroslavl’ (d. 1299), spent years at Töde-Mengü’s court, handing the khan his goblet and receiving a Mongol princess in marriage on the other. A Jochid prince, called by the Russians “Czarevich Peter of the Horde,” was baptized in 1259 and settled in Rostov with Gleb’s brother Boris (d. 1277), marrying into another family of Mongol converts already settled there. Despite these links there is little evidence of any lasting cultural interchange between Rostov and Saray. DISINTEGRATION OF THE GOLDEN HORDE AND ITS SUCCESSOR KHANATES With the disintegration of the Il-Khanate in 1335 and of the Chaghatayid realm in 1339, the Golden Horde pros- pered as ortoq merchants and trade fled to the Qipchaq steppe. Coinage, linked to commerce and the silver sup- ply, grew slowly after the general peace of 1304 and reached unprecedented levels under Özbeg’s son Janibeg (1342–57). Demanding submission from the emirs in strife-torn Azerbaijan, Janibeg boasted that “today three uluses are under my command.” The Golden Horde succumbed, however, to the con- Engraved silver stemcup with a lid from the Golden Horde. tinentwide catastrophe of the BLACK DEATH. Reaching the The lid consisted of two perforated disks between which Horde’s eastern borders from China in 1338–39, the herbs could be placed to spice the wine. Similar stemcups plague ravaged Khorazm in 1345 and Saray in 1346 have been found in Yuan-era tombs in Inner Mongolia and before being transferred to Caffa and the entire Mediter- they were probably used at quriltais (grand assemblies). ranean by soldiers waging Janibeg’s self-destructive (Courtesy State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg) grudge war against Italian interests. Economic hardship 208 Gombojab, Duke was exacerbated by political instability as Özbeg’s sons dants of the feared and reviled “lawless Tatars.” Debates established an ominous pattern of intrafamilial murder. among both peoples continue on whether they are the Janibeg had murdered his brother Tïnïbeg (1341–32) to inheritors of the Golden Horde, as opposed to the classi- seize the throne. By some accounts, Berdibeg (1357–59) cal civilizations of Crimea or early medieval Bulghar. In murdered his father, Janibeg; in any case Berdibeg was any case, the Golden Horde played an indisputable role killed by his brother, who in turn was killed by the third in Islamizing Crimea and in forming the modern Volga brother, Nawroz (1360). Tatar language. In 1360 various princes of the left hand, now known The Kazakh, Uzbek, Karakalpak, Nogay, and Bashkir as the BLUE HORDE, sensed opportunity and seized power, (Bashkurt) all share a background in the early 15th-cen- first in Saray and then in Bulghar. Thus began what the tury Manghit and Blue Horde confederations, a back- Russian chronicles called “the Great Troubles.” From ground reflected in common CLAN NAMES and a common 1362 Emir Mamaq (Mamay, d. 1381) of the Qiyat clan folklore. Until 1919, for example, the leaders of the lib- ruled through puppet khans and tried to fight off the eral nationalist Alash-Orda Party in Kazakhstan proudly usurpers from his base by the Sea of Azov. From 1378, traced their descent either to Chinggis or to the Arghun however, whole clans of the Blue Horde, mostly Turkish clan of the Blue Horde. The Islamization of the steppe in origin, moved west under the Jochid prince TOQTAMISH and the Turkicization of the Bashkirs were powerfully (fl. 1375–1405). The struggle between Toqtamish and promoted by the prior Islamization and Turkicization of Mamaq was thus a struggle of the Horde’s two sections, the Golden Horde’s Mongol elite. While the centralization right and left. Mamaq was defeated in 1381, and the and urbanization of the Golden Horde was a compara- right-hand clans virtually disappeared, perhaps due to tively short-lived episode in premodern steppe history, it their greater urbanization, which rendered them more left a legacy of literacy, money economy, and larger politi- vulnerable to the Black Death. cal ambitions that did not wholly disappear in the crisis Districts isolated from the great struggles tried to of the 14th and 15th centuries. preserve their independence. The Genoans in Crimea See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL forced Mamay to recognize their autonomy. The family of EMPIRE; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BYZANTIUM Özbeg’s Qonggirad (Qonghrat) commander, Naghatay, AND BULGARIA; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENTRAL assisted by the descendants of the sheikh Ibn ‘Abd-ul- EUROPE AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIAN SOURCES ON Hamid, made Khorazm independent. In Russia Dmitrii of THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL Moscow (“Donskoi,” 1359–89) began the path that led to EMPIRE; INDIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ISLAM IN THE the pyrrhic victory of Kulikovo Pole (1380). Despite a MONGOL EMPIRE; ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MONGOL proliferation of local mints, urban markets declined pre- EMPIRE; MONEY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY cipitously in the 1370s, and urban life did not recover IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; from TIMUR’s (Tamerlane) 1395 sack of New Saray, Azaq, SARAY AND NEW SARAY; WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOL and other cities. EMPIRE. With Toqtamish’s overthrow in 1395, a new clan, the Further reading: B. Spuler, “Batu’ids,” in Encyclopae- Manghit (see MANGGHUD), under the non-Chinggisid dia of Islam, 2d ed., vol. 1 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960 on), commander in chief Edigü (d. 1420), emerged between 1106–1108; Devin DeWeese, Islamization and the Golden the Volga and the Emba. Edigü maintained something of Horde: Baba Tükles and the Conversion to Islam in Histori- the Horde’s unity until 1411, but by 1425 independent cal and Epic Tradition (University Park: Pennsylvania regimes were ensconced throughout the Golden Horde’s State University Press, 1994); Charles J. Halperin, Russia territory. Khanates of Blue Horde origin formally pro- and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Rus- claimed themselves in Crimea (1449), Kazan’ (or Bulghar sian History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, al-Jedid “New Bulghar,” 1445), and Kasimov (1453). The 1985); Peter Jackson, “The Dissolution of the Mongol Crimean khanate finally dispersed the “Great Horde” Empire,” Central Asiatic Journal 22 (1978): 186–243; (Ulugh Orda), composed of the right-hand Sanchi’ud George Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia (New Haven, (Turkish Sijuvut) clan, in 1503. Conn.: Yale University Press, 1953). THE IMPACT OF THE MONGOLS ON THE INNER ASIAN STEPPE Gombojab, Duke (mGon-po-skyabs) (fl. 1692–1749) The Golden Horde played a formative role in the state One of Mongolia’s pioneers in Tibetan and Chinese studies formation and ethnogenesis of all the Turkic peoples of Duke Gombojab was the son of Udari (d. 1692), the the Inner Asian steppe. The Crimean and Volga Tatars, administrator (tusalaghci taiji) of ÜJÜMÜCHIN West banner while actually in dynastic and clan affiliation of Blue and younger brother of its prince, Sudani (r. 1658–90). Horde origin, inherited what was left of the Golden Both Sudani and Udari having been posthumously impli- Horde cities. Their very name, from the Russian term for cated in plotting with GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN, Gombo- the Mongols, marks them as, in Russian eyes, the descen- jab succeeded to his father’s ducal title in 1692 only by Great Purge 209 special imperial dispensation. Moving to Beijing, Gombo- Shara Mören (Xar Moron) and the Nonni (Nen) Rivers to jab mastered the Mongolian, Manchu, Tibetan, and Chi- the east from the Mongolian basins of the Ergüne (Argun’) nese languages and sometime after 1723 became River and the Central Asian inland basin to the west. headmaster of the Lifan Yuan’s “Tangut” (i.e., Tibetan) In the far north and west, forests of larch (Larix sibir- school. He was later granted a princess of the imperial ica) and white birch form China’s leading timber area. family in marriage. Along the eastern slopes north of the Tuur (Tao’er) River His Tibetan textbook was the foundation of future are forests of oak (Quercus mongolica). South of the Tuur Tibetan-Mongolian dictionaries. His only Mongolian-lan- (Tao’er) River Manchurian steppe vegetation with Fili- guage book was Gangga-yin uruskhal (Flow of the folium sibiricum prevails. Ganges, 1725), a brief genealogical handbook of the Mongolian BANNERS. Much more original was his rGya- Great Lakes Basin The Great Lakes Basin is an nag chos-’byung (1735) (How the dharma arose in China), inland basin in western Mongolia bounded by the ALTAI a Tibetan-language history of China and its Buddhism RANGE to the west, the KHANGAI RANGE to the east, and from Chinese sources. Block-printed in Lhasa in 1746, the Tannu Ola (Tagna Uul) Range to the north. It con- this work was Tibetan and Mongolian scholars’ basic tains several of Mongolia’s largest lakes, including the source on China until the 20th century. Inspired by the mostly salt UWS (3,350 square kilometers; 1,293 square story of the pilgrimage to India by the Chinese monk- miles in area) and Khyargas (1,407 square kilometers; translator Xuanzang (596–664), Gombojab also trans- 543 square miles) Lakes, and the mostly fresh Khar Us lated Xuanzang’s record of Turkestan and India into (1,852 square kilometers; 715 square miles) and Khar Tibetan. From 1742 to 1749 he helped lead the imperially (575 square kilometers; 222 square miles) Lakes. The sponsored Mongolian translation of the bsTan-’gyur basin itself is about 600 kilometers (370 miles) long and (scriptural commentaries) and the terminological dictio- 200–250 kilometers (125–155 miles) wide at an eleva- nary Merged garkhu-yin oron (Font of scholars) that tion ranging from about 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) above formed its prolegomena. He then joined the team trans- sea level in the south to 759 meters (2,490 feet) above lating into Tibetan all Chinese Buddhist scriptures not sea level at LAKE UWS in the north. Several ridges and available in that language. His date of death is unknown. lone mountains divide the basin into subbasins. Precipi- See also MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL. tation is less than 100 millimeters (4 inches) annually and very unpredictable. The basin contains Mongolia’s Görgüz See KÖRGÜZ. largest sand dune fields. To the south, the basin commu- nicates with the Valley of the Lakes, which extends for Gov’-Altaj See GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE. 550–600 kilometers (340–370 miles) between the Khangai and Gobi-Altai Ranges. See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; CLIMATE; Govi-Altai See GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FLORA; GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE; KHOWD PROVINCE; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU; UWS PROVINCE; Greater Bulgaria See BULGHARS. ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. Greater Khinggan Range (Da Hinggan Ling, Khingan Great Purge From 1937 to 1939 Joseph Stalin’s purges Range, Ta Hsing-an Ling) The traditional eastern bound- in the Soviet Union spilled over into Mongolia, destroying ary of Mongolia, the Greater Khinggan Range runs north- almost the entire revolutionary generation in Mongolia and east to southwest through eastern Inner Mongolia. leaving Stalin’s man, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG, as the satellite Independent Mongolia touches the Khinggan foothills country’s unquestioned dictator. From 1925 on Commu- only in the far east. (The Lesser Khinggan Range lies far- nist publicists and Moscow officials became increasingly ther east in Manchuria.) The Greater Khinggan Range is free in linking pan-Mongolism, Lamaism, and Japanese about 1,400 kilometers (870 miles) long and 200–450 espionage as a single charge used against political enemies kilometers (125–280 miles) wide. The ridges have an aver- not only in Mongolia but also among the BURIATS of south- age altitude of around 1,000–1,600 meters (3,300–5,200 ern Siberia (see DAURIIA STATION MOVEMENT; RINCHINO, feet) above sea level; the highest peak is the Khonggo Peak ELBEK-DORZHI). The Great Purge proper began as frequent (Honggaoliang or Huanggangliang, 2,029 meters, or 6,657 clashes with Japanese troops on the eastern border stoked feet) near the range’s southern end. The eastern slopes are this long-standing anxiety into a full-fledged hysteria. It relatively steep, while those in the west slope gently also brought the Soviet Red Army into Mongolia in August toward the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. Nowhere do slopes 1937, ensuring that any resistance could be crushed. Not exceed 500 meters (1,640 feet) in height, and the range’s surprisingly, the Great Purge was carried on simultane- ridges are rounded and indistinct, with flattened summits. ously with the destruction of the lamas and the remaining The range separates the Manchurian drainage basins of the aristocrats (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST). 210 Great Shabi Another piece of the Great Purge was Marshal Mongolian expatriates, with their ties to their Japanese- Choibalsang’s grudge against his colleagues and rivals. Of occupied homeland, were virtually exterminated, and the the 11 members of the party presidium elected in 1934, Chinese workers were decimated. A similar purge was two died before the purges began (MARSHAL DEMID and also going on in Buriatia at the same time. Eldebwachir) and were posthumously denounced, while all the others except for Choibalsang were executed as FINAL STAGES spies and traitors between 1937 and 1940. From August 1938 to January 1939 Marshal Choibalsang However, the purge’s fundamental cause was the left Mongolia for medical recuperation in the Soviet Union. extension to Mongolia of Stalinism. Following the meth- While there, Stalin’s crony Kliment Voroshilov instructed ods used in Russia, thousands upon thousands of Mongols Choibalsang to have Lubsangsharab arrest Prime Minister in all walks of life, many of whom had dedicated their lives AMUR and then himself arrest Lubsangsharab and other to the regime, were tortured into signing grotesque tales of officials who had been directing the purges. The arrest of espionage and wrecking before being executed. Amur took place on March 7. On April 20 newly arrived Soviet instructors explained at a national conference of CHOIBALSANG’S RISE Interior Ministry personnel that the purges had gone too After the LHÜMBE CASE (1933) of supposed Japanese espi- far, pinning the blame on previously selected Mongolian onage, with which he was at first connected, Choibalsang and Soviet operatives. In July–August the remaining key was exiled to Moscow. Escaping involvement by assisting witnesses of the purges, Lubsangsharab, certain Interior in the interrogation of other suspects, in 1934 he was Minister leaders, and their Soviet advisers, together with appointed Mongolia’s deputy prime minister by Stalin’s the last 1921 revolutionaries Losal (D. Losol, 1890–1940) order. In February 1936 Choibalsang was appointed head and Dogsum (D. Dogsom, 1884–1941), were arrested, de- of the new Interior Ministry. One-fourth of the ministry’s ported to the Soviet Union, and executed. In 1940 Justice staff, including Choibalsang’s personal adviser Chopiak, Minister Tserindorji and a number of recently promoted were Soviet trainers. That May the procedures for arrest- top officials were arrested so as to open the way for even ing high government officials were loosened, although younger, Soviet-educated, and presumably totally loyal through 1936 and early 1937 the focus remained on officials. Repression would continue, but the Great Purge lamas, culminating in the show trial of 23 lamas on Octo- was over. ber 4–7, 1937. RESULTS PURGES BEGIN The Great Purge destroyed the previous governing elite From July 17, 1937, arrests of “pan-Mongolists” and and opened the way for a new generation of Soviet-edu- “Japanese spies” by the Soviet security organs began in cated, and often Russian-married, officials, such as YUM- Russia with the former prime minister GENDÜN, Buriats JAAGIIN TSEDENBAL. Special persecution against Inner who had once worked in Mongolia, and with Russian Mongolians and Buriats nativized the ranks of Mongolia’s embassy staff and advisers in ULAANBAATAR. In August white-collar intelligentsia, while that against the Chinese Soviet troops in Mongolia were brought up to 30,000 nativized the working class. men, and the Stalin’s deputy security chief, M. P. See also REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. Frinovskii, arrived in Ulaanbaatar. By pushing Chopiak Further reading: Baabar [Bat-Erdene Batbayar], and Choibalsang, he came up with an initial list of 115 trans. D. Sühjargalmaa, S. Bürenbayar, H. Hulan, and N. officials to arrest in Mongolia. From September 10 mass Tuya et al, ed. C. Kaplonski, Twentieth Century Mongolia arrests began in Ulaanbaatar in the “Gendün-Demid (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1999); D. Dashpurev Case.” Virtually all those arrested succumbed to torture and S. K. Soni. Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920–1990 and implicated others. On October 18–20 the first 14 (New Delhi: South Asia Publishers, 1992); Shagdariin cases were disposed of in a show trial at the Central The- Sandag and Harry H. Kendall, Poisoned Arrows: The ater; all were sentenced to execution. From October 2, Stalin-Choibalsang Mongolian Massacres, 1921–1941 1937, to April 22, 1939, a “Special Commission” headed (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000). by Choibalsang, party secretary Lubsangsharab (D. Luwsansharaw, 1900–40), and justice minister Tserindorji (G. Tserendorj) discussed 25,785 cases and ordered Great Shabi (Shav’) The Great Shabi of the Jibzun- 20,099 executions; the remainder all received lengthy damba Khutugtu constituted the personal subjects of the prison sentences. Choibalsang’s work on this commission great INCARNATE LAMA who supported his monastic estab- was guided throughout by Chopiak’s replacement, Gol- lishment. The Great Shabi began with the donation of ubchik. The destruction of the monasteries continued 108 persons by the nobility to the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA apace, as did attacks on Mongolia’s KAZAKHs and Buriat KHUTUGTU (1635–1723) at his enthronement in 1639. Mongols, largely emigrés from the Soviet Union (see BURI- The donated persons, whether lamas or laymen, were all ATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA). Mongolia’s Inner considered disciples (shabi; modern, shawi) of the “Holy Güyüg Khan 211 One” (Bogda). Shabi “disciples” was the general term for Guihua See HÖHHOT. monastic serfs; the estate of the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, being by far the largest in Khalkha, was called the “Great Guisui See HÖHHOT. Shabi” (Yekhe Shabi; modern Ikh shawi). The Great Shabi rapidly expanded, particularly in the 18th century. Donations to the Bogda from 1719 to 1811 Guo Daofu See MERSE. totaled 17,000 persons. The Great Shabi reached 69,698 persons in 1764 and achieved its maximum size of 111,466 by 1825. The great majority of these donations Güüshi Khan, Törö-Baikhu (Gushri) (b. 1582, r. 1642–1655) Oirat Mongolian ruler who established the came from Khalkha’s Tüshiyetü Khan province, with supremacy of the “Yellow Hat” order and the Dalai Lamas in some from Setsen Khan province and SHILIIN GOL league Tibet in Inner Mongolia. Only small numbers came from west- Güüshi Khan was born Törö-Baikhu, the third son of ern Khalkha. While most shabi were in eastern Khalkha, Akhai Khatun, who had married two cousins, both chiefs only the DARKHAD of modern Khöwsgöl province, all of the Oirats’ Khoshud tribe, in succession: Yadai shabi, had their own exclusive territory. Chingsang and Khanai Noyan Khongghor. Her five sons Shabi duties included annual payments directly to the by different fathers were collectively known as the “Five Office of the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA (treasury of the Bogda), Tigers.” Törö-Baikhu was the son of Khanai Noyan called the “offering tea,” in-kind payments, and labor ser- Khongghor. At age 12 he had already won renown in bat- vices to monasteries as well as occasional expenses con- tle against the Turkestanis. In 1630 he succeeded his nected with special services, invitation of a new Bogda elder brother Baibaghas as chief of the Khoshud with the from Tibet, and so on. Like the serfs (khamjilga) of secular title Güüshi Taishi. In 1634 an appeal came to the OIRATS lords, the Great Shabi, too, had to pay any private debts of in Züngharia from the Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag-dbang Blo- the Bogda. The Great Shabi was divided into OTOGs (camp bzang rGya-mtsho (1617–82), and the dGe-lugs-pa (“Yel- districts), originally 12 but numbering 114 by 1830. The low Hat”) monasteries for help against Karma-pa (“Red otogs, each headed by a lay zaisang, were themselves Hat”) and Bon-po (the non-Buddhist religion of Tibet) divided into 50s, or bags (teams) and 10s. Until the fall of partisans such as TSOGTU TAIJI. In response Güüshi Taishi the Qing, the Great Shabi used the old law code, KHALKHA invaded Kökenuur (northeast Tibet) in winter 1636 with JIRUM, alongside the Qing codes. 10,000 men. On new year’s day (January 26, 1637) his The status of shabi was an attractive one. Lay shabi men crushed Tsogtu Taiji at Ulaan-Khoshuu. From 1639 could nomadize anywhere within the four Khalkha Güüshi proceeded methodically to destroy the Dalai AIMAGs and were free of the onerous postroad, guard, and Lama’s enemies: the Bon-po king of Be-ri (near Garzê) in militia duty of the taxpayers (albatu). In 1837 the Qing winter 1640–41, the king of gTsang at gZhis-ka-rtse administration prescribed that able-bodied albatu could (modern Xigazê) in 1642, and finally rKong-po (near no longer be donated, only khamjilga, slaves, bastard modern Gongbo’gyamda). On April 13, 1642, the Dalai sons, children, or the aged. These measures and the gen- Lama proclaimed Güüshi king (Mongolian, khan) of eral decline in Mongolian population reduced the Great Tibet. Güüshi Khan died in January 1655, and his son Shabi to 55,479 in 1909. Dayan succeeded him. Under the Bogda’s independent theocratic govern- See also UPPER MONGOLS. ment after 1911, however, the Great Shabi’s ranks again swelled, reaching 89,392 by 1921. Petitions to enter the shabi were now rarely rejected. Wealthy persons eagerly Güyüg Khan (Guyuk) (b. 1206, r. 1246–1248) Ching- entered the Great Shabi to gain tax exemption. gis Khan’s grandson and a strict and intelligent emperor, After the 1921 REVOLUTION the Great Shabi offices Güyüg Khan was unable to achieve much due to his ill were made elective in 1923. With the first provincial health and divisions in the Mongolian ruling family. (aimag) election of 1925 the Great Shabi was renamed Delger Yekhe Uula province, with its territory confined to GÜYÜG’S EARLY LIFE AND CORONATION the DARKHAD lands and neighboring Khöwsgöl The MONGOL EMPIRE’s first khan in the third generation Uriyangkhai banners. All connection to the monastic from its founder, CHINGGIS KHAN, Güyüg Khan was also estates was abolished. the first khan to face significant disaffection among his See also KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE; REVOLUTIONARY relatives. Güyüg was the eldest son of ÖGEDEI KHAN and PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD; TUVANS. his principal wife TÖREGENE. Little is known of his early life. His wife was OGHUL-QAIMISH, a woman of MERKID origin. In 1233 his father, Ögedei, assigned him and his Great Wall of China See MING DYNASTY. maternal cousin Alchidai the task of destroying the East- ern Xia regime, which a rebellious Jin official had created Green Palace See PALACES OF THE BOGDA KHAN. in Manchuria in 1215. The Eastern Xia regime was not 212 Güyüg Khan strong, and the two dispatched it in a few months. In to his power carefully. Temüge Odchigin, Chinggis Khan’s 1235 Ögedei assigned two of his sons, Güyüg and Qadan, youngest and sole remaining brother, had tried to seize to join the great western expedition against the QIPCHAQS the throne during Töregene’s regency; Güyüg had this and their allies, the Russians, the BULGHARS, and the delicate case investigated by Hordu (of the Jochid line) OSSETES (Alans). Güyüg participated in the siege of the and Möngke, and they had Odchigin executed. The Russian city of Ryazan’ in 1237 and in the lengthy siege Ögedeids and Cha’adaids always had a close connection, of the Ossetian capital at Magas in 1239–40. but CHA’ADAI’s family was now headed by a child. To While this battle experience gave Güyüg the kind of secure his base, Güyüg replaced this child with Yisü- stature necessary for a future khan, the campaign also Möngke, a close friend. began the feud with BATU (d. 1255) that would blight In the Secret History of the Mongols Ögedei scolds his Güyüg’s reign. Batu, the son of CHINGGIS KHAN’s eldest son as a self-confident, even arrogant, disciplinarian who son JOCHI, had not had great success in his sieges. When ruled his troops with fear. Sources during his reign Batu presumed on his seniority to receive an extra por- describe him as strict and very intelligent but rather tion during a feast, the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS morose and sickly. Heavy drinking did not improve his tells how first Güyüg’s nephew Büri, then Güyüg, and health. Claiming it would improve his condition, he left finally one of Güyüg’s men, Harghasun Noyan, ridiculed QARA-QORUM to move the court to his father’s appanage Batu as an effeminate weakling. Batu appealed to Ögedei on the Emil and Qobaq (Emin and Hobok) Rivers. The to restrain his sons; when Güyüg returned for an audi- plan increased his personal security at the cost of politi- ence, Ögedei harshly criticized him and then sent him cal isolation. Like his father, Güyüg strove to make a and Harghasun back to Batu for judgment. Büri he dis- name for himself and win favor by heroic generosity, patched to his father, CHA’ADAI. Other sources show that emptying the treasury with his gifts. He also proposed to the dispute was real, yet also that Güyüg did not return complete Ögedei’s campaigns by warring against the to Mongolia during Ögedei’s life. Ögedei recalled both SONG DYNASTY in South China and reducing the ‘ABBASID him and Möngke, son of Tolui, sometime around Decem- CALIPHATE in Iraq and the fortresses of the “Assassins,” ber 1240 to January 1241. or ISMA‘ILIS, in Iran to obedience. When Ögedei died in December 1241, Güyüg had Religiously, Güyüg departed from his father’s policy. apparently still not returned to the court. Güyüg’s Unlike earlier Mongol rulers, Güyüg allowed Christian mother, Töregene, took over as regent and began to per- prayers to be offered openly in his ordo. Ögedei had care- secute Ögedei’s officials. Ögedei had expressed his wish fully balanced three bureaucratic cultures: the largely Chris- that his favorite grandson, Shiremün, be his successor, tian eastern Turk network, the Islamic group around but given Shiremün’s age and inexperience this bequest Mahmud Yalavach (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD got no support. Töregene wished to elect Güyüg khan, BEG), and the North Chinese. While he restored Mahumd and the only other serious contender was Güyüg’s sickly Yalavach and his associates to positions in the provinces younger brother, KÖTEN, in the Tangut area. Given this and treated ZHANG ROU and other Chinese commanders lack of real opposition, it is hard to understand why the favorably, Güyüg’s key advisers were all in the first group: QURILTAI (assembly) was delayed until 1246. The most his secretaries, the Uighur Christian Chinqai and the likely reason is that Töregene hoped to fix the direction Uighur Buddhist, Bala, and his tutor and judge (JARGHUCHI), of imperial policy in a congenial direction before calling the NAIMAN Christian Qadaq. His physicians were also the quriltai, while Güyüg for his part delayed his coro- Christian. Muslim writers considered him pro-Christian nation until he secured independent support among the and hostile to Islam, yet in his letter to the pope, Güyüg princes and so would not be merely his mother’s pup- firmly rejected the papal claim to speak for God, and he pet. When Güyüg was formally elected khan on August asserted the Mongol Empire’s divine mandate of world rule. 24, 1246, several officials that Töregene had tried to dis- While the empire seemed to accept Güyüg as khan, miss, such as CHINQAI, Mahmud Yalavach, and Mas‘ud Batu, head of the Jochid line, had not attended the quril- Beg, were back in office, and Töregene soon departed tai due to gout. His absence allowed suspicions to fester. west to her own ORDO (palace-tent) in the Emil valley. Under Ögedei the Jochid house had nominated or at least approved all the military and civil officials west of GÜYÜG’S REIGN the Amu Dar’ya. Töregene had broken this tradition by Once the coronation was concluded, Güyüg demon- appointing Arghun Aqa. Güyüg ruptured it further by strated that he would follow his father’s policies, not his appointing Eljigidei, a former officer in Ögedei’s KESHIG mother’s. Over his mother’s vehement objections, he had (imperial guard) and the father of Batu’s old irritant one of her intimates arrested and executed for bewitching Harghasun Noyan. Eljigidei would command the troops Köten, and ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, Töregene’s choice for gover- of CHORMAQAN in western Iran and Armenia. As Güyüg nor of North China, was also executed. Of the provincial began to move west to join Eljigidei, rumors circulated officials appointed under Töregene, only the Oirat official in the ruling family that he was actually aiming against ARGHUN AQA remained. Güyüg handled other challenges Batu. While en route in April 1248, his health deterio- Güyüg Khan 213 rated, and he died at Qum-Senggir. Güyüg’s empress, THE MONGOLS; ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; JOHN OF Oghul-Qaimish, assisted by Chinqai, Bala, and Qadaq at PLANO CARPINI; KOREA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; her ordo and Eljigidei in the west, took power as regent. MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENSUS IN MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MON- EMPIRE; TAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; WESTERN EUROPE GOLS; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; INDIA AND AND THE MONGOLS. H haan See KHAN. The UPPER MONGOLS of Haixi were traditionally orga- nized into eight appanages, or BANNERS, all of the KHOSHUD tribe. From 1929 Hui (Chinese-speaking Mus- Hafeng’a See KHAFUNGGA. lim) and Han (ethnic Chinese) farmers from eastern Qinghai began cultivating land, bringing 7,300 hectares Ha-feng-a See KHAFUNGGA. (18,040 acres) under plow by 1949. From 1935 KAZAKHS from Xinjiang settled in Haixi, frequently plundering the Mongols. After the entry of the Chinese People’s Libera- Hai-hsi See HAIXI MONGOL AND TIBETAN AUTONOMOUS tion Army, Dulaan county was declared a Mongol PREFECTURE. autonomous county in 1952, and Kazakh and Tibetan autonomous counties were proclaimed the next year. In Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefec- 1954 the autonomous counties were subsumed into the ture (Hai-hsi) Located in the northwest of China’s Haixi Mongol, Tibetan, and Kazakh Autonomous prefec- Qinghai province, Haixi covers 328,970 square kilome- ture. In 1984, after the small Kazakh population was ters (127,016 square miles) on the northern edge of the returned to Xinjiang, the prefecture was redesignated Tibetan plateau. In its center lies the Great Tsaidam only a Mongol and Tibetan autonomous unit. (Qaidam) Basin, about 2,600–3,000 meters (8,500–9,800 Since 1956 oil, gold, potassium and other salts, borax, feet) above sea level and rimmed by mountains rising to asbestos, lead, and zinc have all been extracted from the over 5,500 meters (18,050 feet). Haixi also administers Tsaidam. Paved road construction in the Tsaidam began in the noncontiguous Tanggula district, a virtually unin- 1947, and the Qinghai-Tibet Railway reached Golmuud in habited district on the borders of the Tibet Autonomous 1981. The previously virtually uninhabited Tsaidam has Region. The Tsaidam is somewhat warmer and drier been divided into the townships of Mangnai, Lenghu, than other lands in Tibet. Haixi’s capital is Delingha Dachaidan (Da Qaidam), and Golmuud city, all almost township. entirely inhabited by immigrant Han Chinese. By 1982 In 1982 Haixi’s population was 272,178, of which cultivated acreage, mostly in western Dulaan county, had 18,682, or 7 percent, were Mongol, 9 percent Tibetan, expanded to 475,000 hectares (1,173,700 acres), but and 78 percent Chinese. The Mongols inhabit the eastern desertification has became a major problem. counties of Ulaan (Ulan) and Dulaan (Dulan) and the In the 1990s illegal private gold miners, organized by Utu-Mören district of Golmuud (Golmud). Tibetans live Hui syndicates, operated widely in southeast Haixi. In 1999 in Tianjun, Dulaan, and Tanggula districts. In 1982 controversy canceled international funding for a plan to 2,283,000 head of livestock grazed Haixi, including dam the Xiangride River and resettle in Dulaan county 1,568,000 sheep, 424,000 goats, 223,000 cattle, 38,900 58,000 Hui and Chinese farmers from eastern Qinghai. horses, and 25,000 camels. Among the Mongols 93 per- See also DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION; cent were nomadic herders. SUBEI MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. 214 Hazaras 215 Halh See KHALKHA. AIMAG “tribe”) dominating Afghanistan from Meydan to Balkh and from Ghazni to Qandahar. Although they had Hangai See KHANGAI RANGE. been ruling over Tajik mountaineers and mixing with Turkish nomads since 1230 or so, some of them still spoke Mongolian. Abu’l Fazl mentions that those of Mey- Harchin See KHARACHIN. dan and Behsud (from the Mongolian clan name Besüd) were already in the process of settling. Allying in the 17th Harghasun Darqan (1257–1308/9) Mongol aristocrat century with Iran’s Safavid dynasty (1499–1736), Hazara who delivered the throne to Haishan and Ayurbarwada in the emirs converted to Twelver (Imami) Shi‘ism, isolating disputed succession of 1307 them religiously from their neighbors. Harghasun’s ancestor, Kishiliq of the Oronar, had warned CHINGGIS KHAN of ONG KHAN’s treacherous attack and DISTRIBUTION AND TRADITIONAL LIFE received the perpetual title of DARQAN (exempt). Entering By the 19th century the main body of Hazaras, dwelling QUBILAI KHAN’s court as a KESHIG centurion in 1272, in the Hazarajat (Bamiyan and Oruzgan provinces and Harghasun was appointed to the Court of the Imperial vicinity), were purely sedentary farmers speaking Persian. Clan, the empire’s supreme judicial organ, in 1285, where An emotional Shi‘ite religiosity was widespread. While he cut back executions by as much as three-fourths. the former nomadic rulers had settled and adopted the From 1291 to 1298 he served as manager (pingzhang) of culture of their subjects, the Hazara mirs (from emir, Huguang province, stretching from Wuhan to Vietnam, commander) formed powerful endogamous “bones,” or suppressing widespread banditry. Under Emperor Temür lineages, that controlled most of the land and resided in (1294–1307) he rose to be right grand councillor in the qal‘a, or mud-brick fortresses. The Hazaragi dialect of secretariat. Friendly to Confucian scholars, he opened the Persian still contains a number of Mongol-origin words first Confucian temple in DAIDU (modern Beijing). Dur- not found in any other language of Afghanistan, princi- ing Temür’s final illness Harghasun nursed him person- pally for secondary body parts, animal and plant names, ally while commanding the keshig. After his death one and geographical features. The physical appearance of the faction hoped to enthrone Ananda, the Muslim prince of Hazarajat Hazaras is distinctly Mongol, although more Anxi, but Harghasun sent messengers evading their Middle Eastern faces are not unknown. The term hazara blockade and summoning to Daidu the brothers Haishan also designates a number of smaller, lesser-known from Mongolia and Ayurbarwada (with their mother groups. Of these the Sheikh-‘Ali Hazaras, dwelling from Targi) from Shanxi, meanwhile holding off demands to Bamiyan to Pol-e Khomri, are seminomadic, dwelling in appoint Ananda’s supporter, Empress Bulughan of the the summer in YURTS. Although predominantly Sunni Baya’ud, as regent. When Ayurbarwada and Targi reached with an Isma‘ili minority, they identify with the Hazaras. the Daidu suburbs, Harghasun executed the opposition The Hazaras numbered 1,403,000, or 9 percent, of leaders and Prince Ananda. After Haishan’s (1307–11) Afghanistan’s population in 1989; recent exiles in Pak- election as khan, however, Harghasun fell from favor and istan have been estimated at 17,000 to 70,000 persons. was appointed to the new QARA-QORUM branch secre- tariat, where he resettled refugees and revived military MODERN HISTORY farms. As the Afghan (Pashtun) rulers in Kabul solidified their rule over modern Afghanistan, Hazara rebellions broke out in 1888–90, 1892, and 1893. The Afghan ruler Harqin See KHARACHIN. Abdur-Rahman (1880–1901) responded with harsh repression, labeling the Shi‘ite Hazaras infidels and Harqin Zuoyi Monggol Zizhixian See KHARACHIN. importing Pashtun settlers into Hazarajat. Thousands of Hazaras emigrated to Iran and British India. In the 20th Hazaras Descendants in part of the Mongol Qara’unas, century Hazara migrants formed mostly proletarian com- the Hazaras form a large and distinctive ethnic minority munities in all major cities of Afghanistan, especially the in Afghanistan. capital, Kabul. After the Communist coup d’état of April 1978, Hazara insurgents under the Shura-e Ittifaq (Soli- ORIGINS darity Council) freed all Hazarajat except Bamiyan from The modern Hazaras stem from the merger of the ruling Communist control, maintaining an implicit agreement Mongol class of QARA’UNAS with their mountain Tajik of mutual noninterference with the Soviet occupation subjects. The Hazaras are first found under that name forces. Iranian-educated clerics replaced the mirs as lead- (Persian for 1,000, from the Mongol military’s DECIMAL ers. From 1982 civil war raged between Iranian-financed ORGANIZATION) in the histories of Babur (1483–1530) and and native factions, resolved in 1987 by the formation of Abu’l Fazl ibn Mubarak (1551–1602), who describe them an Iranian-supported umbrella organization, Hizb-e Wah- as important nomads (aimaq, or modern Mongolian dat-e Islami (Islamic Unity Party). The Hizb-e Wahdat 216 Henan Mongol Autonomous County joined the victorious Mujahideen coalition government only after crushing a serious Mongol insurrection against that overthrew the Communist government in 1991, but collectivization in 1958. During the Cultural Revolution the coalition warlords’ massacre of hundred of Hazaras in of 1966–76 Red Guards hounded Dashitsering to death as the Afshar ward of Kabul (February 11, 1993) shocked a feudalist. the Hazaras and revived conflicts over political alliances. Further reading: Yangdon Dhondup and Hildegard In 1998 the Pashtun-based Sunni Taleban militia occu- Diemberger, “Tashi Tsering: The Last Mongol Queen of pied Bamiyan, declaring the Hazaras to be infidels and ‘Sogpo’ (Henan),” Inner Asia 4 (2002): 197–224. perpetrating massacres at Yäkauläng, Robatak Pass, and elsewhere. Hezb-e Wahdat forces reoccupied Hazarajat in Hentiy See KHENTII PROVINCE. November 2001 as part of the Northern Alliance offen- sive that overthrew the Taleban regime. See also ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MOGHOLI LAN- Herlen See KHERLEN RIVER. GUAGE AND PEOPLE. Further reading: Sayed Askar Mousavi, Hazaras of Hiagt See KYAKHTA CITY. Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Politi- cal Study (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997); H. F. history Mongolian history may be analyzed in terms of Schurmann, Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of dynasties, religious growth, cycles of unity and disinte- the Moghols and Related Peoples of Afghanistan (The gration, and changing social formations. Hague: Mouton, 1962). DYNASTIES Henan Mongol Autonomous County (Ho-nan) The dynastic method of periodization is useful as a gen- Located in the southeast of China’s Qinghai (Kökenuur) eral framework for placing historical events. While peri- province, Henan Mongol Autonomous County has an odization based on social or intellectual trends (feudal area of 7,000 square kilometers (2,700 square miles). society, Renaissance, and so on) are often controversial, Henan lies on the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau at dating by dynasties has the benefit of being relatively an altitude mostly over 3,500 meters (11,500 feet) and clear cut. The history of the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU begins shares the plateau’s strong sunlight, cool summers, and with a succession of peoples from the third century B.C.E. extremely unpredictable weather. to the ninth century C.E., each with its own ruling family. The total population in 1982 was 21,237, of which These include the XIONGNU (or Huns), the XIANBI, the 18,236 persons were herders and 3,001 town dwellers. ROURAN (or Avars), the TÜRK EMPIRES, and the UIGHUR Mongols numbered 18,076, or 85 percent, in 1982. While EMPIRE. All these successive dynasties are best known the Mongols now speak Tibetan, many Tibetans have from Chinese records, although Greek and later Arabic recently changed their designation to Mongols. About 93 histories and inscriptions from the Türk and Uighur percent of the territory is usable pasture, and in 1939 Empires valuably supplement our knowledge. livestock were estimated at 223,500 head. By 1974 the The period from 840 on was a time of disunity. The increase of livestock had leveled off at around 760,000 Mongolian-speaking TATARS became the main tribe on the head. Of these, 249,700 in 1984 were bovines: 80 percent Mongolian plateau, assimilating the Turkish-speaking yaks and 19 percent yak–common cattle hybrids. The tribes. The Tatars came in part under the Liao dynasty county also had 17,500 head of eastern Tibet’s fine Hequ (907–1125), founded by the Inner Mongolian KITANS. horses. After the fall of the Liao, tribes fought for control until The UPPER MONGOLS of Henan were traditionally CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) of the MONGOL TRIBE divided into four BANNERS (appanages), three of the burst into world history and founded the MONGOL KHOSHUD tribe and one TORGHUD. The “Henan Princes” of EMPIRE. This empire broke up in 1260 into four successor the Khoshud’s Front First banner were Qinghai’s senior states: the YUAN DYNASTY in China, Mongolia, and the Mongol rulers and the chief lay patrons of the great Bla- east, the CHAGHATAY KHANATE in Turkestan, the GOLDEN brang Monastery (modern Xiahe). After 1912 the Henan HORDE in Eastern Europe and Kazakhstan, and the IL- princes maintained their region’s autonomy against the KHANATE in the Middle East. Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslim) warlords of Gansu and Modern European historians first formed detailed Qinghai. In 1942 the ruling princess, Dashi-Tsering (c. accounts of these events from the Jesuits at the 18th-cen- 1918–66), married the son of the local Tibetan warlord, tury Chinese court. Following Chinese annals European who was a brother of the Bla-brang INCARNATE LAMA. In histories adopted the idea that the Mongols’ own Yuan 1952 she allowed the Chinese Communists to begin orga- dynasty did not really begin until the final conquest of all nizing in Henan and to suppress mostly Hui anticommu- China in 1279 and ended with their expulsion from nist guerrillas. In October 1954 Henan was made a China in 1368, to be succeeded by the Ming who ruled to directly administered autonomous county, with Dashi- 1644. Problematic even for China, this “short” Yuan tsering as chairwoman. Grassroots control was secured dynasty scheme makes no sense for Mongolia. history 217 After the empire’s breakup the Mongols ruled China tioned official religion of the Mongols. This dominance as the Yuan dynasty until 1368. Despite their expulsion influenced every aspect of Mongolian culture, including from China, the Mongol emperors in Mongolia continued literature, social life, family structure, language, folk to rule in the name of the Yuan from 1368 to 1634; this is poetry, food, and even practices of shamans and others the NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY. who rejected Buddhism (see TIBETAN CULTURE IN MONGO- In 1636 the Inner Mongolians surrendered to the LIA). This was the Buddhist era in Mongolian history. Manchu QING DYNASTY, which in 1644 also conquered From 1921 to 1940 the established Buddhist church China’s MING DYNASTY (1368–1644). The KHALKHA (Outer and the new revolutionary government competed for dom- Mongolians) surrendered to the Qing in 1691, and the inance. At first many government figures hoped to pre- Qing Empire reached its height in 1755 with the destruc- serve some place for religion in the new society, but after tion of its last enemies, the ZÜNGHARS (a branch of the 1928 radical new leaders acceded to Soviet pressure and OIRATS, or West Mongols). The Qing dynasty ruled Mon- began a campaign that would eventually destroy the estab- golia until the rebellions of 1911–12 forced the emperor lished church (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST). From to abdicate, and Mongolia regained its independence in 1940 to 1990 Mongolia was a monolithically Communist the 1911 RESTORATION. society, dominated by Soviet Russian culture and ideology. From 1911 to 1921 the great INCARNATE LAMA, the From the late 1980s Mongolia began to open up to non- Jibzundamba Khutugtu, was the unquestioned supreme Soviet influences, and with the fall of the Communist gov- authority in Mongolia proper, or Outer Mongolia, ernment have come a Buddhist revival, new religions, although the country’s international status was subject to European, American, and Asian-Pacific pop cultures, and several sharp changes. This period can thus be called the new nationalism, thus creating a mixed pluralistic culture. THEOCRATIC PERIOD in Mongolian history. After the 1921 REVOLUTION Mongolia was under a CYCLES AND SOCIAL EVOLUTION Soviet-supported People’s Government with the Jibzun- In the 1920s and 1930s a number of scholars began to damba Khutugtu as the head of state. Only in 1924, with propose macrohistorical models of social change in Mon- the death of the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, was a people’s golia. Such models can be divided into two types: cyclical republic proclaimed. This MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC and social evolutionary. lasted from 1924 to 1992, yet the real break with the past The cyclical model treated nomadism as a distinctive came not in 1924 but through the destruction of organized type of human society, one in which class divisions, state religion and the purges of 1937–39. From 1921 to 1940 can formation, and attendant social change are dependent not be considered the REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD, when Mongolia’s on internal but external factors. In this view nomadic government was transformed from a Soviet-supported and states were primarily methods of extorting goods from vaguely left-wing junta to a genuinely Communist dictator- the wealthier sedentary civilizations, particularly China, ship of one man. This dictatorship lasted until the 1990 whether through exploiting the TRIBUTE SYSTEM or DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION, which resulted in a new 1992 through conquest. Thus, premodern Mongolian history CONSTITUTION renaming the country the STATE OF MONGO- was essentially a series of cycles in which the steppe or LIA and guaranteeing a democratic system. the sown alternated dominance. Mongolia’s modern his- tory from the Qing era on was thus seen as a radical RELIGIONS AND IDEOLOGIES break with the past induced by new technology and new Another way to look at the long span of Mongolian his- social changes. Major works in this school include Owen tory is through the successively dominant religions or Lattimore’s Inner Asian Frontiers of China (1940), Sechin ideologies. The impact of world religions on the nomads Jagchid’s Peace, War, and Trade along the Great Wall (Chi- of the Mongolian plateau began with the Türk Empires’ nese edition 1972, English edition 1989), and Thomas acquaintance with Buddhism, the Uighur Empire’s adop- Barfield’s Perilous Frontier (1989). tion of Manicheism, and the adoption of Christianity in By contrast, the Russian Mongolist Boris Ya. the 11th century by the KEREYID and ÖNGGÜD tribes. Valdimirtsov, in a work published posthumously in Under the Mongol Empire many religions competed to 1934, analyzed Mongolian society as a type of “nomadic win over the great khan, although SHAMANISM remained feudalism.” To him nomadism did not define a peculiar the leading religion at court (see RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE type of society but was instead compatible with a feudal- MONGOL EMPIRE). After 1260 Tibetan-rite Buddhism ism analogous to that of Europe. Feudalism, he believed, became the court religion of the Yuan dynasty. During the already existed under the Mongol Empire and continued Northern Yuan dynasty Buddhism’s role declined, until in past the fall of the Qing dynasty. While Vladimirtsov’s 1578 ALTAN KHAN met the Third Dalai Lama, beginning views have been ascribed to Soviet Marxist influences, what Mongolian historians called the SECOND CONVER- they actually flow out of his prerevolutionary work and SION of the Mongols to Buddhism. the general trends of Russian Mongolian studies. While From about 1635 to 1921 Tibetan-rite Buddhism of European, American, and pre-1949 Chinese writers usu- the “Yellow Hat” (dGe-lugs-pa) order was the unques- ally worked from Chinese sources on the early steppe 218 History of the World Conqueror empires before the Qing, Russia’s pioneering Mongolists, Further reading: Thomas J. Barfield, Perilous Fron- including Vladimirtsov, all began with deep immersion tier: Nomadic Empires and China (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil in the contemporary society and culture of Mongols, Blackwell, 1989); Bat-Ochir Bold, Mongolian Nomadic BURIATS, and KALMYKS, whose aristocratic social structure Society: A Reconstruction of the ‘Medieval’ History of Mon- the cyclical school tended to dismiss as a late product of golia (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001); Roberte foreign domination. Hamayon, La Chasse à l’ame: Equisse d’une théorie du After World War II Vladimirtsov’s view of premodern chamanisme siberien (Nanterre: Société d’éthnologie, Mongolian society as basically feudal became the consensus 1990); History of the Mongolian People’s Republic in the Soviet Union, Mongolia, China, and Japan. This view (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1973); Sechin Jagchid and was expressed in Tayama Shigeru’s comprehensive 1954 Paul Hyer, Mongolia’s Culture and Society (Boulder, Colo.: study of Mongolian society under the Northern Yuan and Westview Press, 1979); Owen Lattimore, Inner Asian Qing. In editions of the History of the Mongolian People’s Frontiers of China (1940; rpt., Oxford: Oxford University Republic from 1955 on (English translation 1973), Soviet Press, 1988); B. Vladimirtsov, Le Régime social des Mon- and Mongolian editors placed this concept in a comprehen- gols: Le féodalisme nomade, trans. Michel Carsow (Paris: sive Marxist-Leninist analysis of Mongolian social evolu- A. Maisonneuve, 1948). tion. Thus, Mongolia’s primitive communal society began to break down under the Xiongnu in the third century B.C.E., forming the first early feudal state, the Rouran History of the World Conqueror (Ta’rikh-i jahan Empire, in the fifth century C.E. Under the Mongol Empire gusha) The History of the World Conqueror, written in feudal relations deepened, while aggressive wars of con- Persian, is invaluable not only for its detailed picture of quest damaged productive forces. The result was first the the Mongol conquests and administration but also for its “feudal disintegration” of the 15th–16th centuries and then view of the role of nomads in Islamic history. The Persian increasing exploitation under the Manchu yoke. The landholder and bureaucrat ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI national liberation movement struggled in vain with the began his Ta’rikh-i jahan gusha, or History of the World clerical and lay feudalists and foreign imperialists until the Conqueror, during his first visit to the Mongol capital of 1921 Revolution and Soviet assistance put Mongolia on the QARA-QORUM in 1252–53 as a young scribe in the road of noncapitalist development to socialism, which was entourage of his father and the Mongol governor ARGHUN achieved with collectivization of the countryside in 1960. AQA. The narrative reaches up to the destruction of the In China a new version of this Marxist-Leninist Isma‘ili fortresses in 1256, although isolated pieces of social evolutionary viewpoint developed by the late information date from as late as 1259. Juvaini certainly 1970s. This school emphasizes the discontinuity between planned to write more; spaces are left blank in one auto- the earlier steppe empires and the developing Mongol graph manuscript, and several promised chapters were tribe. The Mongols proper were in a primitive communal never written. He may have broken off his writing due to society until class differentiation from 1050 to 1200 pro- the press of business attendant on the governorship of duced an early slave state under Chinggis Khan. The con- Baghdad that he received in 1259, but more likely he quest of foreign feudal regimes, especially China, found writing about living khans to involve too much accelerated the advance toward feudalism, which under sacrifice of honesty to make the task worthwhile. QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) replaced the slave society. While The History of the World Conqueror is a classic exam- this view rightly emphasize the rapid social change both ple of the ornate style of Persian composition, full of among the preimperial Mongols and after the conquest extended similes, puns, and poetry, both original and and the significance of slavery and war captives in early quoted. Structurally it consists of three parts tracing 1) Mongol society, any analogy with Greco-Roman slavery the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN and his successors ÖGEDEI noted by Marx and Engels seems very forced. KHAN and GÜYÜUG KHAN from poverty and obscurity to The breakdown of the post–World War II ideological world dominion; 2) the fall of the KHORAZM shahs, and barriers opens the possibility for rethinking both social evo- with them Iran as a whole, from wealth and glory to lutionary and cyclical schemes for understanding Mongo- humiliation and destruction; and 3) the rise of MÖNGKE lian history. A more flexible and realistic understanding of KHAN and the Toluid branch of the Chinggisid family to the interaction between exogenous and endogenous forces the khanship, displacing the descendants of Ögedei. He also seems needed. Cultural anthropological approaches, also digresses on the history of the UIGHURS and the such as Roberte Hamayon’s ambitious 1990 analysis of ISMA‘ILIS. As this summary makes clear, the ultimate shamanist Mongolian culture in terms of society divided theme of the work is the instability of human affairs. into moieties engaged in marriage exchange, offer fresh Juvaini believed deeply in the divine predestination of all new views. events, including those that were the most catastrophic See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; for Islam, such as the Mongol invasion. While he pointed APPANAGE SYSTEM; KINSHIP SYSTEM; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE out certain advantages that Mongol rule was bringing to MONGOL EMPIRE; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD. orthodox Islam, such as the resettlement of Muslims in Höhhot 219 Mongolia and China and the destruction of the Isma‘ili Manchus. The Han (ethnic Chinese) are everywhere “Heretics,” his belief in God’s ultimate inscrutability freed dominant, demographically, culturally, and linguistically. him from the need to palliate the disaster, and he The suburban district occupies 2,000 square kilometers described in harrowing detail both the massacres of the (770 square miles) and has 322,000 people, of whom conquest and the rampant maladministration of Mongol Mongols form 25,000 and other nonethnic Chinese rule. Only the third part, on the rise of the serving minorities 3,800. emperor Möngke, sometimes degenerates into the flattery Höhhot is Inner Mongolia’s center of administration, of the court historian. communications, publishing and media, education, and Juvaini’s history was widely read in the Persian health care. Of the region’s higher education institutions, world. His successor as historian of the Mongols, 80 percent are in Höhhot. It is also Inner Mongolia’s sec- RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH, incorporated in both Persian ond largest industrial center after the steel city of BAO- and Arabic large parts of the History of the World Con- TOU, producing 15 percent of Inner Mongolia’s total queror into his encyclopedic Jami‘al-tawarikh, or COM- industrial output. Machine tools, textiles, and food pro- PENDIUM OF CHRONICLES, with editing to match his own cessing are the main industrial sectors. plain style and differing point of view. In this form Höhhot’s Mongol population is composed of local Juvaini’s historical accomplishment reached an even Chinese-speaking TÜMED Mongols and auslanders who wider readership. arrived after 1954 to staff the autonomous region’s central See also ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE. administrative offices and Mongolian-language cultural Further reading: ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini, The organs. Since the children of the auslanders growing up History of the World Conqueror, 2 vols., trans. John in Höhhot’s Chinese-speaking urban environment gener- Andrew Boyle (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University ally cannot communicate effectively in Mongolian, new Press, 1958). Mongolian-language teachers, broadcasters, editors, and so on are continually being brought into Höhhot from Hoboksar See KHOBOGSAIR MONGOL AUTONOMOUS Inner Mongolia’s rural areas. COUNTY. HISTORY Höhhot began as one of several small towns built on the Hö’elün See Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN. Tümed plain under the Mongol ruler ALTAN KHAN (1508–82) from 1557 on. Altan Khan’s Tümeds had long Höhhot (Huhhot, Kökeqota, Khökhkhot, Huhehaote; been at least semiagricultural, and the khan attracted reli- Guisui) First built by Altan Khan in the 16th century, gious, economic, and political refugees from China and Höhhot had become a provincial Chinese frontier town patronized Buddhism. before being chosen in 1954 as the capital of China’s In 1575 the Chinese MING DYNASTY bestowed on one Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. The name, from of Altan Khan’s towns the title Guihua, “Return to Cul- Mongolian Khökhe-Khota, means “Blue Town.” Höhhot ture.” Guihua was called Höhhot in Mongolian. In Gui- is situated on the Tümed plain in central Inner Mongolia hua Altan Khan and his successors constructed many at slightly over 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) above sea level. temples: Yeke Juu (Great Monastery, Chinese, Dazhao, The level and well-watered plain abuts the Huang (Yel- 1579), Shireetü Juu (1602), and Five-Pagoda Monastery low) River and is separated from the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU (Chinese, Wutasi, 1727). A small fortress was built in the to the north by the Daqing Shan Mountains. Average tem- north of the built-up area. The fortress and temples were peratures range from 21.8°C (71.2°F) in July to –13.5°C the nucleus of Höhhot’s “Old Town,” or Yuquan district. (7.7°F) in January. The average annual precipitation is Hui merchants gathered north of the gate of Guihua’s 426.1 millimeters (16.8 inches). fortress, building a mosque in 1693 and forming the nucleus of the modern Hui Peoples’ district. In the 18th POPULATION AND ECONOMY and 19th centuries, Guihua was a hub of caravan trade Administratively, Höhhot municipality includes three with Outer Mongolia. urban districts, the suburban district, Tümed Left Banner In 1735–39 the QING DYNASTY built a large garrison (Tumd Zuoqi), and Tohtoh county. Covering 6,100 town, Suiyuan (Rule the Distant), about 3 kilometers (2 square kilometers (2,355 square miles), the municipality miles) northeast of Guihua. The town’s jiangjun, or gen- has 1,441,641 people of whom 132,659 are Mongols. eral in chief (see AMBAN) supervised southwestern Inner Höhhot’s three urban districts—New Town (Chinese, Mongolia with a garrison of EIGHT BANNERS bannermen. Xincheng), Yuquan (commonly called Old Town), and Suiyuan boasted a regular grid of wide streets, unlike Huimin (Hui People)—occupy 58 square kilometers (22 Guihua’s warren of winding lanes, but Guihua remained square miles) and had a population of 625,900 in 1990. the commercial center. These include 72,900 Mongols (12 percent), 28,000 Hui In 1913 the government of the new Republic of (Chinese-speaking Muslims), and more than 17,000 China unified Guihua and Suiyuan as Guisui. Although 220 Ho-nan Five-Pagoda Monastery (Chinese, Wutasi) 1727, in Höhhot (Courtesy of Christopher Atwood) the Mongolian caravan trade declined, Guisui became the 1996); William R. Jankowiak, Sex, Death, and Hierarchy in seat of Suiyuan, a special region, and then (from 1928) a a Chinese City: An Anthropological Account (New York: province covering modern southwest Inner Mongolia. In Columbia University Press, 1993). 1921–22 railroads, electricity, and telephones all came to Höhhot. In 1937, with Japanese occupation, Guisui was Ho-nan See HENAN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. renamed Höhhot (Chinese, Houhecheng) and became briefly the center of PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB’s höömii See THROAT SINGING. autonomous Inner Mongolian government. With Japan’s surrender Inner Mongolia’s Höhhot again became Horchin See KHORCHIN. Suiyuan’s Guisui, continuing as such through the 1949 surrender to the Communists. In 1954, however, Suiyuan was annexed to the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Horqin See KHORCHIN. Region, and on April 25 Guisui was renamed Höhhot (Chinese, Huhehaote) and made capital of the INNER horse-head fiddle (morin khuur, morin huur) The MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION. Only since then have horse-head fiddle is the emblematic musical instrument the “Old,” “New,” and Hui towns merged into one conur- of traditional Mongolian music. bation. The horse-head fiddle, or morin khuur, is one of sev- See also BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-GYUR; CHINESE TRADE eral Mongolian fretless spike fiddles. The horse-head fid- AND MONEYLENDING; INNER MONGOLIANS; SECOND CON- dle, as its name suggests, has a horse head carved on the VERSION; SUTRA OF THE WISE AND FOOLISH. scroll. It has two strings and lateral tuning pegs called Further reading: Piper Rae Gaubatz, Beyond the “ears.” The body is a trapezoidal box with the thicker end Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese downward. A movable wooden bridge or string loop is Frontiers (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, used to modify the pitch. Traditionally, the body was cov- horse racing 221 ered with the hide of suckling camel, sheep, or goat or sometimes of celestial origin, who traveled to his fairy sometimes snakeskin. The strings are made of horsehair love on a magical winged horse. When his jealous ordi- from a gelding, preferably a champion racer. The average nary wife clipped the horse’s wings, the horse died; the modern fiddle is a little over 1 meter or about 3.5 feet first horse-head fiddle was made as the horse’s memorial. long. The horse-head form is traditional among the The horse-head fiddle’s status as the emblem of Mon- KHALKHA and INNER MONGOLIANS, but not among the golian tradition was marked in the painting Old Fiddler OIRATS. (1958) by ÜRJINGIIN YADAMSÜREN, one of the path-break- Mongolian two-string fiddles are traditionally played ing works in the neotraditional MONGOL ZURAG style. In with the musician seated on the ground and the instru- visits from 1966 to 1968, the award-winning Russian vio- ment between the legs. The fiddle’s base is placed in the lin maker Denis Vladimirovich Iarovoi trained Mongolian ground, and the sound box is rested against the left thigh fiddle makers in new ways to make the horse-head fiddle face outward. The strings are not pressed against the more effective as a concert hall instrument. Iarovoi and neck, but rather pushed lightly, by a knuckle or nail, from his Mongolian pupils established the new standard in the the side, above, or below. In bowing, the tension on the fiddle’s construction, in which the sound box was made bow hairs is governed by the bow hand’s pinkie finger. entirely of wood, with two f-shaped sound holes, and the The horse-head fiddle was traditionally used to bow was flat, not arched. The tuning and fingering were accompany long songs (urtyn duu). In YURTS it was kept also changed to accord with Western instruments. The in the honored khoimor (rear) section on the western social role of the instrument also changed. Women began (male) side, with a KHADAG scarf tied to the bridge. Men- to play the fiddle, and the Ikh Chuulga folk orchestra was strual taboos prevented it being placed between a created with horse-head fiddles, ranging in size up to that woman’s legs, barring them from playing it. Legends of of the countrabass, as one of the main instruments. A the origin of the first horse-head fiddle speak of a man, parallel process of modernization, influenced by Chinese performance ideas, took place in Inner Mongolia. See also MUSIC. Further reading: Peter K. Marsh, The Horse-Head Fiddle and the Reimagination of Tradition in Mongolia (New York: Routledge Press, 2004). horse racing Horse racing is one of Mongolia’s “three manly games,” although ironically it is today most often performed by young boys and girls. Mongolian horse rac- ing was one of the important games (NAADAM) connected with summer religious ceremonies, such as the libation of mare’s milk, the OBOO sacrifice, and the DANSHUG cere- monies offered to INCARNATE LAMAS. In both Mongolian EPICS and in the Tibetan versions of the GESER epic the hero wins the hand of his bride by winning at a horse race. This seems to indicate that at the time of the crystal- lization of the epic tradition, around the late 17th–early 18th centuries, young men were the only riders. Today adults race only in special races to test amblers (joroo mori), which attract considerably less interest than the fast children’s races. In many ways Mongolian horse racing is more a test of the horse than of the rider and is an expression of the deep love and admiration that country-bred Mongols have for beautiful and strong horses. In fact, even if the jockey falls off, the horse is still considered as having completed the race if it crosses the finish line. In the National Holiday Naadam, the national championship in Mongolia, horses are divided into age categories, with only those six years and older racing the full 30 kilome- The Old Fiddler, by Ü. Yadamsüren, 1958. Mongol zurag ters (19 miles). The youngest horses are only two years style (gouache on cotton). 78 × 65 centimeters (From Orchin old and have a five-kilometer (3.1-mile) course. In Üyeiin Mongolyn Dürslekh Urlag [1971]) provincial naadams in western Mongolia, younger horses 222 horses OMBO, a red star (common in the days of communism), a blue star (common today), or the “endless knot” (a Bud- dhist symbol). About 1,300 to 1,600 horses compete in Mongolia’s National Holiday Naadam. The various age classes each begin the race with an elder leading the children in several clockwise circumambulations of the starting ground. The children sing a special song called the giingoo and slowly build up speed until the signal is given, and they sweep off at a gallop. Elders also accompany the race to make sure no one is injured and no horses are lost. When the horses finally pass the finish line, the judge chants a long magtaal (praise) of the winning horse (see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL) and presents the jockey with a handful of crumbly cheese before anointing the leading horse’s head and flanks with KOUMISS, or fermented mare’s milk. Taking a sip of koumiss himself, he passes it to the winning jockey, who sips it and passes it to the horse’s owner, who also sips. This is then repeated with the second horse and so on. Dif- ferent praises and titles are given to the leading horses in differing numbers, five in Mongolia today, nine in tradi- tional ORDOs, and so on. The very last horse, called the bayan khodood (rich belly), is also given a magtaal and an anointing. Prizes are given to the owners of the lead horses, who generally share them with the jockey. horses The horse was not only the basis of Mongolia’s ancient military prowess, virtually the sole means of human transport, and the source of nourishing KOUMISS (fermented mare’s milk), it was also the wise councillor Regular (left) and felt racing saddle (right) hung up near the in Mongolian EPICS; its hair supplied the standards that door of a yurt. Shiliin Gol, Inner Mongolia, 1987 (Courtesy symbolized the majesty of the state; and its picture is a Christopher Atwood) frequent adornment of Mongols’ homes. Mongolia has 2,660,700 horses, the seventh largest horse herd in the world and is the only country where horses outnumber are sometimes banned on the grounds that premature people. racing can ruin their promise. Mongols usually ride only Traditional Mongolian regional breeds average from geldings, and mares are not allowed in the race. Dark col- 130–131 centimeters (12.8–12.9 hands) high for stallions ored horses are preferred. and 125–129 centimeters (12.3–12.7 hands) for mares The horse trainer, or uyaach, begins training and and weigh from around 316–370 kilograms (697–816 conditioning the horse a month or two before the race, pounds) for stallions and 296–350 kilograms (653–772 paying special attention to its weight. The proper child is pounds) for mares. The head is large, the croup is slop- also selected. Before racing, the tails and manes of the ing, and the belly of a range-fed horse is large. Despite horses are tied, both to make it easier for the horses to these (to the European eye) unattractive proportions, run and to excite the horses for the race. The harness and Mongolian horses are famous for their ability to run hard saddle are also given ornamental studs. and long on very scanty fodder and are generally good Today the jockeys are children from six to 10 years natured. While shoeing has been known from the Middle old, whose light weight permits the horses to go farther Ages, it is done only on either very valuable horses or and faster in the grueling cross-country race. Instead of those used on paved ground. Mongolian mares are the wooden Mongolian saddle, jockeys traditionally ride milked six to eight times a day and with good pasture can on light felt pads without stirrups to ease the horse’s run- produce about 7.5 liters (7.9 quarts) of milk daily. The ning. Today, however, the children in Mongolia’s national hair of horse manes is used to make brushes, brooms, naadam ride with regular saddles and stirrups. Jockeys ropes, and the girths for Mongolian YURTS. wear a special colored shirt and a cap with a conical Before Buddhism horses were the most honored sac- front. Emblematic symbols on the cap include the SOY- rificial animal. The horse sacrifice and meal was a key horses 223 part of Inner Asian funerary practice from the Bronze Age rups were anciently made of wood or bone but are today (1500–800 B.C.E.) through the great nomadic empires. made of steel and have a round base. The stirrup leather Horse sacrifices to the ancestors continued during the is relatively short and usually not adjustable to the rider’s summer among the shamanist western BURIATS of Ust’- height. Saddle girths are usually made of a braided rope Orda and Ol’khon. Elsewhere missionaries of the SECOND of wool or camel’s hair twisted with horse or cattle molt. CONVERSION to Buddhism in the 16th–17th centuries suc- Leather girths are sometimes used but are considered to cessfully aroused disgust with this killing and had the be hard on the horse for long journeys. The Mongols use horse sacrifice banned. Since then, for most Mongols eat- a snaffle bit. Mongolian whips have a long wooden body, ing horsemeat has became somewhat disreputable. (The a thong for holding, and a strap of 25–30 centimeters cult of CHINGGIS KHAN at the EIGHT WHITE YURTS was an (10–12 inches) at the end for whipping. Spurs are not exception.) The ancient practice continued of dedicating used. For capturing horses the Mongols use primarily an horses and other livestock to heaven (TENGGERI), the uurga, formed of a two-piece wooden pole 6–7 meters clan, or local spirits by having seter (Tibetan, se-ter), or (20–23 feet) long and a 1.5–2 meters (5–6.6 feet) long colored cloth strips, tied to them. Such animals could not leather strip tied in a loop on the end. Sometimes a sim- be ridden or sold. ple lasso is used. The Mongolian saddle is formed of a wooden frame- Mongols generally ride geldings, and riding a mare is work mounted on a leather flap and is placed over a felt considered unmanly. The gelded testicles of large animals saddle pad. The seat is high, with only a small space are not eaten but either offered to the fire (see FIRE CULT) between the high pommel and cantle, and has an or hung on the horse’s mane or tail; in any case they must attached padded cushion. Leather strips hanging from the be kept from birds and dogs. After gelding the horse is fed saddle in pairs are used to tie game or other items. Stir- on milk and cheeses for three to seven days. Countryside Mongolian horse with saddle. A white padding has been placed over the saddle. Ordos, Inner Mongolia, 1987 (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) 224 Hoshut Mongols keep at least one horse always available at their with Russian, is slightly larger than the Mongolian horse camp for riding, while the other horses roam on the and yields more milk. Improved breeds, with heights of steppe in a semiwild state. Since riding horses cannot 140–150 centimeters (13.8–14.8 hands), in China graze well, they must be rotated every week or so. When include the Three Rivers horse, created by White Russian horses need to be switched, gelded, or milked, the horse refugees in HULUN BUIR, and the Khorchin horse. herd is brought to the camp or other convenient spot. See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; DAIRY Horse herding is considered men’s work. PRODUCTS; FOOD AND DRINK; HORSE RACING. HISTORY Hoshut See KHOSHUDS. After first domesticating the horse around 4000 B.C.E. in Ukraine as a draft animal, the people of the Inner Asian steppe began riding around 800 B.C.E. The overwhelming Hoton See KHOTONG. importance of the horse as a weapon of war is illustrated by the fact that in 1188 C.E. 32 percent of the animals on Hovd See KHOWD CITY. the eastern Inner Mongolian pastures were horses. Since horses were so numerous, it is not surprising that Hövsgöl See KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE. koumiss, or fermented mare’s milk, is by far the most commonly mentioned dairy product in the Mongol diet of the 13th century. (On the training and armor of Mongo- hP‘ags-pa Lama See ’PHAGS-PA LAMA. lian war mounts, see MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE.) The long peace in the 19th century allowed the per- Hsien-pi See XIANBI. centage of horses to decline. Figures for the eastern Khalkha show the percentage of horses at about 15 per- Hsi-Hsia See XIA DYNASTY. cent in 1800 and 13 percent in 1825–41. By 1918 the per- centage of horses among Mongolia’s livestock had dropped to 11.9 percent. Nobles still kept vast numbers Hsiung-nu See XIONGNU. of horses: In 1841 the 20 zasags (ruling noblemen) of Setsen Khan province each had on average almost 700 Huan’erzui, Battle of At the Battle of Huan’erzui horses, which formed 22.8 percent of their combined (Badger’s Mouth) in February 1212, the Mongols under total herds. By contrast the average commoner (arad) CHINGGIS KHAN delivered a legendary defeat to the field family had only 3.4 horses, which formed only 11.0 per- armies of the Jin dynasty in North China. cent of their combined herds. Although the Mongols had advanced as far as the After the 1921 REVOLUTION the percentage of horses capital of North China’s JIN DYNASTY in 1211, they with- dropped as low as 7.1 percent in 1929 before rising again drew to the Jin frontier in Inner Mongolia that winter. In to more than 10 percent. Absolute numbers temporarily February 1212 the Mongols took the border prefecture of peaked at 2,502,700 head in 1960, with horses forming Huanzhou (near modern Zhenglan Qi) and besieged 10.9 percent of all livestock before beginning a slow Fuzhou. The Jin emperor dispatched the bandit-suppres- decline. From 1990 to 1999 the number of horses sion commissioner, Heshilie Jiujin, to lead the crack cav- increased along with those of Mongolia’s total herd, alry of the ruling Jurchen people and KITANS, assisted by jumping from 2,262,000 (8.7 percent) in 1990 to Han (ethnic Chinese) infantry under two civil officials, 3,163,500 (9.4 percent) in 1999. Horse numbers were Duji Qianjianu and Hu Sha. The force totaled several seriously damaged by the 2000 and 2001 ZUD (winter dis- hundred thousand. aster). Mare’s milk production in 1992 was 8 million Leaving Hu Sha with infantry at Huihebao Fort liters (2.1 million gallons), or 6.9 percent of Mongolia’s (modern Huai’an), Heshilie Jiujin and Duji Qianjianu total milk production. While horses are found all over advanced past Yehuling (Fox Range) into Inner Mongo- Mongolia, the KHANGAI RANGE is the center of horse lia. While certain Kitan commanders advocated a surprise breeding. NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE and SOUTH KHANGAI attack, Heshilie Jiujin preferred to advance his troops in a PROVINCE, CENTRAL PROVINCE, KHENTII PROVINCE, and body and sent an envoy to Chinggis Khan denouncing KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE have high numbers of horses. In his invasion. The Mongols besieging Fuzhou (in Inner Inner Mongolia the number of horses rose from 487,000 Mongolia) had been eating breakfast but formed up in 1947 to 1,963,000 in 1980, but since then has declined quickly after hearing of the Jin advance. Although the to 1,692,000 (1990, midyear figures) or 1,567,500 (year- Mongols were vastly outnumbered, MUQALI, Chinggis end figure). Khan’s trusted NÖKÖR (companion), led a cavalry charge, Traditional Mongolian horses are found in several discomfiting the Jin ranks. The main Mongol force then local breeds, such as the Tes River, Galshar, small Dar- moved up to shatter the Jin troops. Pursuing the fugitives khad, and Üjümüchin horses. The Buriat horse, crossbred more than 48 kilometers (30 miles) they met Hu Sha’s Hüle’ü 225 rear guard at Huihebao Fort, crushing it. The flower of while, Öljei Khatun’s brother Buqa-Temür sacked Wasit Jin soldiery was destroyed in this battle, which became (February–March 1258), and Hüle’ü’s son Yoshmut and legendary among the Mongols. The victory was attributed his commander Elege of the JALAYIR captured rebellious to the fighting qualities of the Mongol cavalry, Heshilie Mayyafariqin (near modern Silvan, fell in spring 1260) Jiujin’s excessive caution and reliance on numbers, and and Mardin. Only Homs, Hamath, and Damascus (Febru- the disaffection of many Kitan commanders, who ary 1260) were not destroyed. resented Jurchen control. After the fall of Aleppo, Hüle’ü received news of See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. Möngke Khan’s August 1259 death in China and with- drew to Armenia, leaving his vanguard commander, KED- Huhehaote See HÖHHOT. BUQA, in the Levant with 10,000 or so soldiers. Sensing opportunity, the sultan of MAMLUK EGYPT, Qutuz, advanced on the reckless Ked-Buqa, killing him at the Huhhot See HÖHHOT. Battle of ‘Ain Jalut (September 1260) and quickly recov- ering from the Mongols all the lost land up to the Hulagu See HÜLE’Ü. Euphrates. Qutuz’s successor, Sultan Baybars, defeated a second Mongol expedition into Syria in December. In Hülegü See HÜLE’Ü. 1261 the Mamluks instigated rebellions in Mosul and Jazirah (Cizre), suppression of which occupied the Mon- Hüle’ü (Hülegü, Hulagu) (1217–1265) Conqueror of gols until summer 1262. Baghdad and founder of the Mongol Il-Khan dynasty in the THE NEW KHANATE Middle East Hüle’ü was the third son of TOLUI (1191?–1232) and his Hüle’ü, although infuriated by these challenges, was Kereyid main wife, SORQAQTANI BEKI (d. 1252). Hüle’ü’s unable to respond due to the hostility of the Jochid ruler, first wife, Güyüg (or Köpek) Khatun of the OIRATS, was Berke (1257–66). Previously, Iran and the Caucasus had Hüle’ü’s second cousin on her mother’s side. She bore him belonged to the Jochid branch, but Möngke and Hüle’ü a son, Jumqur (1234–64), and a daughter before dying covertly planned to turn the area into a separate ulus early. She was replaced as wife by the QONGGIRAD Qutui (realm) of the Toluid branch. From around 1258 Hüle’ü Khatun and by Güyüg’s half-sister Öljei, yet two-thirds of proclaimed his status as Il-Khan (subordinate khan), Hüle’ü’s 21 known children and all his favored sons were using his allegiance to Great Khan Möngke to carve out born of concubines. for himself a new realm. The suspicious deaths of a num- ber of Jochid princes and Hüle’ü’s destruction of the CONQUESTS AND DEFEATS IN THE MIDDLE EAST caliph and many Muslim cities added to the anger of Immediately after his eldest brother, MÖNGKE KHAN’s, Berke, a Muslim convert. election as khan in 1251, Hüle’ü was appointed to admin- After Möngke’s death his brothers Qubilai and ARIQ- ister North China. In summer 1252, however, Möngke BÖKE went to war. Hüle’ü’s son Jumqur, left behind in gave North China to Hüle’ü’s elder brother QUBILAI KHAN Almaligh, joined Ariq-Böke’s army, but Berke supported and assigned to Hüle’ü the conquest of the caliph of Ariq-Böke, and by 1262 Hüle’ü threw his support to Baghdad (see ‘ABBASID CALIPHATE). In preparation Möngke Qubilai. Hüle’ü ordered his son to leave Ariq-Böke’s army ordered two of every 10 men in the Mongol military to and join him in the Middle East. Jumghur and Qutui accompany Hüle’ü, along with imperial princes of the Khatun set out, but Jumqur died on the way, and Qutui Jochid and Chaghatayid lines and commanders (NOYAN) Khatun reached Iran only after Hüle’ü’s death. of his in-law (QUDA) clan, the Oirats. In summer 1262 Berke sent his nephew NOQAI south Around this time Hüle’ü also married his KEREYID against Hüle’ü. Both sides mobilized vast resources, but stepmother, TOGHUS KHATUN. Although they had no chil- the seesawing conflict ended with a humiliating defeat for dren, he greatly respected her judgment, and she accom- Hüle’ü’s advancing army on the Terek (January 13, 1263). panied him on campaigns along with Öljei Khatun and Meanwhile, Qubilai Khan, having defeated Ariq-Böke, several concubines. He also took his sons Abagha confirmed Hüle’ü as the Mongol ruler from the Amu (1234–82) and Yoshmut (d. 1271) but left Jumqur Dar’ya to Egypt. Hüle’ü’s dynasty for decades remained behind along with Qutui Khatun. hostile to Egypt to the southwest and to the Jochids’ Arriving in Khorasan in winter 1255–56, Hüle’ü vic- GOLDEN HORDE to the north and allied with Qubilai as toriously besieged the Isma‘ili fortress of Alamut great khan in the east. (November 20, 1256), the ‘Abbasid caliph in Baghdad (February 10, 1258), Aleppo (January 1260), and many TERRITORIES AND ADMINISTRATION lesser cities, butchering the vanquished (see BAGHDAD, To feed his nomadic appanage, Hüle’ü took over the rich SIEGE OF). Since several had come out with guarantees of steppes of Azerbaijan, relocating the TAMMACHI (garrison) safety, Hüle’ü acquired a reputation for perfidy. Mean- army of Baiju to Seljük TURKEY. In 1262 Hüle’ü gave 226 Hulun Buir Khorasan and Mazandaran to his heir apparent, Abagha, soon after, and Abagha (r. 1265–82) succeeded his father and northern Azerbaijan (Arran) up to the Caucasus to as Il-Khan that summer. Yoshmut. He himself nomadized in southern Azerbaijan See also ‘AIN JALUT, BATTLE OF; IL-KHANATE; TIBET AND and Armenia, building a palace at Ala Da˘g. The Kurdish THE MONGOL EMPIRE. area of the upper Tigris was also assigned to his newly arrived Mongol entourage (see KURDISTAN). Hulun Buir (Khölön Buir) The Inner Mongolian While Hüle’ü received the full submission of the Autonomous Region’s most multiethnic region, Hulun client kingdoms of southern Iran, virtually all the previ- Buir has always had a distinct identity from the rest of ously tributary Muslim rulers in the west rebelled against Inner Mongolia. his rule. Only the Turkmen Seljukid and Artuqid dynas- ties in Anatolia and Mardin survived as major client king- MODERN POPULATION AND ECONOMY doms. Hüle’ü’s early reign also saw trouble with the Traditionally, Hulun Buir included the region west of the Mongols’ Christian subjects. From winter 1258–59, Khinggan watershed extending to the borders of KHALKHA Hüle’ü’s agent in GEORGIA, ARGHUN AQA, pressed Hüle’ü’s Mongolia and Russia. This area, now including the Barga, heavy tax demands and arrested many Georgio-Armenian Ewenki, and Ergüne (Ergun) BANNERS and Yakeshi, nobles, driving the Georgian kings into flight. Only in Hailar, and Manzhouli cities, covers more than 161,000 November 1262, when Hüle’ü had his vizier, Saif-ud-Din square kilometers (62,160 square miles). This area’s pop- Bitigchi, and several of his underlings executed, did he ulation of 1,264,100 in 1990 included 146,400 Mongols, and his new vizier, Shams-ud-Din Juvaini, try to imple- or 12 percent of the total. Daurs were another 2 percent, ment a more sustainable administration (see JUVAINI, and EWENKIS (Solons) 0.08 percent. The Mongols here ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK AND SHAMS-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD). belong to four quite different groups: 1) the BARGA, set- tled in the area in 1732–34; 2) the ÖÖLÖD, who were set- RELIGIOUS INTERESTS tled in the area in 1732; 3) the Buriats, newly immigrated Hüle’ü’s mother, Sorqaqtani Beki, had been a Christian of from Russia in 1922 (see BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER the Assyrian Church of the East, and although raised by a MONGOLIA); and 4) recent Inner Mongolian immigrants, non-Christian nurse, the memory of his mother gave mostly KHORCHIN. Hüle’ü a sentimental attachment to her Christian faith. Economically and demographically, old Hulun Buir Toghus Khatun was openly Christian, keeping a chapel at may be divided into two areas, the steppe zone, includ- her ORDO (palace-tent) and interceding for Christians. ing the Barga and Ewenki banners, and the forest zone, When permitted by his interests, Hüle’ü showed special including Yakeshi and the two Ergüne banners. The favor to Armenian and Georgian nobles and clergy. In the steppe zone, where most of the area’s Mongols live, has siege of Baghdad Christians were spared, and the palace 1,670,000 head of livestock, of which 1,215,000 are of the caliph was given to the Assyrian catholicos (patri- sheep and goats. Coal mining is also important. The arch) as a church. Christian writers admired Hüle’ü as a forest zone, sparsely inhabited by Öölöd Mongols, scourge of their Muslim oppressors. Daurs, and Ewenkis in 1949, has been intensively Nevertheless, Hüle’ü’s personal beliefs revolved developed since then as China’s largest forestry region. around astrology, Buddhism, and alchemy. During the The region’s capital, Hailar, has a population of 205,700 attack on Baghdad the commander and astrologer (1990 figures). Husam-ud-Din predicted catastrophe for anyone who In 1949 the eastern slopes of the GREATER KHINGGAN harmed the caliph. Hüle’ü was nervous until the Isma‘ili RANGE and the Nonni (Nen) valley were also attached to scholar Nasir-ud-Din Tusi presented historical counterex- Hulun Buir. Within these larger boundaries Hulun Buir amples. Afterward, when the conquest was accomplished, covers 250,000 square kilometers (96,500 square miles) he had a magnificent observatory built at Maragheh for and has a population of 2,551,763, including 185,400 Nasir-ud-Din and executed Husam-ud-Din. Chinese arti- Mongols (7 percent), 65,318 Daurs (2.5 percent), 22,808 sans constructed a Buddhist temple at Khvoy, where Ewenkis, and 2,744 Orochens. The economy of Hulun Hüle’ü frequently performed Buddhist prostrations. Buir east of the Khinggan watershed is based on farming Hüle’ü patronized alchemists claiming to have the elixir in the lowlands and forestry in the uplands. of life, and the Assyrian bishop Henan Isho (d. 1268) in rebellious Jazirah (Cizre) rescued his city and became its SETTLEMENT governor by promising to reveal the art of transmuting From the mid-17th century Hulun Buir was temporarily base metals into gold. vacant due to the wars and deportations accompanying Hüle’ü’s fell ill in February 1265 after several days of the rise of China’s last QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). In banqueting and hunting, and he died early on February 8 1732 the Qing resettled the Hulun Buir steppe with as a comet appeared in the sky. He was buried in a qoruq “Solons” (Ewenkis and Daurs), Old Barga and Öölöd (forbidden spot) with treasure and maidens at Kuh-e- Mongols, and Orochens to fortify the newly defined bor- Shahu (northwest of Kermanshah). Toghus Khatun died der with Russia. Two years later another large contingent hunting and fishing 227 of New Barga Mongols were settled there as well. All Region after being merged with the Daur and Ewenki- these ethnically diverse peoples were enrolled in the inhabited Nonni valley east of the Greater Khinggan EIGHT BANNERS militia forces and used Manchu for official Range. In 1954 the addition of the northern Khorchin purposes. areas further diluted Hulun Buir’s distinct identity. The Under the Qing, Hulun Buir was administered by the steppe herds were collectivized in June–September 1958. fudutong (deputy military lieutenant governor; Manchu, During the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) former rich meiren-i janggin) resident in Hailar, who was always a herders were attacked, and Mongols and Daurs with bannerman from Manchuria or Beijing. While generally knowledge of Russian or connections over the Mongo- called “Bargas” by Russians and Khalkhas, Hulun Buir’s lian frontier were savagely persecuted in the “NEW INNER soldiery was multiethnic, including on the official roster MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY” CASE. In 864 New Bargas, 185 Old Bargas, about 1,295 “Solons” 1969, at the height of the SINO-SOVIET SPLIT, Hulun Buir (mostly Ewenkis but with about 200 Daurs), 117 was detached from Inner Mongolia and attached to Hei- Orochen, and 136 Öölöds. longjiang province. In 1979 the Cultural Revolution policies were MODERN HISTORY denounced, and Hulun Buir was returned to Inner Mon- In 1900 Russia built the Chinese Eastern Railway across golia. (The Khorchin area was no longer included, leav- Northern Manchuria, bringing Hulun Buir into the Rus- ing Hulun Buir league with the steppe and Nonni valley sian sphere of influence. In 1908 the Qing’s NEW POLICIES areas.) In 1983–85 first herds and then range land were curtailed Hulun Buir’s autonomy and promoted coloniza- privatized. In January 1988 Beijing made Hulun Buir an tion. These moves bred violent opposition, and on Jan- experimental area for economic reform, resulting in uary 15, 1912, the Hulun Buir bannermen occupied increased trade, investment, and tourism with Russia. In Hailar, declaring their merger with newly independent 2002 Hulun Buir league was renamed Hulun Buir Mongolia. New Barga officials such as GRAND DUKE municipality. DAMDINSÜRÜNG (1874–1920) won high position in Mon- See also DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; INNER MONGO- golia. In 1915, however, Russian pressure forced Hulun LIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGOLIANS; THEO- Buir to became an autonomous “special region” under CRATIC PERIOD. joint Russo-Chinese supervision. Further reading: A. Hurelbaatar, “The Transforma- In 1920, with the chaos of Russia’s civil war, the offi- tion of the Inner Mongolian Pastoral Economy: The Case cials in Hailar negotiated a return to China under semiau- of Hulun Buir League,” in Culture and Environment in tonomy. In 1922 Buriat anticommunist refugees were Inner Asia, vol. 2, Society and Culture, ed. Caroline organized into their own banner on the Shinekhen River. Humphrey and David Sneath (Cambridge, Mass.: White During the 1920s Hulun Buir became a major center of Horse Press, 1996), 160–175; Burton Pasternak and Janet the wool trade, dominated by American and British com- W. Salaff, Cowboys and Cultivators: The Chinese in Inner panies. Meanwhile, young Daurs and Barga Mongols pur- Mongolia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993). sued education in Japan, Russia, Mongolia, and even the United States and formed pan-Mongolist parties. In Hungary See CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. July–September 1928 the Daurs MERSE (Guo Daofu, 1894–1934?) and Fumingtai (Buyangerel, 1898–1938) led an unsuccessful pan-Mongolist insurrection in New Huns See XIONGNU. Barga territory. In 1932, after Japanese occupation, Hulun Buir was hunting and fishing Hunting and fishing were impor- made the autonomous Khinggan North province. All tant activities for the ancient Mongols, which, however, Hulun Buir’s bannermen were now officially considered by the 18th century had fallen into disrepute among the Mongols, and Mongolian replaced Manchu as the official strongly Buddhist-influenced Mongols of Khalkha and language. The Soviet Union’s August 1945 invasion Inner Mongolia. Hunting among the Mongols had two raised pan-Mongolist hopes despite widespread destruc- main forms: the battue hunt carried on by a large number tion and plunder, yet diplomatic considerations again of people and the small-scale hunt involving one or a few blocked unification with Mongolia. The Soviet authori- hunters. In the 13th century game formed a substantial ties reappointed the old officials to a new Hulun Buir part of the Mongols’ meat supply. At QUBILAI KHAN’s court Autonomous government. the great khan’s table was supplied from October to Pan-Mongolist revolutionary parties operated in March with meat sent by court hunters and by game sent Soviet-dominated Hulun Buir until October 1947, when as tribute from nearby commanders, while skins were Chinese Communist pressure brought Hulun Buir into sent from those farther away. Battue hunting was strictly its Inner Mongolian Autonomous government as a seasonal and forbidden during the birthing season or the LEAGUE. In 1949 Hulun Buir league was made a con- summer, but small-scale hunting was carried on through- stituent part of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous out the year, limited only by natural conditions. 228 hunting and fishing The fur trade was a long-standing part of North animal. Smoke was used to block marmots or badgers Asian political institutions. From ancient times the from leaving their holes while other hunters burrowed Siberian and Manchurian peoples have both sold and sur- into their holes. Elongated loops of horsehair triggered by rendered in tribute furs to their nomadic neighbors (see hand or on long sticks were used to catch birds and small GOLDEN HORDE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SHIWEI; animals. The northern forest peoples, or “Uriyangkhai,” SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). The nomads then of the 13th century and the Tuvans today hunt on skis either used these furs themselves or traded them to the and exhaust the prey with a long chase. Bears were some- sedentary peoples to the south. Some Mongolian peoples, times hunted by blocking the mouth of their dens, pro- such as the BURIATS of southern Siberia and the ALTAI voking them to try to come out, and firing at them. URIYANGKHAI of northwestern Mongolia, themselves paid Crossbows with triggers set up in animal paths were the a fur tribute, whether to Khalkha Mongols of the steppe main method used against moose, elk, deer, bear, and fur- or to the Russian or Manchu Qing Empires. Squirrels and bearing mammals; the 17th–18th-century Mongolian sables were always the principal animals in this fur trade, legal codes contained provisions for compensating per- but ermine, marten, bear, lynx, otter, fox, and wolf were sons injured by such traps. Roe deer and musk deer were also hunted for their furs and given in tribute. Furs were lured with squeakers. Whistling arrows were used to dis- also used by forest and steppe peoples alike for money or orient or flush out prey. moneylike uses such as bridewealth. Hunting was (and In hunting, a mount was helpful but not necessary. is) undertaken not only for food or furs but also to con- Some Tuvans and the EWENKIS in the Siberian mountain trol predators, especially the wolf. taiga used reindeer to reach their hunting grounds and to carry bag. Among the western Buriats and the Khamni- BATTUE HUNTS gan Ewenkis of the Onon-Shilka valleys and the Solon Accounts of battues from the 13th century, the late 16th Ewenkis of the Amur basin, horses were adopted before century, and from the western Buriats, Tuva, the Gobi other livestock as mounts for hunting. Khalkha, and ORDOS in the 18th–19th centuries are all similar. Men were mobilized to serve as beaters in a vast HUNTING CULTURE circle. Making noise, they gradually pulled the circle In recent centuries forest hunters have conceived of game tighter. Eventually the animals would be coralled and as the gift of the “Lord of the Forest,” known variously as shot with their arrows. Under the great khans, the Tümed Bayan-Khangai, “Rich Land” (Buriats) or Bayin-Achaa rulers of the 16th century, or the jinong (viceroy) of “Rich Father” (Daurs) or as “King of Beasts,” Manakhan Ordos, thousands participated, and the lines extended or Mani-Khan among the Khalkha. Bayan Mani, “Rich- over scores of kilometers, while among the TUVANS or Mani,” in Ordos seems to merge Manakhan with the Lord Buriats 20 to 100 or so might participate and the circles of the Forest. Prayers to the deity were required with the were up to a few kilometers wide. Each man carried only burning of aromatic herbs, while vaunting or boasting a limited number of arrows (30 among the Buriats), was prohibited. As a gift, all meat had to be shared which they recovered and reused during the hunt. Allow- equally by the participants, whether in battues or in ing an animal to escape the circle was a grave fault, but a small-group hunting, although the man who actually few animals were always released at the end to avoid brought down the animal usually received the hide or tempting fate. other nonmeat parts. Certain body parts were preserved Such battues were often conducted against traps, such and replaced in the forest so as to preserve the game ani- as ropes of horsehair attached to stakes, as described in mals’ spirit. Before the hunt direct reference to either the 13th-century Mongolia. Modern ethnographers describe hunt itself or to the prospective game animal was avoided the use of nets of goats’ hair tied to sagebrush in the by using circumlocutions. desert for catching rabbits or foxes, pens or pits in the Hunting was the quintessential manly activity, often steppe for saiga antelopes or gazelles, and barricades of seen as taking in marriage the seductive daughter or sis- felled logs in mountain passes for deer, elk, and moose. ter of the Lord of the Forest, who thus became the During these great collective hunts the Mongol rulers hunter’s marriage ally. Fidelity in intention to this also used beasts and birds of prey to kill the game: leop- intended bride meant that sexual relations were forbid- ards, lynxes, tigers (against wild boar, bears, wild asses or den before the hunt. Women were not allowed to step kulans, elk, and roebuck), goshawks, gerfalcons, peregrine over hunting equipment lest they pollute it with their and saker falcons, eagles, and mastiffs (see FALCONRY). Fal- menstrual blood. Shamans, whose sex-role identity was conry has disappeared among the Mongols, but the Ordos ambiguous, were also frequently excluded from hunting. Mongols still hunt with greyhounds (taiga). With the conversion to Buddhism hunting was attacked as a violent and evil activity. Neichi Toin SMALL-SCALE HUNTS (1557–1653), a Buddhist missionary, was shocked into Small-scale hunting techniques, practiced by individuals becoming a monk by witnessing the death throes of a preg- or small parties before the use of firearms, varied with the nant wild ass. By the 19th century government-organized hunting and fishing 229 battue hunts in the central Mongolian lands were no remained steady at 3,000 to 5,000 annually. Mongolia has longer held. Even so, small-scale hunting continued to also earned foreign currency by selling licenses to for- engage as many as half of poorer herding households, eigners at high prices to take coveted game, such as argali although avid young hunters often did penance later in sheep, ibex, and snow leopards. Since 1990 Mongolian life for their killing. In the 20th century, however, the deer herds have been harmed by poachers seeking blood new revolutionary governments encouraged hunting pre- antlers for sale in China, while herders have complained cisely because of its manly, antireligious, and lower-class that the discontinuation of the government-run predator- character and imbued it with a new ideology of warring control program (due to budgetary, not environmental on nature. reasons) has allowed wolves to run rampant. FIREARMS AND TRAPS FISHING Firearms appeared in Siberia and Mongolia in the 17th While never as important as hunting, fishing was seen as century in the form of flintlock rifles. Flintlocks were the a similar activity. The most common form of fishing in only firearms used in most areas until the turn of the the Mongol Empire was ice fishing in lakes and rivers. 20th century. While local gunsmiths were rare, many Only large fish were taken. Like hunting, fishing was hunters in remote districts could cast their own shot in seen as a gift, in this case from water deities, and was stone molds and mix gunpowder from saltpeter, charcoal, hedged about by many of the same traditional prohibi- and sheep’s dung. The flintlock on a stand not only tions. Fishers used bow and arrows, hooks, their bare increased the effectiveness of existing forms of hunting, it hands, horsehair loops as snares, gaffs, spears, and bas- allowed new methods of hunting, such as waiting by kets. Ice fishing was conducted along the shore where marmot holes and shooting them as they emerged. the ice was thin. Breech-loading rifles appeared in the late 19th cen- After the SECOND CONVERSION to Buddhism in the tury among the Buriats, but not until around 1900 among 17th century, however, fishing declined even more than the Mongols and related peoples of the Manchu Qing hunting as an activity. (The reason for the Buddhist pro- Empire. After that political events rapidly increased the hibition on fish eating is sometimes said to be the simi- number and potency of firearms. The Ewenkis and Daurs larity of the unblinking gaze to that of the Buddha and of Manchuria, for example, began to acquire the single- sometimes the fear of eating loved ones reincarnated as shot Berdan rifle in 1900–01, the Russian Mosin maga- fish.) zine rifle around 1911, and the Japanese Arisaka and By the 19th century fish resources in Mongolia were Chinese-made Mauser 7.9 mm magazine rifles in the mostly unexploited. Elsewhere, however, the devoutly early 1930s. Metal traps from Russia also began to appear Buddhist KALMYKS had worked in Russian fisheries on the after 1850. Caspian Sea since the 18th century, although they did not This new technology drove into extinction the battue eat their catch. Shamanist Buriats on Ol’khon Island in hunt and most of the traditional hunting styles in the LAKE BAIKAL continued to fish, as did the Ekhireds in early 20th century. While marmots remain a great deli- Verkholensk and the Selenge Delta. cacy, furs are the only economically significant product of See also ARCHERY; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; MILI- hunting today. A marmot-skin craze in 1920s Germany TARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. made marmot skins temporarily a major export. From Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “Mongol Notes, II: 1960 to 1990 annual state purchases of marmot skins Some ‘Shamanist’ Hunting Rituals from Mongolia,” Cen- declined from more than 1 million to fewer than 700,000 tral Asiatic Journal 12 (1968–69): 101–143; Sevyan Vain- while those of squirrel pelts declined from 140,000 to shtein, Nomads of South Siberia, trans. Michael Colenso around 8,000 to 20,000. Purchases of wolf skins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). I iascot See YASTUQ. gering in ports from the Maldives to Sumatra. On his return to Morocco he witnessed the BLACK DEATH in Syria in 1348. Visits to Andalusia and the Mandingo kingdom Iberia See GEORGIA. in West Africa rounded out his itinerary. Upon his return the sultan of Morocco ordered him to dictate his account Ibn Battuta, Muhammad Abu ‘Abdallah to Abu ‘Abdallah Ibn Juzayy, who penned it in elegant (1304–1368/69) Moroccan traveler who described all four Arabic. successor states of the Mongol Empire While avoiding fantastic elements, Ibn Battuta some- Muhammad Abu-‘Abdallah Ibn Battuta was born in times inserted bogus accounts of places he never visited. Tangier into a family of CADIS, or Islamic judges. In 1325 His visit to Mongol China may well be one, as the upris- he journeyed through MAMLUK EGYPT and Syria before ing of “Firuz,” which supposedly broke out while he was going south to Mecca. From there he crossed Arabia into in China, clearly reflects Qoshila’s bid for the Yuan throne the Mongol IL-KHANATE in 1326. By this time he had in 1328–29, more than 10 years before his visit. Even apparently conceived his love of traveling for its own more obviously fictitious is his transposition of Qutulun sake. Rulers at first welcomed him as an Arab jurist Chagha’an, the legendary warlike daughter of the Central trained at Mecca but then came to honor him even more Asian Mongol QAIDU, to an island in the South China Sea. for his traveler’s tales. After traveling to Tabriz in the Even so, Ibn Battuta’s indubitably genuine travels in the entourage of the last Il-Khan, Abu-Sa‘id (1317–35), he Islamized western Mongol successor states are one of the returned to Mecca in 1327. From there he traveled the main sources on the Golden Horde and the Chaghatay monsoon waters of East Africa and the Persian Gulf khanate. before reaching Mecca a third time in 1330. By this time See also ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; he planned to go to India but could not find a guide, and SARAY AND NEW SARAY. instead he went north to Turkish Anatolia (see TURKEY). Further reading: H. A. R. Gibb and C. F. Becking- From Sinope he crossed the Black Sea to the GOLDEN ham, trans., Travels of Ibn Battuta, A.D. 1325–1354, 5 vols. HORDE and the ordo (palace-tent) of ÖZBEG KHAN (London: Hakluyt Society and Cambridge University (1313–41). After visiting Constantinople in the entourage Press, 1956–2000). of Özbeg’s Byzantine queen (1332), he finally set out for India via KHORAZM and the CHAGHATAY KHANATE, where Ih Ju See ORDOs. he stayed with the khan Tarmashirin (1331–34). India, which he reached in September 1333, was a land of fabu- lous wealth, and Sultan Muhammad b. Tughluq lavishly I-la Ch’u-ts’ai See YELÜ CHUCAI. rewarded him as cadi (Islamic judge) of Delhi. Dis- patched as an envoy to the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in Il-Khanate (1256–1335/56) Created as a result of China in 1342, he reached there, if at all, only after lin- MÖNGKE KHAN’s 1252 decision to send his brother HÜLE’Ü 230 Il-Khanate 231 (1217–65) to the Middle East, the resulting Il-Khanate shrine city of Kufa was also autonomous. The Gilan area dynasty suffered from hostility on three fronts and severe by the Caspian Sea remained independent until subju- social conflicts. gated by Sultan Öljeitü (1304–16) as a tributary state in 1307. Iraq and Diyarbakır together supplied about 35 FORMATION OF THE DYNASTY percent of the Il-Khanate’s revenue. Until 1252 the Mongols’ great khan, the Jochid GOLDEN The dynasties in Fars and Kerman (in southern Iran) HORDE, and the other princely lines shared rule over the had surrendered to ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), but by 1305 area from Afghanistan to Turkey. The great khan only the minor Kurdish Shabankara dynasty in Fars appointed governors and confirmed client kings, but remained as an even nominally autonomous client king- always with the prior approval of the Jochid ruler on the dom. The conquest had not devastated Fars, and that Volga. No member of the imperial family resided in this province supplied 20 percent of the Il-Khanate’s revenue. area, but many had appanages in the area and appointed Even so, the royal family rarely if ever toured there. representatives to guard their interests. Two TAMMACHI, or Bahrain and Hormuz, as traditional dependencies of Fars permanent garrison armies, occupied the area, one based and Kerman, paid tribute to the Il-Khans and served as in Afghanistan and the other based in Azerbaijan and the gateway to the Indian Ocean. Armenia. Neither was commanded by a member of the The right wing included Anatolian TURKEY (under imperial family. In 1252 Möngke appointed his brother the client Sultanate of Rum until 1307–08) and the king- Hüle’ü to campaign personally in the Middle East, thus dom of LESSER ARMENIA in Cilicia, although the smaller upsetting this balance. RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH claims Turkmen elements in the Taurus Mountains and western that Möngke secretly intended from the beginning that Anatolia remained unruly. Anatolia was the richest single Hüle’ü would stay permanently in the Middle East despite province, supplying almost a quarter of the Il-Khanate’s public plans for Hüle’ü to return at the end of his mission. revenues. Several tümens (10,000s) of Mongol troops As soon as he crossed the Amu Dar’ya, Hüle’ü took nomadized in the central and eastern portion of Turkey, the Azerbaijan area for himself, ordering Baiju Noyan, commanded either by a prince of the blood or a powerful commander of the tammachi troops there, to relocate to commander (NOYAN). Anatolia. After his conquest of Baghdad in February Khorasan was an autonomous realm held by the 1258, Hüle’ü began calling himself Il-Khan, or “obedient crown prince with his own KESHIG (royal guard) of a khan,” implying a status as a deputy or viceroy of the Qara’una tümen, and it did not pay its taxes to the central great khan Möngke, despite the public statement that treasury. The crown prince migrated among pastures Hüle’ü would return to Mongolia. Thus, when Möngke from Herat to Gorgan and Semnan. Herat’s local Kart Khan died in August 1259, Hüle’ü’s status was unclear. By dynasty was a significant force, and until 1289 the 1260 criminal accusations leveled against Jochid princes viceroy also shared power with family of the Mongol in Hüle’ü’s service strained relations with the Golden commander ARGHUN AQA. While according to Möngke’s Horde rulers, and in 1262 a complete purge of the Jochid original grant Hüle’ü’s sway extended to India, the Qon- princes and Hüle’ü’s support for QUBILAI KHAN in his con- duz-Baghlan QARA’UNAS and the Sistan Negüderis pre- flict with ARIQ-BÖKE brought open war with the Golden ferred of Central Asia’s Chaghatayid Mongols. Horde. Nevertheless the special contempt shown toward the Il-Khans by the rulers of the Golden Horde and FOREIGN RELATIONS CHAGHATAY KHANATE demonstrated the khanate’s late- The dynasty’s traditional foreign policy revolved around comer status. three rivals, MAMLUK EGYPT, the Golden Horde, and the Chaghatay Khanate, and one ally, the YUAN DYNASTY. GEOGRAPHY From the 1260 Battle of ‘Ain Jalut, the Mamluks defeated Although the Il-Khans successively designated Maragheh, the Il-Khanate’s periodic forays into Syria and in return Ujan, Tabriz, and Soltaniyeh as their capitals and built raided the Il-Khan frontier zone from Lesser Armenia to pavilions, palaces, and temples, particularly at their sum- Mosul. Not until 1323 was peace made. With the Golden mer camps, they remained truly nomadic to the end of Horde, war began with Berke’s invasion of Azerbaijan in the dynasty, traveling in well-organized caravans with the 1262 and continued intermittently until the Il-Khanate realm’s officials, treasury, and archives. The khans’ victory in 1290. Since neither realm controlled Abkhazia nomadic routes covered central Iraq, northwest Iran, or the Caucasus mountains, the pass of Derbent provided Azerbaijan, and Armenia. the only means of access. On the northeastern border The Il-Khans divided their realm into a center Abagha Khan (1265–82) defeated the Chaghatay (ghool) and two wings. The center, including Iraq, the Khanate’s invasion of 1270, but the Khorasan viceroys Caucasus, and western and southern Iran, was under could not stop the frequent raids over the Amu Dar’ya direct Mongol administration, except for the client and by the Chaghatays’ Qara’una allies in Afghanistan. regimes of the Georgian king, the Artuqid sultan in The general peace of 1304 only temporarily checked Mardin, and the two chiefdoms of Luristan. The Shi‘ite these attacks. Il-Khanate under Oljeitü and¨ Abu-Sa‘id, 1304–1335 Boundary of Il-Khanate Province boundary Capital Mekrin Tribal entity Underlined labels Kingdom or tribe under ______________ BYZANTINE Black Sea GOLDEN HORDE native ruler Constantinople Terek R. Aral Ca _Dashed _ _ _ _underline _ _ _ _ _ Weak control Sinop uca Sea Battle sus K’ut’aisi EMPIRE Trebizond Kyzyl Kum te_s Tiflis m_ir_a_ G Caspian Urganch ( uni nhabi ted) E A N A T O L I A __E_O r en_ _ k_m_ Köse Dag˘ __RG __IA SHIRVAN Sea TE T_u_ Konya __ Gandzak ANA ____ Erzerum Khiva Aksaray Nakhichevan KH Antalya ____ Malatya Ala Dag˘ ARRAN & Y Karaman _____ LESSER _______ Mayyafariqin May afari MUGHAN TA ARMENIA _________ Diyarbakir Bukhara A NIA Ayas Khvoy H G A ‘Ain Tab Mardin Tabriz Am Samarqand ME Kara Kum u AZERBAIJAN CH Antioch DI AR D Jazirah ( uni nhabi ted) Y Aleppo ar Ujan GILAN ’y a AR Hama Maragheh B Mosul Irbil Merv Pamirs Cyprus Zanjan Gorgan AK Khabushan I MA Homs R K ur Mediterranean al-Rahba diissttaann Soltaniyeh Qazvin ZAND RAN A K H O R A S A N Qonduz P Kuh-e-Shahu Semnan Sea Damascus A T) Sabzevar Balkh Baghlan ER QOMES R _ Q ‘Ain Jalut Tig ri s R Nishapur Eu . S YP a H _ A ph ra am Ku sh IA B EG Damietta Jerusalem te N r_a’ _ sR ad a n Dasht-e-Kavir O . Baghdad Herat _____ H indu KASHMIR ______ un_a IR (T s_ Hillah (uninhabited) Qayen A Cairo AQ RI Kufa Isfahan Srinagar KHU QUH IR Ghazni SY Wasit Yazd D ISTA N ZIS Najaf Luristan T AQ (un asht TA YP K inh -e-L N H ab ut SISTAN EG MLU MA ite E d) Qandahar K Indus R. Shiraz ER Kerman is J A M P _S üd_e_r _ H_ Z _Ne_g_ _ A AN ers i _B_ FARS I an LH A__N_ E G FD K_A ( T ul Baluchistan f EO __R_A_ AT O (sparsely inhabited) AN R. Bahrain I. _________ Hormuz _______ LT le Medina SU Red Qais I. Ni E Sea G Y Mecca P T ) 0 300 miles 0 300 km Il-Khanate 233 The Mongol Yuan dynasty in the east retained By 1305 a number of autonomous client kingdoms suzerainty over the “obedient khans” (Il-Khan) to the end had been turned into provinces, and Ghazan Khan’s of its regime. Up to the realm of Geikhatu (1291–95) the reforms of 1300 created for the first time a single coinage Il-Khans proclaimed this suzerainty on their coinage. and standard of weights and measures. By the dynasty’s GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304), however, publicly down- end the Il-Khan regime had eight directly administered played this relationship in favor of Islamic formulas of provinces of the center, in addition to the semi-indepen- sovereignty. Nevertheless, active tributary relations dent viceroyalties of Khorasan and Anatolia. In addition between the Yuan and Il-Khans continued, and Il-Khan to the universal qubchiri, or poll tax, the eight central high officials still coveted Chinese titles such as provinces paid “divan dues” based on traditional agricul- chingsang (modern chengxiang, grand councillor) and tural taxes, while the center’s 20 main cities paid separate gong (duke). tamgha, or commercial tolls. Major cities and the provinces received a (usually) Persian malik (governor) ADMINISTRATION AND FISCAL POLICY who handled finance and administration, a Mongol emir, The administration of the Il-Khans centered on the khan or noyan, who commanded the troops, and a DARUGHACHI elected at a QURILTAI (assembly). Like previous Turkish (Persian, shahna) of the Mongol or intermediate class. dynasties in Iran, the Mongol dynasty did not have a Assignment of important provinces (particularly GEOR- fixed succession rule. Stable succession thus depended GIA, Diyarbakır, and Iraq) as camping grounds for princes on consensus among the great commanders (NOYAN). offered a further layer of supervision. As in the Yuan dynasty, a threefold ethnic class dis- The Il-Khanate practiced the traditional muqata‘at, or tinction of the conquest elite, the subject class, and an tax-farming system. The treasury drew up contracts spec- intermediate mixed class permeated government. The ifying the total amount of taxes paid and the deductions division of the first two classes, often summarized as the tax farmer could take for expenses. Maliks of major “Mongols and Muslims,” was as much cultural, social, provinces were usually concurrent tax farmers, subcon- and political as strictly religious. Mongol meant the tracting the taxes in districts and villages. Theoretically, nomadic military class and Muslim the native sedentary the tax farmer could not collect more than the contracted Iranian and Iraqi population. The intermediate class was amount, but supervision was lax and overcollection rife. specialists and royal clients who were either foreign The eager attention the Il-Khans usually paid to reports (Turkestanis), non-Muslim (Assyrians, Armenians, Jews), from ayqaqs (informers) about untapped or embezzled or both (UIGHURS, Chinese). Ghazan Khan’s reign elimi- revenues put constant upward pressure on taxes and nated the intermediate class’s previous power. made the tenure of governors and viziers exceedingly The core of the Mongol class was the khan’s house- uncertain—all but one of the viziers under the Il-Khans hold, consisting of his own keshig, or imperial guard, and were executed with torture on charges of embezzlement, intimate servitors and the palace-tents (ORDO) of his treason, or both. wives with their affiliated estates. These estates, or injü Hüle’ü stored the booty of his conquests of 1256–58 (INJE), constituted the khan and his family’s private in a tower by Lake Urmia, but by Sultan Ahmad’s reign demesne, in contrast to the dalai, or state lands. The (1282–84) the tower had partially collapsed, and the keshig was divided into four three-day shifts, and from remaining treasure was shared out as coronation gifts. 1291 on the four shift chiefs, three of whom were drawn From then on the treasury was carried in the khan’s ordo from the Mongol great noyans, countersigned all decrees in chests. Except under diligent khans such as Ghazan of the khan with their black seals. Among the chief Khan, treasury procedures were lax and embezzlement noyans, the families of Elege of the JALAYIR and Su’unchaq routine. Unbudgeted drafts on outlying provinces hin- of the Suldus were the most prestigious. The OIRATS of dered financial planning, and random seizures by mes- Diyarbakır, frequent QUDA (marriage allies) of the khans, sengers (elchi) damaged the economy. These problems remained a discrete tribal body. Outside the court was the peaked in the 1290s. Ghazan Khan’s reforms did curb the Mongol army, organized by the traditional DECIMAL ORGA- abuses, particularly of the messenger system, but did not NIZATION and clan affiliations. eliminate the constant pressure for more revenue. Opposite these Mongol noyans was the financial administration, staffed by Persian Sunni Muslim clerks MILITARY and headed by one or two viziers (always two after The immigrant Mongols, composed of the tammachi (gar- 1295), the senior of whom handled the supreme red seal, rison) armies dispatched in the 1230s to Afghanistan and or al tamgha. Nevertheless the Mongol and Persian orders to the Armenia-Azerbaijan area, as well as Hüle’ü’s new were not hermetically sealed. The great noyans had their army, constituted the Il-Khan’s military core. Nevertheless own appanages administered by Persian clients, provin- once counted and incorporated into the decimal organi- cial commanders and governors frequently colluded, and zation, designated military households in the settled pop- the senior vizier himself served in the keshig as the head ulation also supplied infantry and cavalry that served of the khan’s personal three-day shift. under Mongol commanders in garrisons or the field. The 234 Il-Khanate theoretical reserve of the Il-Khan’s army added up to 30 Qongqortai, imprisoned Abagha’s keshig chiefs, and tümens (each nominally 10,000), although tümens aver- attacked Arghun in Khorasan. Although Arghun was cap- aged perhaps only 40 percent of paper strength. In reality tured, Buqa, whom Ahmad had unwisely trusted, freed the largest battlefield force ever mobilized was about him and overthrew Ahmad. Arghun’s coronation (August 70,000 men. Thus, the Il-Khans had enough troops only 11, 1284) was confirmed by Qubilai in February 1286. to confront one of their three major enemies—Egypt, the In Arghun’s reign the khan for the first time showed Golden Horde, or the Chaghatayids—at a time. The court outright hostility to Muslim officials as Buddhism equipped and provisioned at most one out of five army reached its height of influence as the royal religion. units, leaving remoter units, Mongol or native, to feed Arghun defeated an invasion from the Golden Horde in and equip themselves. Even so, the Il-Khanid army was 1290 but could not stop the increasingly destructive raids better armed than the larger Chaghatayid and Golden from Egypt or the rebellion of NAWROZ in Khorasan. Horde forces. In addition to the Mongol units, Georgian Pushed by his empty treasury, Arghun allowed the viziers cavalry participated in virtually every battle, and the Buqa and then SA‘D-UD-DAWLA to centralize expenditures client kingdoms of Lesser Armenia and Seljük Turkey in tightly. Arghun’s former partisans, led by TA’ACHAR (d. the west and Kerman and Fars in the east also supplied 1296) of the Baarin, fought this centralization, engineer- troops for major campaigns. ing the deaths of both viziers and finally murdering Arghun himself as he lay in a coma. POLITICAL HISTORY The conspirators originally planned to enthrone On Hüle’ü’s death in 1265 the princes and noyans unani- Baidu, who refused to appear at the quriltai, so instead mously elected his eldest son, Abagha (1234–82), khan. they enthroned Geikhatu, Arghun’s brother and viceroy Abagha immediately faced an invasion from Berke, khan in Anatolia. Under Geikhatu’s reign (1291–95) social, (1257–66) of the Golden Horde, which ended with financial, military, and political factors combined almost Berke’s fortuitous death in Tiflis. In 1270 Abagha defeated to destroy the Il-Khanate. Socially, Islamization among an invasion by the Chaghatay khan Baraq at Qara-Su near the Mongol rank-and-file had proceeded rapidly, isolating Herat (July 22), and his brother Yisüder went on to sack the court, which was still dominated by a pagan-Bud- Bukhara in retaliation (January 1273). In 1277 Sultan dhist-Christian cousinage. First the conspirators and then Baybars of Egypt invaded Turkey, defeating the Mongol Geikhatu had shared out the treasury to buy support, and troops there at Elbistan. Stung by this defeat, Abagha exe- a pan-Eurasian silver shortage from 1286 to 1297 made it cuted the local regent, Mu‘in-ad-Din Pervâne, for collu- impossible to rebuild the realm’s finances. Nawroz’s rebel- sion, assigned Turkey to one younger brother, Qongqortai lion and famine continued to ravage Khorasan. The only (d. 1284), and sent another, Möngke-Temür (1256–82), bright spot was the peace with the Golden Horde. with a large army to invade Syria. Poor leadership led, Khan Geikhatu and his vizier Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani however, to an even more humiliating defeat near Homs (d. 1298) tried to use short-term tricks to sustain the (October 29, 1281). Late in his relatively long reign, feel- treasury, including a disastrous experiment with adopting ing increasing financial pressure, Abagha began to resent the Yuan’s paper money (chao). Geikhatu limited Hüle’ü’s old noyans and viziers. He promoted his foster Ta’achar’s power by relying on the old guard of Elege’s son and tamghachi, BUQA, as commander in chief (begler- sons Shigtür and Aq-Buqa, the khan’s father-in-law, but begi) and countenanced Majd-ul-Mulk’s accusations Geikhatu’s pederasty alienated most of the aristocracy. against the long-standing sahib-divan (or vizier) SHAMS- Eventually, Ta’achar and his clique overthrew Geikhatu UD-DIN JUVAINI. and enthroned Baidu in his place. Abagha Khan’s death led to the Il-Khanate’s first con- By 1295 Ghazan (1271–1304), Arghun’s son and tested election. While Abagha’s entourage, commanding viceroy in Khorasan, had made peace with Nawroz, and the Qara’una tümen Abagha had brought from Khorasan, by October 1295 he overthrew Baidu. Ghazan Khan’s preferred his son Arghun (1260–91), Hüle’ü’s old-guard reign refounded the khanate on a new basis. A recent noyans, such as Elege and Su’unchaq, and the princes convert to Islam, he Islamized the state, ordering all noy- delivered the election to Abagha’s brother Tegüder (June ans and Mongol soldiers to convert, destroying Bud- 21, 1282), who promptly distributed the rest of the trea- dhism, and thrusting Christianity into a secondary sury to the Mongol aristocracy. A Muslim convert, position. Careful management and the revival in the Tegüder ruled as Sultan Ahmad (1282–84) but made no Eurasian silver supply rebuilt the treasury. Finally, he attempt to Islamize the realm. Ahmad’s only policy initia- replaced the old elite wholesale with a loyal Khorasanian tive was an unsuccessful attempt to make peace with clique led by the commander in chief (beglerbegi) Qut- Egypt. Arghun, however, intrigued with Abagha’s old lughshah (d. 1307) of the MANGGHUD, thus restoring the Qara’una tümen while appealing to Qubilai Khan in the khan-noyan consensus necessary for stable government. east, who believed that Islam and the Mongol JASAQ (law) Reigning as Sultan Öljeitü, Ghazan Khan’s brother were incompatible. In 1284 Ahmad, belatedly realizing Kharbanda (1281–1316) at first continued with his the extent of Arghun’s intrigues, executed Prince brother’s personnel and policy. With the Syrian front Il-Khanate 235 quiet, Öljeitü and the aggressive Qutlughshah finally nese, and in 1292 he received as a wife Kökejin Khatun reduced Gilan, the last Iranian province free of Mongol from the Yuan court. Even after Islamization Qubilai rule, to tributary status, a pyrrhic victory that cost Qut- Khan’s envoy BOLAD CHINGSANG reached the height of his lughshah his life (June 1307). Chaghatayid dissensions influence under Öljeitü. Under Abu-Sa‘id “tribute” mis- allowed Il-Khanid influence, coordinated with a Yuan sions reached their peak, and wealthy Persian Gulf mer- advance, again to reach Sistan and Ghazni. The deaths of chant families carried on lucrative trade in China. Qutlughshah and Sheikh Baraq Baba (1257/8–1307), Minorities also participated in this exchange. Thus, when Öljeitü’s wild Sufi spiritual adviser, pushed Öljeitü, bap- an Assyrian Christian merchant returned from a trade tized a Christian, into a renewed spiritual quest that mission to Qubilai, Abagha Khan appointed the envoy’s resulted in his adoption of Twelver Shi‘ism as the state son Mas‘ud (d. 1289) as governor of Mosul and Irbil and religion in winter 1308–09. Öljeitü’s new commander in Qubilai’s Uighur Christian envoy Yashmut (d. 1284) chief, CHUBAN (d. 1327) of the Suldus, refused to convert, darughachi. and the Sunni urban centers rioted against Shi‘ism. Under The Il-Khans at first followed the Mongol religious Chuban’s influence Öljeitü’s son Abu-Sa‘id later returned policy of according equal patronage to the clergy of sev- the regime to Sunni orthodoxy. eral favored religions. By Arghun’s reign, if not earlier, Under Abu-Sa‘id Ba’atur Khan (Mongolian, Busayid, Judaism replaced Taoism as one of the four exempt reli- b. 1305, r. 1317–35), the old Suldus and Jalayir families gions, along with Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. This under Chuban and “Big” Hasan (Hasan Buzurg, d. 1356), evenhandedness and Hüle’ü’s conquests created deep dis- respectively, reestablished their prestige. As regent during affection among the Muslim populations, particularly in Abu-Sa‘id’s minority, Chuban faced two foreign chal- Iraq, Diyarbakır, and KURDISTAN, often expressed in com- lenges: a rebellion in 1318 of Chaghatayids and Qara’u- munal rioting. From 1289 to 1295 this rioting became nas who had been resettled in Khorasan, and a desultory linked to Mongol political divisions and formed a vital invasion by the Golden Horde’s ÖZBEG KHAN in winter force driving the Islamization of the dynasty. After 1297 1318–19. More threatening was the rebellion of Irenchin, Buddhism was proscribed, but Christian clergy retained the one-time emir of Anatolia, father-in-law to Öljeitü their tax exemptions and limited subsidies. The full and Abu-Sa‘id, successively, and patron of Christian regime of discriminatory taxation and sumptuary regula- churches. Demoted by Chuban, Irenchin and other Mon- tions for lay Christians and Jews came in force only after gol emirs revolted and were bloodily crushed at the Battle 1319. of Zanjan-Rud (between Zanjan and Soltaniyeh, July 13, Until 1290 or so Assyrian Christian clergy and Bud- 1319). Chuban’s victory strengthened his hold over Abu- dhist baqshis (Uighur and Mongolian, “teacher”) Sa‘id. Chuban first reconcile the Il-Khanate with the increased their influence among the Mongol elite in the Chaghatay khan Kebeg (1318–26), who assisted “Big” central zone. The Assyrian church coexisted easily with Hasan in crushing the Chaghatayid rebels in Khorasan, Buddhism and unlike other churches performed funerary and then signed a peace treaty with Egypt (1323). liturgies for Buddhist khans such as Hüle’ü and Arghun. Despite these successes, Abu-Sa‘id overthrew Chuban and At the same time Islamization among the rank-and-file his sons in 1327, giving chief command to “Big” Hasan. Mongols appears to have made great strides in the 1280s. The ordinary illiterate Mongol trooper, often with cap- MONGOL LIFE, SOCIAL CONFLICT, tured local wives, lived in much closer contact with the AND COURT CULTURE Muslim majority than did the noyans and the royal family The court of the Il-Khanate and its successor states with its quda system of cross-cousin marriage exchange remained trilingual until at least the middle of the 14th and education under Uighur or Chinese tutors. In the century, with documents written in Persian, Mongolian, realm’s center the numerous Mongol units competed for and Uighur Turkish. All three languages influenced one pasture with Turkmen and especially Kurdish pastoral- another heavily, sharing vocabulary and idioms. The ists, but where their numbers were fewer they often court also used the Islamic lunar calendar alongside the merged with Turkmen tribes. In 1296 a whole tümen of Chinese-based Mongol lunar-solar calendar and 12-ANI- Oirats in Diyarbakır deserted to Egypt over conflicts with MAL CYCLE. The role of the WHITE MONTH (Mongolian the local Turkmen. In Khorasan the influence of Arghun new year), hunting, and liquor in cementing social rela- Aqa, an early Muslim convert, probably accelerated tions continued in full force despite Islamization. Islamization, yet the Mongol military units of Khorasan While in Mongolia Hüle’ü had frequent interviews maintained their Mongol identity, merging after the with Chinese scholars and patronized the Tibetan Bud- dynasty’s fall with the Chaghatayid and Timurid-aligned dhist ’Bri-gung-pa and Phag-mo-gru-pa orders. Two sons, Mongols in Afghanistan. Yoshmut and Qongqortai, were born of Chinese concu- Mongol Islamic practice involved several different bines. This patronage of Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist levels. The ecstatic séances conducted by Sufi dervishes culture continued in Iran. Thus, for example, both attracted many converts, including Ahmad, Geikhatu’s Ghazan Khan’s nursemaid and his first tutor were Chi- son Alafrang, and the young Öljeitü. Others, such as 236 Il-Khanate Nawroz, embraced a militant Muslim-Mongol solidarity ing to assassinate the khan in 1332, Hasan was exiled to directed against the non-Muslim intermediate class. Anatolia. Non-Mongol emirs, particularly Sharaf-ud-Din Ghazan Khan, in turning against Buddhist idolatry, linked Mahmud-Shah (d. 1336), who ruled the crown lands Islam with the ancient monotheistic Mongol traditions, (injü), and the vizier Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad (d. while Shi‘ite-inclined Mongols identified the legitimacy 1336), son of the famous Rashid-ud-Din, acquired of the ‘Alid family in Islam with that of the Chinggisids in unprecedented military power, causing widespread dis- the empire. Chuban sought the strict application of satisfaction among the Mongol emirs. Islamic law and international peace. Abu-Sa‘id died suddenly in Karabakh (November 30, Religious change also affected Mongol customs. Fol- 1335) while confronting renewed Golden Horde attacks. lowing the native Mongol practice of absolute separation Ghiyas-ud-Din immediately enthroned Arpa-Ke’ün (d. of the living and the dead, Hüle’ü and his immediate suc- 1336), a descendant of Hüle’ü’s brother Ariq-Böke. Rivals, cessors were buried in unmarked graves. Christian Mon- each sponsoring implausible Chinggisids as titular rulers, gols such as Irenchin, however, endowed masses for their successively occupied the royal seat of Azerbaijan: ‘Ali- parents, and Arghun endowed a Buddhist temple for his Padshah of the Oirats (1336–37), “Big” Hasan of the soul. After Islamization Ghazan and Öljeitü built Persian- Jalayir (1337–38), and “Little” Hasan (Hasan Kuchek), style mausolea with attached charitable institutions, grandson of Chuban (1338–43). Outside the old Il- while Chuban built a similar tomb and school complex in Khanid center local dynasties soon threw off Mongol rule. Medina. Following Islamic traditions of tribal endogamy “Little” Hasan’s Chubanid brothers held the Azerbai- Sultans Ahmad and Öljeitü contracted marriages with jan heartland until 1257, yet their rapacious policies led Chinggisid princesses for themselves or their sons, to general rejoicing when Janibeg, khan of the Golden although many Mongols continued to view such endogamy Horde, overthrew the regime in 1357. “Big” Hasan having as monstrously incestuous. maintained Jalayirid rule in Baghdad, his son Sheikh Nothing of the Buddhist art sponsored by the earlier Uwais (r. 1356–74) founded his own Jalayirid dynasty Il-Khans survived the persecution of 1295. Guided by after Janibeg’s death in 1357 and held Azerbaijan and Iraq Rashid-ud-Din and other Persian viziers, the later Il- until 1385. The chaos after 1335 diverted East-West trade Khans sponsored famous masterworks of Persian art: to the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt. The Black Ghazan Khan’s and Sultan Öljeitü’s renovation of the Plague, first appearing among the Chubanid armies in tomb of Bayazid at Bastam and Öljeitü’s mausoleum com- 1346–47, completed the socioeconomic disaster. plex at Soltaniyeh and his Hamadan and Mosul Qur‘ans. As a child Abu-Sa‘id received a thorough education in THE IMPACT OF THE MONGOLS ON THE poetry and Persian and Uighur-script calligraphy; after MIDDLE EAST completing a particularly fine piece of penmanship, his The Mongol invasion and rule of the Middle East played proud father Öljeitü sent it around the ordos to be a major role in shaping some of the distinctive features of admired. The era’s greatest artistic achievement was the its late medieval Islamic civilization. Nomadic pastoral- Persian illustrated manuscript tradition, freed from previ- ism expanded at the expense of sedentary agriculture due ous Islamic strictures against visual representation and to the massacres and general devastation of the invasion, nourished by Chinese ink painting and landscape tech- the immigration of the scores of thousands of Mongol niques and Christian iconography. Modeled on the Chi- nomads, and the system of taxation, which taxed agricul- nese Hanlin Academy, the new Persian library atelier ture to subsidize commerce. Hamdullah Mustaufi Qazvini (kitabkhana) institutionalized illustrated manuscript pro- (b. 1281/2) claimed tax revenues under the Mongols duction. The era’s masterpiece, the DEMOTTE SHAHNAMA, were one-fifth to one-tenth what they had been in previ- was probably created under Abu-Sa‘id. ous dynasties. The particularly severe devastation in Kho- rasan turned that area, once the cultural center of Iran, FALL OF THE DYNASTY into a backwater. While Hüle’ü left 10 sons at his death, factional struggles Mongol rule also changed the religious complexion up to 1295 had virtually wiped out the collateral lines. of the Middle East. Despite early Mongol patronage, the Ghazan had no surviving sons, his brother Öljeitü had expansion of nomadism and communal violence devas- only one, and Öljeitü’s son Abu-Sa‘id none. The virtual tated the wholly sedentary Christian and Jewish commu- disappearance of the princely class removed a potent nities. The clerical immunities the Mongols offered source of rebellion after 1295, yet it also increased the religious institutions also encouraged the growth of tax- influence of the emirs (noyans) and resulted in 1335 in exempt Sufi lodges. While their tenacious cultural iden- the extinction of the royal family. tity limited their interest in urban shari‘a (Islamic Abu-Sa‘id’s seizure for himself of “Big” Hasan’s wife, law)-based Islam, the Mongols actively patronized Sufi Baghdad Khatun, who was Chuban’s daughter, set in masters, adding further to their influence. motion conflicts that would break out after Abu-Sa‘id’s Cultural interchange, particularly with China, death in 1335. Accused with Baghdad Khatun of attempt- enriched Persian culture under the Il-Khans. By the incarnate lama 237 dynasty’s end the Mongol elite participated in and devel- Indeed, the exact identification of a lineage with a partic- oped further the Persian high-culture tradition of callig- ular bodhisattva is often unclear and in any case of inter- raphy, poetry, illustrated manuscripts, and the national est only to learned lamas and not ordinary believers. epic, Shahnama. Despite the chaos after the dynasty’s fall, Since lay patrons benefit the faith as well, emanation bod- the Jalayirids continued this patronage, transmitting Il- ies need not be lamas or monks. Thus, the Qing emperors Khanid cultural achievements to the Timurid dynasty. in Beijing were identified as the emanation body, or incar- See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL nation, of Manjushri, while CHINGGIS KHAN was identified EMPIRE; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BYZANTIUM as the emanation body of the fierce bodhisattva Vajrapani. AND BULGARIA; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIAN The practice of finding incarnate lamas began in the SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN THE Tibetan Karma-pa lineage in the 13th century. By the time MONGOL EMPIRE; INDIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ISLAM IN of the SECOND CONVERSION to Buddhism (1578 on) in THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MONGOL Mongolia, the practice was well entrenched in all monas- EMPIRE; MONEY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PAPER CURRENCY tic orders of Tibet, including the dominant dGe-lugs-pa. IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL The greater incarnate lamas bore the title Khutugtu (also EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; WEST- spelled Khutukhtu; modern Khutagt), while the less ERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. important ones had the title of Gegeen. Incarnate lamas Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- were the most important figures in the Buddhist estab- quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- lishment, setting the tone both religiously and politically. sity Press, 2001); John Andrew Boyle, ed., Cambridge The most powerful incarnate lama lineage in Mongolia History of Iran, vol. 5, The Seljuk and Mongol Periods was that of the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, held to be, like (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968); Linda Chinggis Khan himself, an emanation of Vajrapani. Comaroff and Stephan Carboni, Legacy of Genghis Khan: Incarnate lineages began more or less spontaneously Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256–1353 (New after the death of any outstanding lama, promoted by a York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002); A. K. S. combination of homage to the departed lama’s holiness Lambton, “Mongol Fiscal Administration in Persia,” Stu- and the tremendous increase in importance and revenue dia Islamica 64 (1986): 79–99 and 65 (1987): 97–123; accruing to any monastery with an incarnate lama. Incar- Charles Melville, The Fall of Amir Chupan and the Decline nate lamas were discovered among possible child candi- of the Il-Khanate, 1327–37: A Decade of Discord in Mongol dates through divination, cryptic prophecies left by the Iran (Bloomington, Ind.: Research Institute for Inner previous emanation, dreams, portents, and the candidate’s Asian Studies, 1999); Charles Melville, “The Itineraries of recognition of the previous emanation’s personal effects. Sultan Öljeitü, 1304–1316,” Iran 28 (1990): 55–70; —— The Qing emperor ordered all major incarnations, —, “The Ilkhan Öljeitü’s Conquest of Gilan (1307): such as the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, to be found in Tibet, Rumour and Reality,” in The Mongol Empire and Its but minor ones were still found in Mongolia. The newly Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan identified incarnate lama lived with his parents under the (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), 73–125. supervision of a senior monk until at age four or five the boy was invited to the monastery to spend the rest of his childhood among adult tutors. At age seven he began to Il-qan See IL-KHANATE. learn to read, and after taking getsül vows at about age 16 he would begin to receive the worshipping public. incarnate lama (living buddha) In Buddhist belief an The main task of the incarnate lama was to receive incarnate lama is an emanation body (khubilgan; Tibetan, devotions and give blessings. As adults most incarnate sprul-sku, often written “tulku” in English) of a deity in a lamas took little interest in daily monastery administra- perfected realm who appeared for the benefit of sentient tion, and their personal staff, headed by the soibon beings in this realm. The term “living Buddha” (huofo) is (Tibetan, bso ’i-dpon), and the temple staff handled all of Chinese origin and is disliked by Tibetan and Mongo- important business. The teenage years of an incarnate lian Buddhists. The ability to produce such emanation lama were often difficult times, when they began to chal- bodies is the height of “skill in means” (Mongolian, arga; lenge their tutors’ rules and acquire passions for hunting, Sanskrit, upaya), or the ability to use any effective drinking, and/or sex. An incarnate lama’s reputation for method to save living beings. Generally such emanation sanctity, however, did not necessarily depend on rigid bodies were linked to great bodhisattvas, such as Man- adherence to monastic discipline. Many incarnate lamas jushri, Avalokiteshvara, and Tara rather than to Buddhas, of outwardly scandalous behavior still kept a reputation such as Shakyamuni Buddha, the historical Buddha of for miraculous healing powers and other signs of great our era. Nevertheless, the sanctity and power of such a holiness. lineage was far more dependent on the demonstrated The Qing government recognized 57 incarnate lamas supernatural charisma of its successive incarnations than in Inner Mongolia and 19 in Outer Mongolia, but the on its identification with any particular bodhisattva. actual number of incarnate lineages in Outer Mongolia 238 India and the Mongols was 35 to 44. Of the lineages, 13 had lay serfs or shabinar 1206–27) dispatched Dörbei the Fierce to pursue him. numerous enough to be given a seal and territory equiva- Dörbei did not locate Jalal-ud-Din but sacked Nandana lent to a banner, while the Jibzundamba Khutugtu had a and sieged Multan for 42 days in 1224 before retreating rank higher than any secular aristocrat in Khalkha. The due to the summer heat. The heat and disease attendant shabinar of these incarnations were each under a upon summering in India long restricted Mongol inva- shangdzodba and a da lama, whose selection had to be sions there to seasonal booty raids. confirmed by the league administration or the Qing court ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) appointed Dayir Ba’atur (see GREAT SHABI). commander of Ghazni and Mönggetü commander in From the beginning incarnate lamas had great politi- Qonduz with two tümens (10,000s) of TAMMACHI (perma- cal influence. Aside from the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, nent garrison) troops. In winter 1241 the Mongol force who was the supreme leader of Khalkha, many incarnate invaded the Indus valley and besieged Lahore. By this lamas played powerful roles in the 1911 RESTORATION, the time many Indian merchants had acquired Mongol passes new revolutionary government after 1921, and in Inner (PAIZA) for trade in Central Asia and hence influential Mongolian nationalist movements from 1924 to 1945. townsmen advocated surrender. Dayir Ba’atur died storm- The institution of incarnate lamas did not exist ing the town, however, on December 30, 1241, and the among the Kalmyk or Buriat Mongols of Russia. In Mon- Mongols butchered the town before withdrawing. golia proper it fell under suspicion as a potentially sub- In 1253 MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) dispatched the versive force after the 1921 REVOLUTION and was banned Tatar tribesman Sali of the KESHIG (guards) to take com- in 1929. With the reappearance of religious freedom in mand of the troops of both Dayir and Mönggetü (who Mongolia in 1990, all the incarnate lamas were long dead, had also died in the meantime) and to conquer Hindus- and the institution has not been revived. In Inner Mongo- tan and KASHMIR. Simultaneously, several Indus valley lia it continued unchallenged until 1945 and was not maliks visited the Mongols and accepted allegiance, and directly attacked by the Communist regime until 1958. in 1259–60 envoys passed between HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65), When qualified religious freedom returned to China in the founder of the Mongol IL-KHANATE in the Middle East, 1979, many incarnate lamas, such as the line of the Ulaan and Delhi. These intimations of submission soon evapo- Gegeen in HÖHHOT, still survived and have returned to a rated, and Sali and his successors raided Hindustan regu- leadership role in Inner Mongolian Buddhist life. larly for the next few decades. See also DANSHUG; JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU; LAMAS AND By the 1280s the Mongol khanates had become heav- MONASTICISM; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; SHANGDZODBA, ily involved in the trade to India. Indian exports included ERDENI; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD. spices, precious stones, cottons, silks, and ivory, but the Further reading: Paul Hyer and Sechin Jagchid, A key import from Hormuz in Iran and from the GOLDEN Mongolian Living Buddha: Biography of the Kanjurwa HORDE was horses, with smaller markets in military slaves Khutughtu (Albany: State University of New York Press, and falcons. Having ruined their own cities, the Chaghatay 1983); Owen Lattimore and Fukiko Isono, The Diluv khans of Central Asia, descendants of CHA’ADAI, Chinggis’s Khutagt: Memoirs and Autobiography of a Mongol Buddhist second son, depended on this transit trade. A general Reincarnation in Religion and Revolution (Wiesbaden: Otto depression of trade in the 1290s thus hit the CHAGHATAY Harrassowitz, 1982); Aleksei M. Pozdneyev, Religion and KHANATE realm hard. By 1270 the Mongols in Afghanistan Ritual in Society: Lamaist Buddhism in Late 19th-Century formed a distinct body called QARA’UNAS, famed for their Mongolia, trans. Alo and Linda Raun (Bloomington, Ind.: turbulence and said to be of mixed Mongol-Indian blood. Mongolia Society, 1978). Nominally subject to the Il-Khanate, the Chaghatayids of Central Asia soon acquired great influence among the Qara’unas, and from 1292 to 1306 the Chaghatay Khan India and the Mongols Subject to incessant Mongol Du’a (1282–1307) and his sons led several concerted raids, India’s climate and stiffening resistance from the sul- efforts to conquer Delhi. Other Qara’unas responded to tans of Delhi blocked conquest for a century and a half. hardship by converting to Islam and settling in India as At the time of the Mongol conquest the Islamic Delhi “New Muslim” auxiliaries of the sultan. After a two- sultanate ruled northern India. Warring incessantly with month siege of Delhi in 1303, Sultan ‘Ala’-ud-Din the Hindu kings further south and east and always wary of Muhammad (1296–1315) reorganized his armies and the subjugated Hindu majority, the sultanate of Delhi was won great victories in 1305 and 1306, meting out horrific less a unified regime than a coalition of maliks (provincial punishments to the captured Mongols. After 1306 military governors), of Qipchaq Turk, Ghurid (Afghan), Chaghatayid and Qara’una attacks entirely ceased for and Khalaj Turk origin, each slaves of the sultan or his pre- more than a decade. Around 1310 ‘Ala-ud-Din killed decessors, each with his own personal army, and each envoys from the Il-Khan Öljeitü and massacred the entire ready at any point to seize the sultanate for himself. 20,000–30,000 population of submitted “New Muslims.” When Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi of KHORAZM fled Although Sultan Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq (1320–25) across the Indus River, CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, was in origin a poor Qara’una who took service with a Injannashi 239 merchant of Sind, clashes with the Mongols were again breaks off in 1236. Following the precedent of constant in his reign—he claimed to have fought them 29 Rashipungsug’s BOLOR ERIKHE, with which Injannashi was times—but no longer threatened conquest. Under his son familiar, he uncritically mixed Chinese histories, particu- Muhammad (1325–50) Mongol raids reached as far as larly the YUAN SHI, and traditional Mongolian chronicles the Indian city of Meerut (Mirath) in 1328–29, and the (see 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES). Unlike Rashipungsug, booty from Indian raids, together with a trade resurgence, however, Injannashi added verses and embellishments of revived the Chaghatay economy. Thus, while the his own creation. The result, while presented as a history, Chaghatayid pressure on India was constant, it was left to is similar to the Chinese historical novel Romance of TIMUR and his descendants, the Mughals, to take Delhi Three Kingdoms (from which Injannashi also borrows and rule India. episodes). Injannashi’s freedom is even greater in a later See also SOUTH SEAS. incomplete manuscript of the work in the author’s hand Further reading: Peter A. Jackson, The Delhi Sul- called the Tümed manuscript, with numerous entirely tanate: A Military and Political History (Cambridge: Cam- imagined episodes. bridge University Press, 1992); André Wink, “India and Injannashi’s other novels Nigen dabkhur asar (One the Turco-Mongol Frontier,” in Nomads in the Sedentary story pavilion) and Ulagan-a ukilakhu tingkhim (Pavilion World, ed. Anatoly M. Khazanov and André Wink (Rich- of scarlet tears) were re-creations in Mongolian of the mond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001): 211–233. world of the Chinese novel Dream of the Red Chamber (or Story of the Stone) by Cao Xueqin (1724?–64). Injannashi borrowed heavily from two of the Chinese “continua- Injannashi (Injannasi, Injanasi, Injinash) (1837–1892) tions” inspired by the great novel of thwarted youthful A complex and ironic author whose satires on blind supersti- love and karmic debts and evidently conceived of his tion made him the icon of later Inner Mongolian nationalists work in the same lines. While much of the setting is Injannashi was born on May 20, 1837, the youngest sur- autobiographical—the hero is the son of the “Marquis of viving son of the Chinggisid TAIJI (nobleman) Wangchin- the North,” living in Zhongxinfu court, the very name of bala (Chinese name Bao Jingshan, 1795–1847) and his Wangchinbala’s mansion—and embellishments are drawn lady, Mayushaka (b. 1800), in Tümed Right Banner from Mongolian life, the novels reflect primarily the Red (modern Beipiao county, Liaoning province) in Josotu Chamber craze that swept late Qing China. league. Wangchinbala’s family, like the other Mongols of Injannashi’s fame in Inner Mongolia derived primar- Josotu league, had long been settled as landlords of Chi- ily, however, from the Blue Chronicle’s “Brief Introduc- nese tenants. tion” (tobchitu tolta). In it Injannashi savagely satirizes Injannashi’s family was highly literate in Mongolian, the sensuality of the taijis, the obscurantism of the clergy, Manchu, and Chinese. Wangchinbala wrote poems in the crudity of the Mongol nomads, and the pettiness of Mongolian while serving as banner tusalagchi (adminis- prejudiced Chinese scholars, earning praise from Inner trator), a position inherited by two of his sons, Gularansa Mongolian reformers and nationalists as a “democratic” (1820–51) and Süngwaidanjung (Chinese, Bao Songshan, writer. Injannashi crafted an original version of CONFU- 1834–98). These two also translated the Chinese novel CIANISM, in which he saw the true yirtinchü-yin yosu Shuihu zhuan (Outlaws of the marsh) into Mongolian, (Chinese, shidao), or “way of the world,” as avoiding and like their middle brother, Gungnechuke (1832–66), both narrow-minded dogmatism and libertine skepticism. were poets. All the world’s diversity was created through arga bilig Injannashi married twice—his first wife was the (Chinese, yin and yang) and was, properly understood, daughter of a KHARACHIN prince—and had two sons. A good. This included both Buddhism and his own Mongo- rebellion by his family’s Chinese tenants in 1870 and the lian people, who, despite their faults, deserved cultiva- failure of their investment in a coal mine caused financial tion, a fact proved by the great phenomenon of CHINGGIS distress. He died in Jinzhou city in Liaoning on February KHAN. 25, 1892. Originally circulated in manuscript, Injannashi’s Blue Injannashi’s artistic activities began with poetry and Chronicle was printed in part in 1930 in Beijing and in Chinese brush painting of landscapes and birds. His most full in 1940 in Kailu. His Red Chamber novels were pub- famous work, the Blue Chronicle of the Rise of the Great lished in 1938 and 1939. New editions were printed in Yuan Dynasty (Yekhe Yuwan ulus-un mandugsan törö-yin HÖHHOT in 1957 and have been reprinted continuously khökhe sudur), he claimed had been begun by his father ever since. and briefly worked on by his three brothers before he See also CHINESE FICTION; INNER MONGOLIANS; LITERA- completed it himself in 1870–71. Internal evidence indi- TURE; “NEW SCHOOLS” MOVEMENTS. cates, however, that the extant Blue Chronicle (Khökhe Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “A Chinese Source for sudur) is entirely Injannashi’s work. While Injannashi an Episode in Injanasi’s Novel, Nigen Dabqur Asar,” in Trac- apparently planned to write a full history of the YUAN tata Tibetica et Mongolica, ed. Karénina Kollmar-Paulenz DYNASTY from the rise of Chinggis to 1368, the text and Christian Peter (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 2002), 240 inje 21–29; ———, “Injanasi’s Romantic Novels as a Literary Injinash See INJANNASHI. Tour-de-Force,” in Documenta Barbarorum, ed. Klaus Sagaster and Michael Weiers (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras- sowitz, 1983), 1–10; A. Craig Clunas, “The Prefaces to Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region The Inner Nigen Dabqur Asar and Their Chinese Antecedents,” Zen- Mongolia Autonomous Region is China’s third-largest tralasiatische Studien 15 (1981): 139–189; John Gombojab provincial level unit, second only to Xinjiang and Tibet, Hangin, Köke Sudur (The Blue Chronicle): A Study of the and its main autonomous region for the Mongol national- First Mongolian Historical Novel by Injannasi (Wiesbaden: ity. Inner Mongolia covers 1,183,000 square kilometers Otto Harrassowitz, 1973). (456,760 square miles) and has a population of 21,456,518, of which only 3,379,738 are Mongol (1990 figures). The region is heterogeneous in natural and ethnic inje (injü) The term inje or dowry referred in the MON- geography. Much of it closely resembles neighboring Chi- GOL EMPIRE to the human dowry of servants given with nese provinces, but other areas are open steppe inhabited an aristocratic bride. Through the peculiarities of the by Mongols in YURTS. While only about 16 percent of the Mongolian ORDO (palace tent) system the term sometimes population is Mongol, most Mongols live in areas in which came to designate the personal subjects of a khan. they are, locally, the majority or a very large minority. The inje, which accompanied the bride to the groom’s (On the social, cultural, and political history of Inner household at marriage, was both a daughter’s share in her Mongolia’s ethnic Mongols, see INNER MONGOLIANS.) father’s subjects and a support for her in her new family. (Due to exogamy, this was often far away from her natal GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY home.) In the KEREYID Khanate of the 12th century, such In physical geography Inner Mongolia forms a conglom- dowries could reach up to 200 persons. The aristocracy eration of three different zones. The steppe and desert of the Mongol Empire practiced polygamy, and each wife along the border with the State of Mongolia (Outer Mon- possessed her own ordo, among which the husband dwelt golia) form part of the high MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. Eastern in rotation. The ordo’s principal staff consisted partly of Inner Mongolia beyond the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE is servants who had come with the wife as inje from her a more arid extension of the Manchurian plains, while own people, and so in the khanates of Chaghatay in Inner Mongolia south of the Yin Shan Mountains is part Turkestan and the Il-Khans in Iran the word inje (spelled of the uplands flanking the North China plain. The injü or enchü, perhaps also influenced by emchü, personal Huang (Yellow) River valley cuts through these uplands property) came to refer to the khan’s entire household, and separates the deserts of the ORDOS plateau. In climate including inherited people, landed property, and subjects and vegetation, however, the region is more unified, levied from his outer subjects as keshigten (imperial being largely dry and continental with annual precipita- guards; see KESHIG). tion generally between 150 and 400 millimeters (6–16 In Mongolia, however, the term was used only in the inches). Most of the region is naturally steppe, with original sense. Under the MONGOL-OIRAT CODE (Mong- patches of dunes and sparse forests, but the southwestern ghol-Oirad tsaaji) of 1640, inje was restricted to livestock third is desert and the northern Khinggan a vast boreal except among the greatest nobles, but the custom was forest. retained on a much wider scale among the Qing (Ch’ing, The human geography of Inner Mongolia was deter- 1636–1912) dynasty. In intermarriage with the dynasty’s mined by the early pastoral settlement by Mongols and Manchu imperial family, sizable communities of Beijing the advance of CHINESE COLONIZATION from the 18th to bannermen and craftsmen were dispatched as inje with 20th centuries. Inner Mongolia can be divided into four Manchu princesses to areas of Mongolia, where they long large socioeconomic zones: pastoral, agropastoral, formed separate communities. Daughters of Mongolia’s forestry, and agricultural. titled nobility received three to eight maidservants and The pastoral zone includes the areas along Mongo- two to five families as inje, depending on their rank. On lia’s border (eastern HULUN BUIR, SHILIIN GOL, traditional the other end of the scale, the poorer TAIJI (descendants of ULAANCHAB, ALASHAN), northern JUU UDA east of the CHINGGIS KHAN) usually sent only a single maidservant Khinggan, and the western part of the Ordos plateau, with their daughters. The revolutionary regime abolished south of the Huang (Yellow) River. While containing the custom in 1923; in Inner Mongolia it continued until more than 65 percent of Inner Mongolia’s area, it has only the Japanese occupation (1931–45). 18 percent of its population. Mongols constitute an aver- See also FAMILY; QUDA; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING age 24 percent of the population in this zone, yet this low PERIOD; WEDDINGS. percentage is an average of 1) vast, sparsely settled pas- Further reading: Junko Miyawaki-Okada, “Women’s toral areas proper, where Mongols are the majority, 2) Property in the History of Nomadic Societies,” in Altaic small patches of high-density farming habitations that are Affinities, ed. David B. Honey and David C. Wright virtually exclusively Han (ethnic Chinese) inhabited, and (Bloomington: Indiana University, 2001), 82–89. 3) cities and towns, where Mongols are a minority. Modern Inner Mongolia: Administrative Divisions Inner Mongolia, 1949–1954 Inner Mongolia, 1969–1979 R U S S I A (AR) HEILONGJIANG OLI A NG Ulaankhot ) O R Ulaankhot M (A R A JILIN NE I IN OL NG REHE MO LIAONING SUIYAN ER _Z_h GANSU I NN Orochen (AB) NINGXIA Höhhot _______ Zhangjiakou NIN Guisui a_n__ gj_ia_ GX IA Hulun Buir _________ k_o_u_ (Hailar) uli Morindawa a Daur (AB) zho w EEw Tianjin Capital of province-level unit (MAC) Mongol Autonomous County rg a Man B eennkki Wuhai Municipality (with seat) Border of county-level unit Fuyu (Yekhe Minggadai) i ((A B)) KHINGGAN Name of league (aimag) Border of municipality or league Qiqihar Chakhar Sub-ethnic group or “tribe” International border KHINGGAN Dorbed (MAC) (AB) Autonomous Banner 0 300 miles Khorchin Ü Ulaankhot Harbin jü 0 300 km müc Front Gorlos (MAC) hin Jar ud SHILIIN GOL M O N G O L I A Changchun Ab Khorch Ereenkhot Baarin in ag Shiliin Khot a (to Subei Ejene Sö Juu Uda Tongliao _______ n MAC) Ongni'ud id Chifeng ______ AL d ULAANCHAB Saikhan Tal Chakhar AS Ura Shenyang H Bayan Oboo AN BAYANNUUR Chak Kh ara Fuxin har chi Beipiao n (Tümed) (MAC) Linhe Baotou ______ Tumed Kharachin Jining Left-Flank NORTH Ordos _____ Höhhot Hohhot _______ ______ Alashan (MAC) KOREA Sea of (Dongsheng) Wuhai ______ Beijing Japan Bayankhot Korea Ordos Tianjin Bay Ningxia Bo Gulf C H I N A 242 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region A Khorchin farming village in Tongliao Municipality, around the White Month, 1988. The village is almost purely ethnic Mongol. (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) In eastern Inner Mongolia KHORCHIN and neighbor- dwell in small Mongol enclaves surrounded by Chinese ing districts are areas of agropastoral settlement, where settlements, while others, such as in KHARACHIN and the rural residents mix farming and stockbreeding. This TÜMED areas, dwell in mixed ethnic villages. zone is small both in area (7 percent) and in percentage Urbanization is rapidly advancing in Inner Mongolia, of Inner Mongolia’s population (11 percent) but contains with city dwellers jumping from 22 percent of the total almost 39 percent of Inner Mongolia’s Mongols. It is the population in 1978 to 36 percent in 1990. Inner Mongo- only zone where Mongols are the majority (54 percent). lian cities can be divided into four types: 1) administra- The northeastern forestry zone in the Greater Khing- tive-commercial (e.g., HÖHHOT, Shiliin Khot); 2) gan Range contains 14 percent of Inner Mongolia’s area industrial (e.g., BAOTOU); 3) mining (e.g., Bayan Oboo, and 9 percent of its population. Sparsely inhabited before WUHAI, Huolin Gol); and 4) railroad (e.g., Ereenkhot, 1950 by non-Mongol but culturally allied minorities— Manzhouli). As a rule, only administrative towns in pas- Daurs, EWENKIS, and Orochen—this area is now predomi- toral or agropastoral areas have a significant Mongol pop- nantly settled by Han. Mongols form only 3.5 percent of ulation. the population and other minorities an additional 8 per- Communications in China are based heavily on rail- cent. ways, which in Inner Mongolia tie Inner Mongolia’s sub- The agricultural zone consists of areas along the regions more closely to the neighboring provinces than to Huang (Yellow) River and the borders with Inner Mongo- each other. Early railroads that crossed Inner Mongolia lia’s neighboring provinces: Shanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, and include the Chinese Eastern Railway crossing Hulun Buir Jilin. While accounting for only 13 percent of Inner Mon- (1900) and the Beijing-Baotou railway (1923). Trunk golia’s area, the agricultural zone includes 61 percent of lines constructed after 1949 include the TRANS-MONGO- the autonomous region’s population. Mongols are only 8 LIAN RAILWAY (1956), the Baotou-Lanzhou line (1958), percent of this zone’s population, but this 8 percent and the Beijing-Tongliao line (1977). Mining and forestry includes 31 percent of Inner Mongolia’s Mongols. Some centers are connected by branch lines. Only in 1994, with Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region 243 the completion of the Jining-Tongliao line, could one go golia’s legislature, the People’s Congress, has been fixed at by rail between eastern and western Inner Mongolia 39–37 percent from 1954 to the present despite vast without passing through Beijing. Buses and trucks pro- swings in the Mongol percentage of Inner Mongolia’s vide local transportation, and airlines have operated in population. The 35-person leadership of the Inner Mon- eastern Inner Mongolia since 1931. In 1958 the system golian People’s Government elected in 1988 included 15 was overhauled, with Höhhot as the new hub. Mongols. The fact that the Mongols are simultaneously grossly overrepresented compared to their percentage of AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM the population and still a minority in their own region’s Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region of China. As legislature and government has created in both Han and they have developed since 1949, China’s minority Mongol officials a strong sense of grievance, which they autonomous areas are ranked in three levels: autonomous look to Beijing to address. region, autonomous prefecture, and autonomous county, In local administration Inner Mongolia contains two equal to a province, district, and county, respectively. All parallel systems, one of leagues (Chinese, meng; Mongo- autonomous units are considered “inalienable parts of the lian, AIMAG), BANNERS (qi; Mongolian, khoshuu), and sumu People’s Republic of China.” (SUM) for Mongol areas and one of municipalities (shi), The actual degree of autonomy granted autonomous counties (xian), and townships (xiang) for Han areas. areas such as Inner Mongolia depends much more on gen- While the two parallel administrative hierarchies are eral Chinese politics and the particular region’s financial structured in the same way, only leagues, banners, and and cultural situation than on the formal “Nationality sumus are considered as Mongol autonomous units, Regional Autonomy Law” adopted in 1984. China has long which must be headed by Mongols. While many leagues combined total centralization in theory with considerable and banners have Han majorities, the sumus are almost local autonomy in practice, but such autonomy depends always majority Mongol, while the townships are Han. primarily on financial independence from the central gov- Local government in pastoral-zone sumus is totally domi- ernment. Thus, despite the provisions of the law, auton- nated by Mongol cadres and carried on largely in Mongo- omy for Inner Mongolia is rather limited, as its finances are lian, with little participation from the recently dependent on large state-owned mining and metallurgical immigrated Han minority. Since 1983 several leagues enterprises and central government subsidies. have been converted to municipalities. Similarly, while China’s minorities have rights of cul- Over the formal structures of government and auton- tural expression that are, in practice, considerably omy is the reality of central Communist Party control and beyond what are accorded minorities in most other Asian ideology. The most important plank of this ideology is nations, these rights depend less on formal autonomous Chinese nationalism, and the Inner Mongolian govern- status than on the traditional and current cultural status ment exercises constant vigilance in denouncing and of the nationality involved. The Mongols, with a long punishing even the most cautious expression of Mongol written tradition, a prerevolutionary secular education separatism. Described officially as a “people’s democratic movement (see NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS), and no cur- dictatorship,” the Chinese system functions as an oli- rently active independence movement, share with the garchy with little public accountability. Since the 1980s ethnic Koreans one of China’s best developed minority- corruption has become rampant. While many Mongols, language educational systems. In 1990 about 60 percent particularly those who speak Mongolian and whose fami- of ethnic Mongol grade school students were learning in lies were persecuted in the repeated campaigns of Mongolian and another 8 percent studying Mongolian as 1946–76, still nurse deep grievances against the regime, a second language. Mongolian-language higher education open dissent is rare. is also strongly developed, and minority students, espe- cially those studying in the minority languages, receive ECONOMY extra points on the college entrance exam. However, the The basic composition of the modern Inner Mongolian content of Mongolian-language education is, at the grade economy was established by 1965. While in 1952 farming school level, entirely translated from nationwide text- accounted for 60 percent of the total social product, herd- books and contains no special Inner Mongolian or ethnic ing for 15 percent, and industry (including mining) for Mongol content. Moreover, Mongolian-language educa- only 10 percent, by 1965 the percentages had changed to tion does not open access to the Chinese-dominated 18 percent, 10 percent, and 45 percent, respectively. economy. Despite rapid urbanization since 1965, farming still The primary practical consequence of regional accounted for 17 percent and herding for 7 percent of the autonomy is the preferential policies in education and total social product in 1990, while industry’s share has employment for the area’s titular nationality, including grown only to 49 percent. Inner Mongolia has shared in the guarantee that the head of the area’s government will China’s overall rapid growth since 1978, with total social be of the titular nationality (i.e., in Inner Mongolia, a product rising from 11 billion yuan to 53.5 billion in Mongol). Thus, the percentage of Mongols in Inner Mon- 1990 (in current prices). 244 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Inner Mongolia has 86.67 million hectares (214.16 These include iron (2.81 million metric tons, or 3.1 mil- million acres) of steppe, of which 68 million hectares lion short tons, in 1990), steel (2.73 million metric tons, (168 million acres) are usable for livestock. Soviet confis- 3.01 million short tons), and 17 billion kilowatt-hours cations at the end of WORLD WAR II resulted in great loss produced in Inner Mongolia’s coal-fired electric genera- of livestock, but the number of traditional Mongol live- tors. Major light industrial products include DAIRY PROD- stock (HORSES, CATTLE, CAMELS, SHEEP, and GOATS) UCTS (22,000 metric tons, or 24,251 short tons, in 1990), rebounded after 1947 from 8.1 million head to 40.8 mil- wool thread (4,349 metric tons; 4,794 short tons), lion head in 1965. By 1978 the number had declined to woolen textiles (10.4 million meters; 34.1 million feet), 34.4 million before increasing again to 45.9 million in carpets (366,000), chemical fertilizers (134,794 metric 1990. In the same period (1947 to 1990) sheep and goats tons, 148,585 short tons), cement (2.28 million metric have increased from 70 percent to 86 percent of the total tons, 2.51 million short tons), glass, and televisions herd, and since 1985 the authorities have become con- (364,451 sets). International exports earning more than cerned with overgrazing. While the number of herders in US $10 million annually include CASHMERE, frozen beef, 1982 was only 547,000, or 6 percent of the employed carpets, soya, and rare earths. population, the total value produced in animal husbandry Incomes in Inner Mongolia have risen rapidly in since 1965 has averaged half or slightly less than that of recent years. In 1990 average annual income was 1,050 arable agriculture. yuan for the urban population, 906 yuan for the herders, Inner Mongolia’s total plowed acreage peaked at and only 607 yuan for the farmers. Since 1980 that of around 5.6–5.7 million hectares (13.8–14.1 million acres) herders has increased the fastest and that of urban areas in 1957–65. Since then it has declined to about 5.0 mil- the slowest. The infant mortality rate in 1981 was 24 per lion hectares (12.4 million acres), of which about one- 1,000 live births, broken down into 20 per 1,000 in quarter is irrigated. In 1982 farmers numbered 5,278,000, urban areas and 54 per 1,000 in rural areas. In the remote or 58 percent of the employed population. Since 1949 majority-Mongol herding banners, the infant mortality old-time staples—gaoliang sorghum, millet, and buck- rate reached up to 91 per 1,000, while in the agropastoral wheat in the east and naked oats in the west—have given banners of Khorchin it was around 36–59 per 1,000. way to wheat, corn (maize), potatoes, and oil crops. The number of pigs shot up from 1 million in 1949 to 6.1 mil- ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY lion in 1979, before declining to 5–5.7 million in 1990. The Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region had its origins Many agropastoral Mongols now keep pigs, blurring the in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Government elected traditional saying in mixed-ethnicity areas that Mongols at the Inner Mongolian People’s Congress in May 1947. kept mastiffs and Han kept pigs. While controlled by the Chinese Communists, one-third Inner Mongolia’s industrial product in 1990 was of the congress’s delegates voted against ULANFU, the chief divided into 16 percent mining, 26 percent heavy indus- Mongol Communist, as leader and were subsequently try, and 58 percent light industry. In the 18th century eliminated. The autonomous government was, however, gold prospecting began in Ergüne (Ergun) and Ongni’ud very different in structure and territory from the later banners, and in the 19th century coal mines in Wuhai autonomous region. The government consisted of Ulanfu and Baotou cities were opened. Today coal, oil, shale oil, as prime minister (Mongolian, yerüngkhei said, chairman, ferrous metals, nonferrous metals, precious metals, and Chinese, zhuxi) and KHAFUNGGA as deputy prime minis- rare earths as well as a wide variety of minerals, salts, and ter, assisted by a 19-member government committee, sev- stones used for metallurgical, chemical, and construction eral ministries, and an 11-member Small Khural industries are all mined in Inner Mongolia. Inner Mongo- (Mongolian for standing legislature) or advisory confer- lia’s deposit of rare earths form 95 percent of China’s ence (Chinese, canhuiyi). Of the top 32 officials, 28 were total, and proven coal reserves exceed 200 billion metric ethnic Mongol. The government controlled the Inner tons (220 billion short tons), second only to Shanxi in Mongolian People’s Self-Defense Army, flew its own flag, China. Total coal production reached 46.1 metric tons and printed its own money. At the time its territory con- (50.8 short tons) in 1990 and 112.3 million metric tons sisted of Hulun Buir, Naun Muren (the Nonni River val- (123.8 million short tons) in 2002; the promotion of coal ley), Khinggan, Shiliin Gol, and CHAKHAR leagues. In as a household fuel has slowed deforestation, but is also 1948, as the Chinese Communists advanced, Jirim and responsible for smog in Inner Mongolian cities and acid Juu Uda were added. In these boundaries Inner Mongo- rain. In 1990 production of iron ore reached 8,890,000 lia’s population was about 35 percent Mongol. To the metric tons (9,799,545 short tons) and of gold reached south and east were various extraregional banners of 50 metric tons (55 short tons). Plans call for pumping 1 ambiguous status: Ongni’ud, Aohan, Kharachin, Fuxin, million metric tons (1.1 million short tons) of oil annu- Gorlos, and Dörbed. ally from Shiliin Gol. On December 12, 1949, the Inner Mongolian Inner Mongolia’s heavy industries are entirely based Autonomous Region was proclaimed, and the previous on processing the goods produced in the mining sector. attributes of sovereignty were stripped away, while the Inner Mongolians 245 constitutional structure of the region’s government close of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, it was 36 per- remained in limbo. Meanwhile, as the generals defending cent Mongol. The chairman and 12 of the 15 vice chair- Suiyuan province (covering southwest Inner Mongolia) men of the Revolutionary Committee, or government, surrendered, Suiyuan was organized as a separate were Han. province. Suiyuan covered the traditional Ordos and In April 1979, with the new reform policies, Inner Ulaanchab leagues, but its population was more than 90 Mongolia’s old frontiers were restored, while a Mongol percent Chinese. Ordos and Ulaanchab were organized replaced the Han chairman. In the forestry zone, how- within Suiyuan as autonomous prefectures. ever, the Jagdachi district, though theoretically returned In June 1954, after considerable controversy, Suiyuan to Inner Mongolia, was actually still administered by Hei- was merged with Inner Mongolia, with the autonomous longjiang province. The new 38 percent-Mongol parlia- region’s new capital in Suiyuan’s former capital Guisui, ment of 1983 selected a government headed by Ulanfu’s now renamed HÖHHOT. While the unification of all Inner son Buhe. Since then, Mongols have always chaired the Mongolia was popular among Mongols, some explained government, but Mongols never regained their pre-Cul- the merger by Ulanfu’s desire to bring his Höhhot tural Revolution political dominance. Tümed homeland into Inner Mongolia. Inner Mongolia’s See also BAYANNUUR LEAGUE; CHIFENG MUNICIPALITY; ethnic Mongol percentage dropped to 13 percent. The CLIMATE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FAUNA; FLAGS; autonomous region’s First People’s Congress, meeting in FLORA; KHINGGAN LEAGUE; TONGLIAO MUNICIPALITY. July 1954, was only 38 percent Mongol, and the govern- Further reading: China’s Inner Mongolia (Höhhot: ment had only a bare Mongol majority. Similarly, the Inner Mongolia People’s Publishing House, 1987); Peng region’s first Communist Party Congress elected a com- Jianqun and Jia Laikuan, Prosperous Inner Mongolia (Bei- mittee that was chaired by Ulanfu yet was two-thirds jing: China Today Press, 1992). Han. In 1955 Rehe province was divided among Liaon- ing, Hebei, and Inner Mongolia. Although Inner Mongo- Inner Mongolians The Mongols of Inner Mongolia lia gained three banners, this newly annexed area, too, were separated from those of Mongolia proper in was overwhelmingly Chinese. Only the April 1956 1911–15 when they were forced to remain in the Repub- annexation of Alashan brought in strongly Mongol areas. lic of China after the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian In 1958 under the Great Leap Forward, internal independence. Since then the Inner Mongolians have administrative changes amalgamating Mongol and Han alternated between periods of pan-Mongolian agitation areas accompanied massive Han immigration. Before and of pursuing educational reform and uplift under the April 1958 Inner Mongolia consisted of eight leagues, auspices of sympathetic outside forces. Anxiety over the two cities (Höhhot and Baotou), and two administrative influx of Chinese and loss of ethnic identity have clouded districts, Pingdiquan and Heato, covering the most heav- the Inner Mongolians’ view of the future. ily Han areas of former Suiyuan. In 1958 Ulaanchab The term Inner Mongolia (Dotogadu Monggol, or in league was split and partly merged with Pingdiquan and Chinese Nei Menggu) stems from the distinction under partly with Hetao and Alashan. At the same time, Shiliin the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) between “inner” zasags Gol, the only league with no farming townships, was (jasags, or rulers) of Inner Mongolia and the “outer” merged with Chakhar. Meanwhile, from 1956 to 1961, zasags of Outer Mongolia (today’s State of Mongolia), administrative consolidation merged nine banners with Kökenuur, and Xinjiang. Under the Republic of China, neighboring counties. While in all but one case the when the region was divided into “special regions” and resulting unit took the banner’s name, the new units were provinces, the unification of Inner Mongolia became a all heavily Han. In 1962–64 some of these amalgamations rallying cry, finally fulfilled in 1954. In 1947, under the were reversed. influence of usage in the Mongolian People’s Republic, In 1969–79, during the Cultural Revolution, Inner “Inner (Dotogadu) Mongolia” was changed in Mongolian Mongolia was stripped of its eastern and far western to “South (Öbör) Mongolia,” although the Chinese Nei areas. In the east Hulun Buir league was given to Hei- Menggu, or “Inner Mongolia,” was retained. (On the geog- longjiang, Khinggan and Jirim leagues to Jilin, and Juu raphy, economy, and institutions of Inner Mongolia, see Uda league to Liaoning provinces. In the west the INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION.) Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region annexed Alashan Left In 1990 Mongols numbered 3,379,738, or 16 per- Banner, and Gansu took Alashan Right and Ejene. While cent, of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region’s total some of the league-banner terminology was maintained population. While the Mongols are a small part of the in the new provinces, banners in strategic areas were whole region’s population, by 1990 three-fourths still detached from the league system. Inner Mongolia was lived in districts where they were locally the predominant now only 7 percent Mongol and no longer included the population. Surveys indicate about 77 percent of the eastern areas, which had been the cradle of the Inner Mongolians primarily use Mongolian, 10 percent autonomous region. Despite this low percentage, when a use Mongolian with Chinese, and 13 percent have no new Inner Mongolian legislature was elected after the functional Mongolian. 246 Inner Mongolians In 1982 75.2 percent of the Mongols in Inner Mon- criticize the Mongols’ crudity, religious obscurantism, and golia worked in herding or farming, compared with 68.3 aristocratic idleness and immorality as well as Chinese percent of the region’s Han (ethnic Chinese). While Mon- ethnocentrism and anti-Mongol bigotry. After 1900 this gols are traditionally seen as herders, in fact, just over intellectual current sparked a NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENT in half of the Inner Mongolian Mongols live in mixed southeast Inner Mongolia led by the Kharachin prince agropastoral areas and almost 10 percent in purely agri- Güngsangnorbu (Prince Güng, 1871–1931). Using rev- cultural areas. Within the urban economy Mongols are enues from leasing land and mines to Chinese farmers more likely than the Han to be employed in government, and merchants, he built schools, including Inner Mongo- education, scientific, hygiene, and allied nonbusiness lia’s first girls’ school, invited Japanese teachers, and sent fields (12.5 percent versus 7.2 percent) but much less students to Japan to study. Neighboring princes in JUU likely to be found in mining, manufacturing, construc- UDA and southern Khorchin and CHAKHAR and Daur offi- tion, or commerce (12.3 percent versus 24.4 percent; all cials also pursued similar reform programs. 1982 figures). In 1982 the Mongols had a slightly lower Meanwhile, the Mongols in areas away from the illiteracy rate than did the Han Chinese (24.5 percent of advance of CHINESE COLONIZATION, such as Shiliin Gol, those over 12 as opposed to 26.2 percent). ULAANCHAB, Alashan, and northern Khorchin, remained Traditionally, Inner Mongolia also included several strongly committed to traditional Mongolian values of areas now in China’s Manchurian provinces. These areas Buddhist church and Chinggisid state. In Ordos, how- were excluded under the Japanese occupation in ever, isolated between the Huang (Yellow) River and the 1931–33, a decision ratified by the Chinese Communists. Great Wall, resistance circles, or DUGUILANG, emerged first (See DÖRBED MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; FRONT GOR- to petition against and gradually to fight against Chinese LOS AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS colonization and princely abuse of power. Culturally con- COUNTY; KHARACHIN.) servative and Buddhist, by 1901 the circles were openly “Tribal,” or subethnic, identities and stereotypes are opposing the nobility. still strong among the Inner Mongolians. Inner Mongo- lians getting to know one another often first ask the THE 1911 RESTORATION AND PAN-MONGOLISM other’s native area. The eastern KHORCHIN, who speak a In November 1911 the restoration of Mongolian indepen- dialect heavily influenced by Chinese, are often resented dence began in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR), the cen- for their success in climbing the political ladder. The ter of Khalkha or Outer Mongolia. Although the Inner ORDOS Mongols are seen as more religious, while those of Mongolian expatriate Duke Haishan (1857–1917) had ALASHAN are seen as the most backward. Those of north- been one of the restoration’s chief planners, the Inner ern SHILIIN GOL are seen as the most traditional, yet not Mongolian BANNERS (appanages) at first supported the very hardworking. Qing dynasty, which was simultaneously fighting the Chi- Before 1200 the nomadic peoples of Inner Mongolia nese republican revolution in southern China. Only in were usually related to, but somewhat different from, isolated HULUN BUIR did the banners expel the Qing garri- those of Mongolia proper (see KITANS; ÖNGGÜD; XIANBI; son and join independent Mongolia. XIONGNU). Under the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY After the abdication of the last Qing emperor on (1206/71–1368) Inner Mongolia was occupied by the February 12, 1912, the new president of the Republic of Turkish Önggüd, the Mongolian QONGGIRAD, and China, Yuan Shikai, sought to reassure the Inner Mongo- appanages under the descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s lian rulers that the republic would not infringe their brothers (see MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). princely prerogatives. At the same time he dispatched Under the MING DYNASTY these appanages surrendered troops to hold Inner Mongolia’s strong points and and were made the THREE GUARDS. In 1450, after the protested Russian support for the Khalkha Mongolian TUMU INCIDENT, Mongols flooded south from Mongolia government. Faced with an ethnic Chinese republic most proper and re-Mongolized Inner Mongolia. From then of the Inner Mongolian jasags (hereditary banner rulers; until 1636 Inner Mongolia was the political and cultural see ZASAG) now supported pan-Mongolism, but some, led center of the Mongols (see NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY). by Prince Güng, opposed the theocratic nature of the new The Inner Mongolians surrendered to the Qing dynasty Khalkha Mongolian state and eventually supported Yuan (1636–1912) in 1636 but until the 19th century Shikai’s government. Although Outer Mongolia tried to remained culturally and historical close to the KHALKHA drive the Chinese out of Inner Mongolia in 1912–13 (see Mongols of Mongolian proper. SINO-MONGOLIAN WAR), Russian pressure forced the Mon- golian government to abandon its pan-Mongolist policy. REFORMIST CURRENTS IN INNER MONGOLIA During the 19th century an enlightenment movement THE CHINESE REPUBLIC AND INNER MONGOLIA, began among the Mongols of eastern Inner Mongolia. 1912–1931 Writers such as INJANNASHI (1837–92) and his family In 1912 Inner Mongolia’s population was estimated at 2.5 were inspired by CONFUCIANISM and Chinese literature to million, of which slightly more than 875,000 were Mon- Inner Mongolians 247 gol. Administration in Inner Mongolia was based on eth- areas. The occupation drew the attention of Chinese pub- nicity, with the Mongols subject to the traditional ban- lic opinion to disaffection in Inner Mongolia. The conser- ners and their Chinggisid jasags and the Chinese settlers vative Shiliin Gol PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB (Prince De) subject to counties. In 1914, after the Mongolian troops used the Japanese threat to advance a Mongol autonomy withdrew, Yuan Shikai divided Inner Mongolia into three movement from 1933 to 1935, but despite the agreement “special regions” governed by military lieutenant gover- of the central government, northern China’s local military nors, or dutongs, in Chengde, Zhangjiakou (Kalgan), and governors were absolutely opposed to any limit on their Guisui (modern HÖHHOT) (see AMBAN). The Mongols of authority over the Mongolian banners. Stymied by their eastern Jirim league were divided among the Manchurian opposition and encouraged by a wave of enthusiasm provinces. In 1920 fear of the spread of the Russian civil among Mongol nationalist intellectuals, Prince De war pushed Hulun Buir to voluntarily rejoin China as a accepted Japanese military aid in February 1936, yet the semiautonomous region. new Mongol force proved unable to handle China’s war- After Yuan Shikai’s death in 1917, his generals split lord armies until Japan launched its own wholesale inva- into warlord factions. The dutongs joined these cliques sion of China in July 1937. and attempted to expand their wealth by promoting Japanese rule gave Inner Mongolia stability and increased Chinese colonization, sparking duguilang resis- much of the autonomy and reforms that nationalists had tance in Ordos and popular rebellions elsewhere. Violence been looking for for decades. Colonization was immedi- became rife as the Mongols were disarmed, while Chinese ately halted, and Mongolian and Japanese became the bandits were hired as mercenaries in incessant wars. sole languages of education and administration. Govern- Khalkha Mongolia’s 1921 REVOLUTION breathed new ment-funded education, cooperatives, and publishing hope into pan-Mongolist agitation. Mongol authors and aimed to improve the Mongols’ economic, social, and cul- politicians such as Bai Yunti (revolutionary alias Sereng- tural situation. In traditionally Mongol areas Mongol offi- donrub, 1894–1980) and MERSE (Guo Daofu, cials dominated the administrations, even where Mongols 1894–1934?), students in Prince Güng’s Mongolian and were now the minority. In Manchukuo, the new Tibetan School in Beijing, and duguilang leaders all Japanese-controlled state under the last Qing emperor, looked to the new regime in Outer Mongolia. Some Puyi, the remaining Mongol areas of eastern Inner Mon- politicians and students also supported either the Chi- golia were organized into four autonomous Khinggan nese Nationalists (or Guomindang) or the Chinese Com- provinces. (Outlying Mongol banners in Manchuria were munists, both of whom from 1924 espoused excluded from these provinces and from subsequent self-determination and autonomy for China’s border Inner Mongolia autonomous regions.) While nobles were nationalities. From 1925 the new Mongolian People’s given sinecures at the Manchukuo court, nationalist Republic and the Soviet Union trained scores of Inner intellectuals rose to unprecedented influence. In central Mongolian students nationalists, yet the Inner Mongolian Inner Mongolia (Shiliin Gol, Chakhar, and half of People’s Revolutionary Party (IMPRP), funded and armed Ulaanchab) Prince De headed an autonomous govern- by the Mongolian People’s Republic and the Soviet ment under the Japanese-controlled administration of Union, failed in its attempts from 1925 to 1928 to spark China. an Inner Mongolian revolution. During this period cul- By 1941 in Manchukuo, 23,742 students, of whom tural nationalists such as Prince Güng’s pupil the printer 17 percent were female, were studying in 201 Mongolian- Temgetü (1887–1939) began laying the foundation for a language public primary schools, with another 1,475 in new secular and progressive Mongol culture that looked secondary schools and 550 in teachers’ training schools. to Chinggis Khan as a model of youthful determination. In Prince De’s government 5,090 students (19 percent When the Chinese Nationalists reunified China in female) were studying in 74 public schools, 1,423 in 31 May 1928, they quickly repudiated their autonomy pro- private schools, and 839 in four secondary schools. Cul- gram and continued to sponsor colonization. While Merse turally, the Japanese occupation saw the first printing of returned to education and writing, the Kharachin politi- many prerevolutionary classics, such as the BOLOR ERIKHE cian Wu Heling (Ünenbayan, b. 1896) lobbied for reforms and the Khökhe sudur of Injannashi, while the journals in the autocratic jasag system that would preserve Mongo- Ulaan bars (Red tiger) and Shine Monggol (New Mongo- lian autonomy. In Ordos duguilang leaders used Soviet- lia) carried Inner Mongolia’s first novella (in 1940), many supplied rifles to maintain independent military regimes. poems, and essays by new authors. The alienation and social disintegration in Inner Mongolia Despite these reforms, Japanese rule was often resulted in popular apathy toward the Japanese takeover oppressive. The Mongols resented the administrative of Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia. manipulation that separated the four Khinggan provinces while forcing Prince De to work with North Chinese col- JAPANESE RULE, 1931–1945 laborationist regimes. Japanese advisers were usually The Japanese occupied Khorchin and Hulun Buir in high-handed and the Mongol officials often reduced to 1931–32. In 1933 they invaded Kharachin and Juu Uda puppet status. Many of the nationalist intellectuals were 248 Inner Mongolians Soviet-educated former IMPRP members, who secretly Advocating federalism and national autonomy, Ulanfu looked to the Mongolian People’s Republic for inspira- used diplomacy, threats, and revolutionary appeals to tion. In 1936 Lingsheng (1889–1936), the governor of push the nationalist regimes and their leftist leaders such Khinggan North province, was arrested by Japanese secu- as Khafungga into merging with his Communist front rity police as a Soviet spy with more than 20 other distin- organization. Once the Chinese Nationalist assault of guished officials; he and three others were executed. Only 1946–47 was beaten off, a new Inner Mongolian after 1941 did the Japanese try to win over the Mongols, Autonomous Government claiming authority over the unifying three of the Khinggan provinces and increasing old Khinggan provinces, Shiliin Gol, and Chakhar was the authority of Prince De and his Mongol officials. By proclaimed on May 1, 1947, at Wang-un Süme (modern this time, however, widespread shortages were causing Ulanhot). Publicly, the new government seemed highly serious discontent, and informed officials realized the autonomous, with its own flag, currency, government Japanese Empire’s days were numbered. (including an army ministry), and provisional parlia- ment; Ulanfu held the position of prime minister. CHINESE CIVIL WAR The Chinese civil war was a time of deep suffering in The Chinese Nationalists held on to southwestern Inner Inner Mongolia. From 1937 to 1947 the estimated popu- Mongolia during WORLD WAR II, and the Chinese Com- lation dropped from 847,000 to 832,000 (age-set data munists in Yan’an (Yenan) tried to infiltrate both Nation- confirm this drop occurred after 1942) and increased alist and Japanese-held Inner Mongolia. However, World only to 835,000 by 1949. Soviet pillaging, outbreaks of War II in Inner Mongolia ended not with a Chinese the plague, and battlefield disruption devastated the pop- advance but with a combined Soviet-Mongolian invasion. ulation. From 1946 the Communists encouraged reprisals Despite massacres of lamas, confiscation of Inner Mongo- against Japanese-era “collaborators.” These campaigns lia’s livestock, and wanton destruction by Soviet troops, culminated in the violent land and herd reform campaign Inner Mongolian nationalists and people welcomed the of eastern Inner Mongolia and Chakhar in 1947–48, in possibility of pan-Mongolian unification brought by the which “exploiters” (those who rented out land or live- invasion. Eventually, Sino-Soviet treaties blocked this stock) were publicly humiliated, beaten, and often killed. possibility, but in the interval Mongol nationalist regimes Only Shiliin Gol and Hulun Buir areas along the Mongo- headed by leftist intellectuals such as KHAFUNGGA lian frontier were spared this struggle. In some areas as (1908–70) took power in former Japanese-occupied much as 25 percent of the population were labeled Inner Mongolia, and revived the IMPRP in eastern Inner exploiters, and the targets responded by slaughtering Mongolia. their livestock, fleeing, or rebelling. In farming areas Chi- The Chinese Communists quickly adapted to this nese and auslander Mongol tenants benefited while the new reality on the ground, coopting leaderless Mongol native Mongol bannermen lost. Even so, the Communists nationalists into a front organization under ULANFU won the committed loyalty of most nationalist intellectu- (1906–88), a Höhhot TÜMED and long-time Communist. als and many ordinary Mongols, loyalty stiffened by the Chinese Nationalists’ opposition to Mongol autonomy and revenge killings by anticommunist Mongols. Attempts by pro-Nationalist Mongols and Prince De to form an alternative Mongol center were swept away by the Communist advance, and all Inner Mongolia came under Communist control by 1949. INNER MONGOLIA, 1949–1966: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ETHNIC TENSIONS In 1949 the Chinese Communists decisively recast Inner Mongolia’s autonomy. The Inner Mongolian military and youth league were integrated with their Chinese counter- parts, and propaganda campaigns began attacking the “upper stratum” nationalists who had founded the nationalist regimes of 1945–46. On October 10 the Peo- ple’s Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed a unitary republic, and on December 3 the previous Inner Mongo- lian Autonomous Government was renamed the Inner Soldiers in an Inner Mongolian cavalry unit, under the Mongolia Autonomous Region, a mere local administra- Chinese Communist–aligned Inner Mongolian Autonomous tive organ of the PRC. The Inner Mongolian flag and fed- Government, 1947 (From Öbör Monggol-un tegübüri jirug eralist slogans disappeared. Ulanfu remained in charge of [1947]) the government, party, and military. Inner Mongolians 249 The new regime continued to mop up resistance, statistics on literacy rates for Mongols. Students in “eth- although very little is known of the opposition. The new nic” primary schools (mostly Mongol, but also including government accused anticommunist elements of killing Daurs, ethnic Koreans, etc.) expanded from 22,500 in 550 cadres and citizens from January to July 1950 and by 1947 to 122,600 in 1956 and 233,500 in 1966. Inner 1952 had sentenced 9,324 people to death or imprison- Mongolia University was opened in 1957, with 60 lectur- ment as counterrevolutionaries. From May 1955 to the ers and professors brought in from prominent Chinese end of 1957, another wave of convictions sentenced universities. Mongolian radio and several publishing 1,788 persons as counterrevolutionaries. houses publishing in Mongolian as well as Chinese were In summer 1949 Inner Mongolia’s capital was moved also established. The new regime continued the Japanese- from Wang-un Süme, a center of East Mongolian national- era reprinting of prerevolutionary writers such as Injan- ism, to Zhangjiakou in northern China. In 1954–56 Inner nashi, adding duguilang poets to the canon and Mongolia was expanded to include the southwestern ban- promoting new writers such as NA. SAINCHOGTU. Scholar- ners and areas in eastern Inner Mongolia that had not been ship also expanded in cooperation with that in Mongolia included in the Khinggan provinces. As a result, the per- and the Soviet Union. The Japanese legacy was main- centage of Mongols in the autonomous region, which had tained, however, in the use of Japanese as the main for- been about 35 percent in 1949–54, dropped to 12 percent. eign language in Mongol-language schooling. The new capital was put in Höhhot, near Ulanfu’s home- While the relative prosperity of the 1950s and the land. By exacerbating the gap between the region’s status as seemingly unassailable might of the new regime kept Inner a Mongol region and its actual ethnic composition, this Mongolian intellectuals and officials compliant, ethnic ten- move sparked considerable ethnic tensions. sions remained. Han Chinese, particularly recent immi- In contrast to the 1940s, the 1950s were boom years grants, resented the overrepresentation of Mongol cadres, for both population and livestock. Wolf extermination, particularly at the highest level, who generally had “bad fodder cutting, new wells, and veterinary stations helped class background” (intellectuals, wealthy peasants, etc.) large stock (horses, cattle, and camels) increase from and “complicated” pasts. In education preferential policies 3,043,000 head in 1949 to 6,646,000 in 1964 and sheep to assist Mongols were seen as not only unfair but perpetu- and goats from 5,755,000 head to 23,990,000 in the same ating this “bad class background” elite into another gener- period. With public health campaigns, disease eradica- ation. Mongols in their turn resented the powerful Chinese tion, and improved nutrition, the Mongol population cultural influences in what was supposed to be China’s increased from 835,000 in 1949 to 985,000 in 1953 and Mongol autonomous region. East Mongols also resented 1,384,355 in 1964. Land reform was extended to south- the dominance of Ulanfu’s Höhhot Tümeds. western Inner Mongolia in 1952; the greater experience In 1956, during the liberal “Hundred Flowers” cam- with pastoral areas and the regime’s greater confidence paign, the Inner Mongolian scholar Tübshin criticized the kept the process less violent. In 1956–58 land and live- fact that young urban Mongols were not learning the MON- stock were collectivized throughout Inner Mongolia, even GOLIAN LANGUAGE, and as a result in 1957 he was desig- in Shiliin Gol and Hulun Buir, leading to a 15 percent nated “Inner Mongolia’s Biggest Rightist.” In July 1955 the drop in livestock numbers but no mass slaughter. Except Cyrillic script used in the Soviet-aligned Mongolian Peo- in the areas bordering Mongolia, the nomadic Mongols ple’s Republic had been adopted, but in March 1958 its were sedentarized, although often with different summer adoption was canceled as Sino-Soviet tensions increased. and winter residences. Restrictions on private livestock Spurred by the Chinese ruler Mao Zedong’s utopian under the communes were far stricter than in the collec- and autarchic ideas, the Great Leap Forward from 1958 to tives of the Mongolian People’s Republic, and income was 1962 enforced collectivization all over the steppe. Agricul- tied more tightly to work on communally owned herds. tural colonization was suddenly encouraged as adminis- From 1947 to 1958 Chinese immigration into Inner trative consolidation combined Mongolian banners and Mongolia revived, but in a changed pattern. Instead of leagues with neighboring Chinese counties and districts. opening virgin pasture, the government opened new This planned immigration, together with refugees from administrative, mining, railway, and industrial towns on the massive government-created famine that gripped the steppe and intensified cultivation south of the exist- China in 1959–60, resulted in the net immigration of ing frontier of settlement. The percentage of Mongols 1,926,600 outsiders into Inner Mongolia in 1958–60. within Inner Mongolia’s post-1956 frontiers dropped The disasters of the Great Leap Forward were fol- from 14.8 percent in 1947 to 11.2 percent in 1964. Com- lowed by a brief retreat. In 1961–62 a net 689,900 per- pletely new cities such as Shiliin Khot (Xilinhot), Bayan sons left Inner Mongolia, mostly refugees returning home Oboo, and Saikhan Tal appeared, and existing cities such due to the desertification of newly farmed steppes and as BAOTOU were transformed. improving conditions in China proper. Meanwhile, some In 1947–66 Inner Mongolian educational and pub- of the administrative consolidations were reversed. lishing activities built on the previous achievements of After the thaw of 1961–62, political tensions the Japanese occupation, although there are no separate returned in 1964–66. The play Chasun dumdakhi checheg 250 Inner Mongolians (Flowers in the snow) by T. Damrin was attacked for not replaced by another Han military man, You Taizhong. In portraying the Inner Mongolian nationalists in 1945–47 July 1969, as the SINO-SOVIET SPLIT reached warlike levels, negatively enough. At the same time, the “redraw class Inner Mongolia was partitioned, with Hulun Buir and lines” campaign charged that Ulanfu’s Tümed Mongols eastern Inner Mongolia being divided among Manchuria’s had been unfairly advantaged during land reform. Finally, provinces and Alashan being partitioned between Gansu an academic debate over whether to draw modern Inner and Ningxia. The rump Inner Mongolia contained hardly Mongolian vocabulary from Chinese or Russian acquired more than 15 percent of China’s Mongols and was only 7 sinister overtones in the light of Sino-Soviet polemics. percent Mongol. In any case, the region was under direct Coinciding with these violent policy shifts and increased military rule from Beijing until 1972. ethnic tensions was a serious rise both in political crimes The Cultural Revolution accentuated the emphasis and in armed robberies and murders. From the end of on agriculture. Previously, Mongols, like Chinese city 1957 to 1966 the regime sentenced 18,230 persons as dwellers, received rations of grain food, but now such counterrevolutionaries, a yearly average of more than rations for rural Mongols were called “unjust grain,” and 2,000. Mongol districts were exhorted to grow their own. While Chinese immigration was encouraged, there was actually THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION, 1966–1976 little free arable land left, and immigration rates for Under the Cultural Revolution from 1966–76, Mao Inner Mongolia as a whole remained well below the Zedong’s reckless instigation of merciless civil strife 1950s rates. The one exception was the influx of “sent- turned these tensions into a ghastly mass persecution of down” Red Guards from China’s cities, who left again Mongols. In May 1966 China’s leaders attacked Ulanfu after 1976. for “creating ethnic divisions” and trying to “set up an independent kingdom,” and Red Guards (young Maoist CONTEMPORARY INNER MONGOLIAN POLITICS vigilantes) tried to seize power. The region’s military The late Cultural Revolution was marked by numerous authorities opposed the Red Guards but were overthrown incidents of Mongol protest in both the cities and the by “rebel” factions allied to Beijing by November 1967, countryside. In 1976, with the overthrow of the “Gang of while the Mongol Red Guards generally supported the Four,” blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolu- “conservative” factions. As elsewhere in China, the tion, Mongol demonstrations in Höhhot first openly con- opposing factions agreed only in savagely persecuting the tested the whole existence of the “New IMPRP.” In 1979 old scapegoats—landlords, lamas, “rightist” intellectuals, China’s new government acknowledged the “New former Japanese collaborators, and Guomindang offi- IMPRP” case to have been a hoax from the beginning, cers—and vandalizing the prerevolutionary cultural her- restored Inner Mongolia’s previous frontiers, abolished itage. Mongolian-language publications continued, discrimination against “bad class backgrounds,” and although the content was now purely Maoist, and some replaced You Taizhong with Kong Fei (1911–93), a Mongolian-language education in the countryside was Khorchin Mongol. East Mongol cadres continued to maintained. However, Mongol-language schools in the lobby for the punishment of Teng Haiqing, the return of cities and in some countryside areas were closed down as the Jagdachi region in the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE, nests of ethnic solidarity and key links in Ulanfu’s system which was left under Heilongjiang’s administration, and of preferential policies. the retention of Inner Mongolia’s mineral wealth in Inner From April 1968 the Han military man Teng Haiqing Mongolia. widened the Cultural Revolution’s attack on the previous On August 22, 1981, the Communist Party’s new autonomy policy, an attack which turned into a virtually policy on Inner Mongolia was announced without genocidal campaign against the Mongols as a political addressing these points or the issue of Chinese migration. and social force. A vast underground conspiracy, the The next month students struck in Höhhot, demanding “New Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party,” was that Inner Mongolia’s land, schools, administration, and fabricated through interrogation and torture, eventually party organs be of and for Mongols first and foremost. consuming almost the entire educated class among the The demonstrations, covertly supported by Kong Fei and Mongols. Official figures, widely considered as underesti- other East Mongol cadres, became a forum for airing the mates, put the death toll at 22,900 and those injured or Mongol students’ bitterness over the loss of their culture, crippled at 170,000. At the same time, the “redrawing the Communist Party’s betrayal of their parents’ genera- class lines” campaign disenfranchised large numbers of tion’s loyalty during the Cultural Revolution, and the Mongols (15 percent of Shiliin Gol’s Mongols and in continued Chinese domination of Inner Mongolia. In some areas up to 50 percent) as members of the “exploit- Alashan a fight between Han and Mongols students left ing classes.” six Mongols dead. After a futile appeal to Beijing by the In May 1969 the scale of the “NEW INNER MONGOLIAN students, the region’s Han party secretary, Zhou Hui, in PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY” (“New IMPRP”) CASE February 1982 quieted the demonstrations by promising was criticized, and in December Teng was dismissed and nonretaliation for the demonstrators. Since 1982 economic Inner Mongolians 251 and cultural liberalization and firm suppression of dissent trous droughts in 1999 and 2000 and a massive plague of have blocked ethnically based demonstrations. locusts in 2002 that devastated herders, especially in After the demonstrations Ulanfu’s son Buhe (Bökhe) Shiliin Gol. While herders responded with long-distance became chairman of Inner Mongolia from 1982 to 1992. migrations (otor) to find new pasture, the Chinese gov- The numerous posts occupied by Ulanfu’s Yun family ernment from 1999 to 2002 moved 30,000 “ecological became the subject of frequent jokes, yet the party secre- migrants” off the steppe completely and plans to move taries continue to be Han outsiders. After Ulanfu’s death 650,000 more by 2008. in 1988 and Buhe’s retirement in 1992, the Yun family gradually lost its position. By law, the chair of CULTURAL POLICY autonomous regions must be of the titular nationality, After 1979 the Inner Mongolian government vigorously and in practice Höhhot Tümeds and eastern Inner Mon- promoted the revival of Mongolian language and culture, golians have alternated in the post. Since 2000 the restoring Mongolian-language grade schools in both region’s chairwoman has been Oyunchimeg (Uyunqimg, cities and countryside. Preferential policies assisted Mon- b. 1942), a Liaoning Mongol. gol students in entering colleges and universities, where The 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION in independent in 1989–90 87.5 percent of the ethnic Mongol teacher- Mongolia inspired many Mongol nationalists. Groups cir- training students and 35.6 percent of the ethnic Mongol culating Mongolian liberal and nationalist literature were graduate students were studying in Mongolian-language smashed by police in 1991, and more arrests have fol- classes. Mongolian-language books, magazines, and jour- lowed periodically. Independent Mongolia’s subsequent nals were heavily subsidized. Inner Mongolian scholars economic difficulties and cultural prejudices between have moved into the forefront of international Mongolian Khalkha and Inner Mongolians have dampened enthusi- studies in the fields of folklore, linguistics, Kitan studies, asm for Mongolia as a model. and identifying and printing ancient manuscripts. Nevertheless, Mongolian culture faces an uncertain THE PASTORAL ECONOMY economic future. Already in the 1980s some rural Mon- In 1984 the obvious unsustainability of marginal farming gols complained that Mongolian-language education was and the burgeoning foreign and domestic market for useless compared to knowing Chinese. From 1979 to meat, wool, and CASHMERE prompted a turn to promote 1989 the number of Mongol elementary school students herding. Further agricultural colonization was prohib- in Mongolian medium schools dropped from 71.2 percent ited. In 1990 the average income of herders was 906 to 59.7 percent. Since then market reforms have exacer- yuan, considerably more than the farmers’ average 607 bated the education–employment mismatch, as students yuan, and Mongol herders have made China the world’s trained in Mongolian-language humanities find available chief producer of cashmere. Decollectivization of both jobs are overwhelmingly in the Chinese-dominated cleri- farmlands and herds took place in 1983. Acting on the cal, technical, and managerial areas. In 1993 certain assumption that common pasture ownership would pro- officials proposed eliminating Mongolian-language edu- mote overuse, the Inner Mongolian authorities in 1985 cation above the elementary school level to promote eco- took the unprecedented step of assigning pasture land to nomic growth. While protests from East Mongol cadres individual households to be fenced with barbed wire. defeated this proposal, the dilemma of Mongolian-lan- This move and increasing population density are slowly guage education in a Chinese-dominated society remains. sedentarizing the remaining nomads in Shiliin Gol and See also BARGA; CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY; CLOTH- Hulun Buir. ING AND DRESS; DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; DANCE; However, given the expense of fencing and the inef- DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION; EPICS; fective legal remedies, only wealthy and politically well- EWENKIS; FAMILY; FARMING; FOOD AND DRINK; HUNTING connected herders can actually keep other herders’ AND FISHING; JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; JEWELRY; animals off their pasture. This policy thus accelerated the KOUMISS; LITERATURE; MUSIC; RELIGION; WHITE WEDDINGS polarization of Inner Mongolian pasture into a few shel- MONTH. tered areas owned and intensively managed by official Further reading: Asia Watch, Crackdown in Inner organizations or well-connected herders, and all other Mongolia (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991); lands suffering rapid desertification. The culmination of Christopher P. Atwood, Young Mongols and Vigilantes in this process is the Inner Mongolian government’s current Inner Mongolia’s Interregnum Decades, 1911–1931, 2 vols. plans for “three-way restructuring”: the most prosperous (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002); Uradyn E. Bulag, The Mongols and management-oriented one-third of the herders will at China’s Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity remain as pastoralists, while the marginal two-thirds will (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002); A. Hurel- be relocated as farmers or town-based entrepreneurs. baatar, “A Survey of the Mongols in Present-Day China: This has exacerbated border conflicts between various Perspectives on Demography and Culture Change,” in banners and districts, sometimes leading to violent alter- Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopoli- cations. This process was suddenly accelerated by disas- tan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman (Armonk, 252 Islam in the Mongol Empire N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999): 191–222; Sechin Jagchid, The Under ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) the Mongols’ old Last Mongol Prince: The Life and Times of Demchugdon- merchant partners, Mahmud Yalavach and his son Mas‘ud rob, 1902–1966 (Bellingham: Western Washington Uni- Beg, achieved high office (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND versity, 1999); Owen Lattimore, Mongol Journeys (New MAS‘UD BEG). Muslim perceptions of the khans fluctuated: York: Doubleday, Doran, 1941); Owen Lattimore, Mon- Ögedei, his brother JOCHI (d. 1225), and his nephew gols of Manchuria (1934; rpt., New York: Howard Fertig, MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) were seen favorably, while 1969); Li Narangoa, “Educating Mongols and Making CHA’ADAI (d. 1242) and GÜYÜG khan (1246–48) were ‘Citizens’ of Manchukuo,” Inner Asia 3 (2001): 101–126; detested as anti-Muslim. Mongols such as Cha’adai David Sneath, Changing Inner Mongolia: Pastoral Mongo- attempted to implement Mongol beliefs proscribing lian Society and the Chinese State (Oxford: Oxford Uni- bathing in summer and prohibiting the slaughter of meat versity Press, 2000); Bing Wang, “One School/Two in the Islamic fashion (halal). These practices ran directly Systems: An Ethnographic Case Study of a Mongol High contrary to Islamic rites and caused great friction. The School in China” (Ph.D. diss., University of Calgary, brief 1238–39 uprising in Bukhara of Mahmud Tarabi, a 1999); Dee Mack Williams, Beyond Great Walls: Environ- faith healer and seer, demonstrated the continuing appeal ment, Identity, and Development on the Chinese Grasslands of Islamically based resistance to Mongol rule. of Inner Mongolia (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University The Shi‘ite Muslim minorities received quite diverse Press, 2002). treatment. The Sevener Shi‘ites, or ISMA‘ILIS, who main- tained a theocratic state in the fortresses of the Elburz Mountains and Quhistan, incurred the wrath of the Mon- Islam in the Mongol Empire Although the Mongol gols and were destroyed under Möngke Khan. The conquest was widely perceived as a disaster for Islam, the Twelver Shi‘ites of southern Iraq, the Persian Gulf, and conquest ultimately resulted in a substantial expansion of Iran’s shrine cities of Qom and Meshed, however, had no the Islamic world. political pretensions. After the destruction of Baghdad By the time of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27), they announced their submission and gratitude for the Islam predominated among the QARLUQS, a Turk tribe in destruction of what they considered an usurping and the Ili valley, and in the city states of the Tarim Basin up tyrannical caliphate. From then on the Shi‘ite community to the borders of Uighuristan (modern eastern Xinjiang). at Najaf, site of the tomb of ‘Ali, was an autonomous tax- Muslim traders operated alongside Uighur merchants in exempt ecclesiastical polity. North China, and the Arghuns, a Muslim minority, lived With the division of the empire, the first khan to rule among the Christian ÖNGGÜD of Inner Mongolia. Involve- as a Muslim was Berke (r. 1257–66), Jochi’s son, of the ment in the fur, falcon, and livestock trade of Siberia and GOLDEN HORDE. Accounts of his conversion variously stress Mongolia brought Muslim merchants such as Jabar the milk of Berke’s Muslim wet nurse or the persuasions of (Ja‘far) Khoja and Hasan in contact with Mongol nomad a Bukharan Sufi master or sheikh, Saif-ud-Din Bakharzi. chiefs like Chinggis Khan. Chinggis won early support Islam in the Golden Horde was closely connected to for- from the Qarluqs (1211), and after overthrowing the eign policy and trade. Islam was not widespread in its terri- Buddhist QARA-KHITAI Empire in 1216–18, he proclaimed tory, and Berke’s conversion brought a close alliance with freedom of religion among the Tarim Basin cities. Already MAMLUK EGYPT against his cousin HÜLE’Ü. Under the non- large numbers of Muslim caravan traders had become Muslim Toqto’a Khan (1291–1312), Franciscan missionar- ORTOQ, or merchant partners, of the Mongols. ies and Uighur baqshis (Buddhist teachers) eclipsed Islam. The Mongol campaign against KHORAZM, however, With his conversion again by a Bukharan Sufi, Ibn ‘Abd-ul- destroyed this early amity. In this campaign the Mongols Hamid (known as Sayyid Ata), and the purge of recalci- proved unable to win virtually any local support and trant commanders, ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) made his court resorted to repeated wholesale massacres to root out stub- thoroughly Muslim and joined it to the international urban born resistance. Subsequently, Islamic states in Fars, Ker- network of Muslim merchants and scholars, while Sufi man, and KURDISTAN surrendered more or less peacefully, faqirs, or miracle workers, brought Islam to the Golden but the 1258 destruction of Baghdad and almost the Horde’s various nomadic subjects. entire ‘Abbasid family again stoked the image of the Mon- While the early Il-Khans in the Middle East moved in gols as the most hideous enemies of the Islamic faith. a pervasively Islamic environment, they generally did not Islamic historians such as Ibn al-Athir (1160–1233) in convert. The Sufi sheikh ‘Abd-ur-Rahman won to Islam Mosul and Minhaj-ud-Din Juzjani (1193–ca.1265) in one of Hüle’ü’s baptized sons, Tegüder, who in 1282–84 Delhi saw the Mongols as precursors of the end of the became the first Muslim Il-Khan under the name Sultan world; the setback to Islam seemed inexplicable other- Ahmad. Ahmad neglected politics for dervish sessions of wise. ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI (1226–83), writing at singing and dancing but continued royal patronage of the Mongol court, however, found much to commend in other religions unchanged. Ahmad’s attempt to make the Mongols and believed that their rule was actually peace with Egypt ended with the imprisonment of Sheikh extending the sway of Islam. ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, who he had sent as his trusted envoy. Islam in the Mongol Empire 253 By 1289 Islam was widespread among the ordinary with the Christians and granted both them and Muslims Mongols in Iran and was resisted primarily by the royal exemption from corvée. Ananda’s son Örüg-Temür was family and certain high commanders. The khan Baidu reinstated in northwest China, and payments to mostly (1295) had outwardly to act as a Muslim despite his Muslim ortoq merchants selling pearls reached extraordi- strong Christian sympathies. In 1295 NAWROZ, a Muslim nary levels. The conspirators who overthrew Yisün- Mongol emir, induced GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304), a Temür’s son in 1328 executed both Dawla-Shah and main contender for the vacant throne, to convert to ‘Ubaidullah, abolished the position of cadi (Islamic Islam. Ghazan Khan’s victory was followed by Nawroz’s judge) in the capital, DAIDU (modern Beijing), and after edict to destroy all churches, synagogues, and Buddhist first putting all religions on an equal tax footing, later temples. In 1297, however, Nawroz fell from favor, and granted Buddhist and Taoist monasteries special exemp- Ghazan Khan repudiated his persecution of Christianity, tion from the commercial tax. In 1332 Ananda’s son although he allowed the proscription of Buddhism to Örüg-Temür was accused of treason and executed. Mus- stand. Islamization did not, however, change the later lims never again achieved high office in the Yuan. Muslim Il-Khans’ foreign policy. Islamization as a process is best recorded in the IL- Although the Central Asian CHAGHATAY KHANATE was KHANATE. Long before converting, non-Muslim Mongol demographically as Muslim or more so than the Il- rulers prayed at saints’ tombs, patronized Sufi mystics, Khanate, the anti-Islamic legacy of its founder Cha’adai and attended Islamic festivals. The decisive stage of con- retarded Islamization. Mubarak-shah (r. 1266), the first version involved undergoing circumcision and learning Muslim ruler, was deposed after less than a year of rule. prayers, ablutions, and other daily rituals. After conver- Tarmashirin Khan (1331–34), while raised a Buddhist, sion came further changes: switching the Mongol hat for was the first to rule as a Muslim. His excessive attention the turban, abandoning the Mongol burial practices for to the settled Transoxiana provoked a violent backlash Islamic interment in a mausoleum, and contracting from the less Muslim eastern area. The khanate split in endogamous marriages. Many formally Muslim Mongol half, and the eastern half, or MOGHULISTAN, did not con- lords balked at these changes for years. At the same time, vert to Islam until the Sufi sheikh Mawlana Arshad-ud- even profoundly Muslim khans such as Ghazan Khan Din converted Tughlugh-Temür (r. 1360–62/3), who, retained a deep interest in the Mongols’ pre-Islamic festi- with his 120,000 soldiers, accepted circumcision. vals and customs. Mongol rule created a large Muslim community in Turks and Central Asians had always adhered to the China. Deported craftsmen from Central Asia and the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam, which, by permitting con- Middle East had been settled there, and QUBILAI KHAN sumption of horsemeat, KOUMISS, and mead, was more (1260–94) actively recruited Muslim physicians, musi- adapted to Inner Asian customs. In the Golden Horde, cians, astronomers, artillery operators, and ortoq mer- the Chaghatay Khanate, and the YUAN DYNASTY Muslim chants, setting up a Muslim Medical Office (1270) for Mongols unanimously followed this lead. Many Mongols, the court, a Directorate of Muslim Astronomy (1271), such as Ghazan Khan, also felt a great devotion to the and a Muslim School for the Sons of the State (1289), family of ‘Ali, frequently visiting his tomb in Najaf. His teaching Persian. Muslims were classified as SEMUREN, brother Sultan Öljeitü (1304–16), influenced by the “various sorts,” below the Mongols but above the native Mongol emir Taramtaz (himself the son of a Uighur Chinese. Central Asian Muslim officials, such as AHMAD baqshi), went further and converted to Twelver Shi‘ism in FANAKATI and ‘UMAR SHAMS-UD-DIN SAYYID AJALL, 1309. Öljeitü saw a close parallel between Chinggisid achieved high position. In 1280, however, Qubilai privilege in the MONGOL EMPIRE and the Shi‘ite claim of became aware of Islamic (and Jewish) rejection of Mon- Islamic leadership (imamate) for ‘Ali’s family only. One gol customs and he decreed death for those who per- extreme Turkish Sufi, Baba Baraq, supposedly claimed formed Islamic-Jewish slaughtering or circumcision. In that Öljeitü was an incarnation of ‘Ali, who was in turn 1287 he revoked this decree, which was damaging com- an incarnation of God. Öljeitü’s attempt to impose even merce and revenues. The conversion to Islam of Qubi- moderate Shi‘ism, however, brought widespread resis- lai’s grandson Ananda (again supposedly through a tance, and his son Abu-Sa‘id (1317–35) returned the Il- Muslim wet nurse), who held an appanage in northwest Khanate’s Mongols to Sunni Islam. China, opened the possibility of powerful patronage of The Mongol conquests ironically powered a dramatic Islam. In 1307, however, after HARGHASUN DARQAN expansion of Islam, implanting a sizable Muslim minority thwarted Ananda’s attempt to seize the throne, his fam- in China and stimulating the conversion of the Qipchaq ily’s appanage was abolished. steppe. The Mongol conquest also strengthened the role The peak of Muslim influence in Yuan China came of Sufism in Islam. Sufi faqirs led the conversion, which under Yisün-Temür (titled Taidingdi, 1323–28), when the in turn sparked the formation of more organized Sufi Muslims Dawla-Shah (d. 1328) as left grand councillor lodges with lineages going back to the various sheikhs and ‘Ubaidullah (d. 1328) as manager (pingzhang) domi- credited with converting one or another Mongol ruler. nated the administration. Dawlat-Shah had good relations The confrontation of the Mongol rulers by miraculous 254 Islamic sources on the Mongol Empire Sufis formed legend cycles that gave the numerous ethnic WORLD CONQUEROR (c. 1259) was the first non-Mongol groups stemming from the Golden Horde and the attempt to pen a large-scale history of the Mongols and Chaghatayid Khanates—the Uzbeks, Nogays, and so their conquest. Juvaini was in Mongol service and saw on—a new communal identity as Muslim peoples. much to appreciate in their simplicity and vigor. Inde- See also ’ABBASID CALIPHATE; ARGHUN AQA; BAO’AN pendently, Minhaj-ud-Din Juzjani (1193–c.1265), the LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; BLUE HORDE; BULGHARS; CHUBAN; chief cadi, or Islamic judge, in Delhi, added to his history CRIMEA; DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; HAZARAS; of the Islamic dynasties, the Tabaqat-i Nasiri, a chapter on INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; ISLAMIC SOURCES ON THE MON- the “Irruption of the Infidels into Islam.” As a writer at GOL EMPIRE; KAZAKHS; MOGHOLI LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; the court of the sultanate of Delhi, Juzjani saw the Mon- NOQAI; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; QARA’U- gol invasions as a forerunner of the apocalypse. As one NAS; SARAY AND NEW SARAY; TIMUR; TURKEY. might expect, the chapters on CHINGGIS KHAN’s conquest Further reading: Reuven Amitai, “The Conversion of of Afghanistan, which Juzjani witnessed in his youth, and Teguder Ilkhan to Islam,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and on relations with the sultanate of Delhi are particularly Islam 25 (2001): 15–43; Devin DeWeese, Islamization and useful. the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and the Conversion to Islam With the conversion of the Mongol Il-Khans in Iran in Historical and Epic Tradition (University Park: Pennsyl- to Islam, Persian-language court historiography flour- vania State University Press, 1994); Kim Ho-dong, “Mus- ished. Vassaf wrote a continuation of Juvaini’s history to lim Saints in the 14th to the 16th Centuries of Eastern 1328 that combined valuable historical information Turkistan,” International Journal of Central Asian Studies 1 with an extremely ornate style. The Mongol period saw (1996): 285–322; Charles Melville, “Padshah-i Islam: The a renewed interest in the Persian national epic, the Conversion of Sultan Mahmud Ghazan Khan,” Pembroke Shahnama of Firdausi, that was reflected in Hamdullah Papers 1 (1990): 159–177; Judith Pfeiffer, “Conversion Mustaufi Qazvini’s (b. 1281/2) versified world history, Versions: Sultan Öljeytü’s Conversion to Shi‘ism Zafar-nama (1335), one of the few sources on late-Il- (709/1309) in Muslim Narrative Sources,” Mongolian Khan history. Qazvini’s geographical text, Nuzhat al- Studies 22 (1999): 35–67. qulub, also sheds light on Il-Khanid geography, finances, and administration. The crown of Il-Khanid history, however, was RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH’s (1247–1318) Islamic sources on the Mongol Empire The MON- COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES, covering the united Mongol GOL EMPIRE sparked some of the greatest historical writ- Empire and its four successor states up to 1304. The ing in the Islamic world, particularly in Persian, and authoritative stature of Rashid’s work inspired many these histories form one of the most important bodies of continuators. Abu’l-Qasim Kashani, who improbably data and interpretation about the Mongol Empire. The claimed to have been the real author of the Com- earliest Arabic historian of the Mongol conquest was ‘Izz- pendium, composed a history of Sultan Öljeitü ad-Din ‘Ali Ibn al-Athir (1160–1233) of Mosul, who (1304–16), while Hafiz-i Abru (d. 1430), writing in fought for Salah-ad-Din (Saladin) against the Crusaders. Timurid Herat, covered the reign of Abu-Sa‘id In his al-Kamil fi’l Ta’rikh, which covered world history to (1317–35). Rashid-ud-Din and Kashani both clearly the year 1231, Ibn al-Athir described the initial Mongol used royal diaries kept on the Chinese model at the Il- invasions, viewing them as an unprecedented, almost Khanid court. Apart from histories focusing on the uncanny, catastrophe for Islam. Vivid depictions of Mon- Mongols themselves, Persian local histories and gol atrocities enliven an otherwise rather dry narration. hagiographies contain much valuable information. Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad an-Nasawi, the private secre- Before 1400 neither the Golden Horde nor the tary of the Mongols’ die-hard foe, Jalal-ud-Din CHAGHATAY KHANATE nurtured any significant historio- Mengüberdi, was familiar with the al-Kamil and supple- graphical traditions. In the Chaghatayid area, though, the mented it with a lively biography of his patron’s struggle succeeding Turco-Mongol Timurid dynasty (c. 1378–1512; against the Mongols (1241/2). The extensive information see TIMUR) saw a revival of the Central Asian Persian his- on the IL-KHANATE and the GOLDEN HORDE in Arabic-lan- toriography in authors such as Mu‘in-ud-Din Natanzi and guage Mamluk writings is only now being analyzed. Al- Ghiyas-ud-Din KhWandamir (1475–1535/6), all of whom ‘Umari’s (1301–49) geography, al-Yunini’s (1242/3–1326) also supply important information on the later phases of general history, and the memoirs of Abu’l-Fida’ the divided Mongol Empire. Muhammad Haidar Dughlat (1273–1331) are three sources in this vast body that have (1499–1551) of MOGHULISTAN also worked in the same received modern historians’ attention. Also well known is tradition. In the successor states of the Golden Horde a the travelogue of the Moroccan jurist MUHAMMAD ABU number of genealogical and local histories appeared from ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA (1304–68/9). the 16th century, principally in Turkish. Ötermish Hajji’s Persian histories of the Mongols begin with two Tarikh-i Dust Sultan (also known as Chingiz name, c. major monuments, one favorable and one hostile. 1555) is a rich repository of oral traditions in Jochid ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI’s (1226–83) HISTORY OF THE lands. Abu’l-Ghazi Bahadur Khan’s (1603–68) Shejere-i Isma‘ilis 255 Türk, while of no great value on the earlier empire, was Shi‘ites treated these Nizari Isma‘ilis as “heretics,” or the earliest Islamic source on the Mongols to be trans- mulahidah, a term general even in contemporary Euro- lated into a European language. Sufi hagiographies and pean and Chinese accounts. genealogies are also important sources in Central Asian The first verifiable Isma‘ili contact with the Mon- and Golden Horde history. gols came as CHINGGIS KAHN’s youngest son, TOLUI, cam- See also INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; ISLAM IN THE MON- paigned in eastern Iran in 1221 and ravaged Isma‘ili GOL EMPIRE. populations in Quhistan. Hasan’s grandson Hasan Jalal- Further reading: Li Guo, Early Mamluk Syrian Histo- ud-Din (r. 1210–21) is said to have been the first ruler riography: al-Yunini’s Dhayl Mir’at al-zaman (Leiden: E. J. west of the Amu Dar’ya to submit to the Mongols. Brill, 1998); Peter Holt, Memoirs of a Syrian Prince: Abu’l- ‘Ala’ud-Din (MARCO POLO’s Alaodin, r. 1221–55) sent an Fida’, Sultan of Hamah (672–732/1273–1331) (Wiesbaden: envoy to ÖGEDEI KHAN’s (1229–41) coronation, but this Otto Harrassowitz, 1983); KhWandamir, Habibu’s-Siyar, submission by no means met Mongol requirements. Vol. 3, The Reign of the Mongol and the Turk, trans. Meanwhile, ‘Ala’ud-Din used fedayeen, or assassins, Wheeler M. Thackston (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- against Mongol commanders, killing Kül-Bolat, who had versity Press, 1994); Johannes Baptist von Loon, trans., campaigned in Quhistan, and the commander Cha’adai Tarikh-i Shaikh Uwais (History of Shaikh Uwais): An Noyan (not to be confused with Chinggis Khan’s son), Important Source for the History of Adharbaijan in the Four- who had campaigned in western Iran under CHOR- teenth Century (The Hague: Excelsior, 1954); Minhaj-ud- MAQAN. Dîn Abû-‘Umar-i-‘Usman [Juzjani], Tabakat-i-Nasirî, 2 In 1246 ‘Ala’ud-Din sent his governors in Quhistan as vols., trans. Major H. G. Raverty (1881; rpt., Calcutta: The envoys to the Mongol QURILTAI (assembly), but GÜYÜG Asiatic Society, 1995); Mustawfi Hamd-Allah, The Geo- KHAN (r. 1246–48) ordered Eljigidei to command a great graphical Part of Nuzhat al-Qulub, trans. G. Le Strange campaign against him. The khan’s death and succession (Leiden and Berlin: E. J. Brill and Luzac, 1919); W. M. struggles aborted this proposal until the coronation of Thackston, trans., Mirza Haydar Dughlat’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi: MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59). Shams-ud-Din Qazvini, chief A History of the Khans of Moghulistan, Vol. 2 (Cambridge, judge of the city of Qazvin, where hostility to the Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996). Isma‘ilis was rampant, had denounced the menace of the “Heretics,” and Möngke Khan saw the Mulahidah not only as rebels but as an evil cult deserving complete anni- Isma‘ilis (Assassins, Mulahidah) The Mongols smashed hilation. Möngke Khan assigned the campaign to his the Isma‘ili state (1090–1271), famed for its fortresses brother HÜLE’Ü, and KED-BUQA of the NAIMAN tribe set out and assassins, and persecuted the sect. Originating as a as a vanguard in 1252. From May 1253 to September branch of Shi‘ite Islam, the Isma‘ilis separated from other 1254 Ked-Buqa sacked the citadels and massacred the Shi‘ites over the precise succession of the imamate, or towns of the Isma‘ilis in Quhistan, but Girdkuh fortress true leadership of Islam, among the descendants of ‘Ali still stood. Rumor said that ‘Ala’ud-Din dispatched 400 (Muhammad’s son-in-law). When the Isma‘ilis founded assassins to kill Möngke, although no attacks are the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt (973–1171), the main- recorded. stream Sunni authorities ruthlessly persecuted their fol- Hüle’ü himself arrived in spring 1256 with a vast lowers in Iran as subversives. army, including 1,000 mangonel experts and naphtha Hasan-i Sabbah (d. 1124), an indefatigable propaga- throwers from North China, and began mopping up in tor of the teachings of the most radical Nizari subsect of Quhistan. ‘Ala’ud-Din had been murdered by a slave in the Isma‘ilis, got control of the citadel of Alamut (1090), December 1255, and his young son Rukn-ud-Din Khur- in the Elburz Mountains northeast of Qazvin, while his Shah then at Maimun-Diz, hoped to come to some agree- confederates finagled the keys of nearby Lanbasar (Lam- ment with the Mongols. Hüle’ü reached the Elburz masar, 1102) and Girdkuh (c. 1095) in the Quhistan dis- citadels in September 1256, and after an exchange of trict, around Qayen in eastern Iran. Facing the constant envoys and some minor operations, he put Maimun-Diz danger of extermination, Hasan-i Sabbah sent fida’i under siege on November 8. The advancing winter and (fedayeen), or “self-sacrificers,” also known as fodder shortages worried some Mongol commanders, but hashishiyun (assassins), or “hashish users,” to murder his Rukn-ud-Din came down on November 20. Hüle’ü most dangerous enemies. While the Isma‘ili leaders lived treated him favorably, and Rukn-ud-Din secured Alamut’s in an isolated fortresses, ordinary Isma‘ilis adhered surrender on December 15. covertly to the faith in the surrounding districts, particu- In March 1257 Hüle’ü sent him on to Möngke Khan larly in Quhistan and Syria. Hasan (1126/7–66), the in Mongolia. The khan executed him and his whole party keeper of Alamut, came to claim descent from the and pronounced an edict of extermination against all Fatimid caliphs in Egypt and announced an era of spiri- Mulahidah. He ordered Ötegü-Chino’a, then directing tual resurrection in which the rules of Islamic law, or operations against Girdkuh, to collect and butcher those shari‘a, were annulled. Sunni Muslims and mainstream “heretics” who had already surrendered; 12,000 were 256 Isma‘ilis killed. Lanbasar, ravaged by plague, surrendered late in preserved the life of several Isma‘ili scholars, including 1257, and the survivors were massacred. Girdkuh held the famous astronomer Nasir-ud-Din Tusi, for whom he out an incredible 15 years, until December 1271. built an observatory in Maragheh. “Assassin” communi- The Mongols not only virtually exterminated Nizari ties remained in Syria, and Isma‘ili fedayeen attempted to Isma‘ili believers but sought out and destroyed all copies murder ‘ALA’UD-DIN ‘ATA-MALIK JUVAINI, the Sunni Persian of their books, of which only fragments survive. Hüle’ü governor of Baghdad for the Mongols, in 1271. J Jabar Khoja (Ja‘far) (1110–1227) Envoy of Chinggis The earliest appearance in history of the Jalayir (plural Khan who assisted in the conquest of North China and Jalayid) may be as the “Chaladi” found in Chinese became administrator of Zhongdu city records of 910 on eastern Inner Mongolia. In Mongolian Jabar Khoja’s place of origin is unknown, but he was a oral history the Jalayir figure as enemies of CHINGGIS Muslim and sayyid (descendant of Muhammad—Jabar KHAN’s ancestress Mother Monolun (or Nomulun). The was the Mongolian pronunciation of the Arabic name Ja’- Jalayir almost wiped out Monulun’s BORJIGID clan, and far) and had traveled in North China. Meeting CHINGGIS the survivors fled north to the BARGA (Barghu) Mongols. KHAN while both were at the KEREYID court, he joined Under her son Qaidu, the Borjigid conquered the Jalayir, Chinggis Khan’s standard, joined the BALJUNA COVENANT making them “hereditary slaves,” or ötegü bo’ol. This (1203), and served as envoy to North China’s JIN event might be dated around 1060. From then on the DYNASTY. In 1213 Jin troops blocked the Mongols at Juy- Jalayir was a subject clan, dispersed among the ruling ongguan Pass, and Jabar suggested an alternate route chiefs of the MONGOL TRIBE. through thick forests. Thanks to his advice, the Mongols Most if not all of the Jalayir came to be inherited by successfully bypassed Juyongguan and surrounded the Chinggis Khan’s father, YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, and the various defenders (see JUYONGGUAN PASS, BATTLES OF). In 1214 Jalayir sublineages assisted Chinggis Khan’s rise early on. Jabar Khoja served as the Mongol negotiator in the talks His most famous Jalayir commander, MUQALI (1170–1223), that brought the Jin emperor to submit as a tributary to subdued North China and received the title prince of Chinggis Khan. When the Jin emperor rebelled and fled state (Guowang or Gui-ong), acting as Chinggis’s viceroy south, the Mongols besieged the former Jin capital of while the khan was campaigning against KHORAZM. Zhongdu (see ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF). The city fell in May Another Jalayir commander, Ilügei, served as tutor and 1215, and Chinggis Khan gave Jabar a large part of the adviser to Chinggis’s son and heir, Ögedei (r. 1229–41); city as his appanage and made him its chief administrator his son Danishmand was Ögedei’s steward. The Jalayir with Shimo Ming’an (see SHIMO MING’AN AND XIANDEBU). MENGGESER NOYAN became chief judge, or jarghuchi, Although a Muslim, Jabar Khoja shared Chinggis Khan’s under MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59). fascination with the Taoist adept MASTER CHANGCHUN and In China Muqali’s descendants inherited his title of believed in his powers. Jabar Khoja is said to have lived prince of state. Muqali’s great-grandson Nayan became to age 117. close to QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), and Nayan’s son Shuti served Qubilai in the KESHIG (imperial guard) and in overseeing court ritual. Nayan and Shuti both shared Ja Lama See DAMBIJANTSAN. Qubilai’s interest in CONFUCIANISM, and the Jalayir aristo- crats came to be mainstays of Confucian influence in the Jalayir Once rivals of the Mongol tribe, many members Mongol YUAN DYNASTY. Hantum (Antong), grand council- of the Jalayir became powerful aristocrats in the MONGOL lor under Qubilai, Baiju, grand councillor under Shide- EMPIRE and its successor states. bala (titled Yingzong, 1320–23), and Dorji, grand 257 258 Jalkhanza Khutugtu Damdinbazar councillor under Toghan-Temür (titled Shundi, the Bogda (the Holy One, or the Jibzundamba Khutugtu). 1333–70), were all descendants of Muqali, and all pro- In 1902–05 he spent three years at the ÖÖLÖD and MING- moted Confucian scholars and doctrines. GHAD temple in western Mongolia; he also performed pil- The Jalayir were powerful in the other successor grimages to Tibet and India and became a famous states as well. Chinggis Khan gave 1,000 men under Möge meditation master. He participated in the 1911 enthrone- of the Jalayir to his son CHA’ADAI; Möge’s descendants were ment of the Bogda as KHAN and was appointed in Febru- one of the chief tribes both in the successor CHAGHATAY ary 1912 the supreme authority in western Mongolia. His KHANATE in Turkestan and in the Central Asian dynasty prestige helped recruit 1,300 soldiers among the western founded by Temür (Tamerlane, r. 1370–1405). Mongols for the victorious siege of KHOWD CITY. After The Jalayir Elege was a chief general of HÜLE’Ü (r. this he returned to his home monastery (in modern 1256–65), who founded the IL-KHANATE in Iran. BUQA (d. Tsagaan-Uul Sum, Khöwsgöl). During the REVOCATION OF 1289), a Jalayir of a junior sublineage, served Hüle’ü’s AUTONOMY and after the Bogda used him to deliver secret successors Abagha (r. 1265–82) and Argun (1284–91) as appeals to the U.S. legation in Beijing. In February 1921 commander in chief (amir al-umara or beglerbegi) and he was made prime minister under the White Russian vizier, holding the red seal. Elege’s ninth son, Aq-Buqa (d. BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON UNGERN-STERNBERG, but 1295), was Geikhatu Khan’s (1291–95) father-in-law and he did not resist the Red Army’s march into Khüriye. In chief commander, and Aq-Buqa’s grandson, Hasan Buzurg February 1922 the revolutionaries, worried about disaf- (“Big Hasan”), served Abu Sa‘id (r. 1317–35) as comman- fection among the lamas, recalled the Jalkhanza Khutugtu der in chief. After the Il-Khanate broke up in 1338, Hasan from retirement in his home monastery to serve as figure- Buzurg occupied Iraq, ruling in the name of various head prime minister until his death. Chinggisid candidates until his death in 1356. Under his See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH; REVOLU- son, Sheikh Uways (1358–74) the Jalayirid dynasty flour- TIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. ished in Iraq and western Iran. Eventually, the dynasty fell to internal dissension and attacks from TIMUR and his jam (yam) The jam, or courier and relay system, which successors. The Jalayirid dynasty, which lasted until linked together the MONGOL EMPIRE, had many proto- 1432, patronized the arts, and the Il-Khans’ illustrated types in earlier empires but was an unusually potent manuscript tradition developed further under their rule. institution under the Mongols. No members of the Jalayir dynasty achieved fame in the GOLDEN HORDE, under Chinggis’s son JOCHI. Even so, ORIGIN OF THE JAM numerous Jalayir clans found today among its successor While courier systems had been established as early as peoples—Uzbeks, Kazakhs, and Bashkirs (Bashkort)— the Persian Empire, the immediate prototype for the attest to the presence of Jalayirs there as well. In Mongo- Mongol courier system was that of the JIN DYNASTY lia, too, after the expulsion of the Yuan from China, the (1115–1234) in North China. This dynasty, like its prede- Jalayir continued to be an important clan. In the 16th cen- cessors, maintained roads and relay stations, building tury the name Jalayir (as Jalair or Jalaid) was one of the 14 bridges and ferries where necessary. Regular travelers at clans of the Khalkha in northern Mongolia. It is found at government expense, such as foreign envoys, were given present as a clan name among the Khalkha of Mongolia as room and board as well as fresh horses and pack animals, well as a banner and clan name in eastern and southeast- while messengers on the express post carried an official ern Inner Mongolia (see KHINGGAN LEAGUE). badge to receive rapid remounts. Food and stock were Further reading: Igor de Rachewiltz, “Muqali, Bôl, provided by the surrounding civilian population. Tas, An-t’ung,” in In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Per- After conquering North China, CHINGGIS KHAN sonalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), (Genghis, 1206–27) ordered civilians to supply envoys ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. (Wiesbaden: Harrossowitz, bearing tablets of requisition (PAIZA) whatever remounts 1993), 3–12; J. M. Smith, Jr., “Djalayir, Djalayirid,” in and provisions they needed. Those riding on government Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960 on), 2d business would simply exchange their own tired horses ed., vol. 2, 401–402. for any fresh horse they saw on the road, and any passing envoy became the honored guest of the local officials. The Mongols also built roads; Chinggis’s son ÖGEDEI Jalkhanza Khutugtu Damdinbazar (Jalkhanz Khutagt, KHAN carved a military highway through the ALTAI RANGE. Sonomyn Damdinbazar) (1874–1923) Incarnate lama who served as prime minister under White Russian and revo- ORGANIZATION OF THE JAM lutionary regimes Ögedei in his first year as khan (1229–41) organized a Damdinbazar was born in Tsogtai Zasag banner (modern formal jam (modern zam, Uighur pronunciation yam), or Tüdewtei Sum, Zawkhan) before being discovered as the road system. Relay stations with attached households Jalkhanza Khutugtu. At age 16 he visited Khüriye (mod- were set up every 45 kilometers (25 miles). The staff ern ULAANBAATAR) and at age 20 joined the entourage of tended the station’s horse herd, supplied remounts to the Jamugha 259 envoys, and served specified rations to those on govern- The jam/yam institution survived in the GOLDEN ment business. Only those bearing an official paiza, or HORDE, financed by a yam tax, but little is known of its tablet, were to use the jam, but those carrying military operation. The 1305 peace treaty between the Mongol intelligence or rarities for the emperor were allowed even successor states reopened the jam between them. without a paiza. Civilians near the stations paid a qubchiri SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT tax to supply the goods, but the attached households, called jamchi or ula’achi (from ula’a, relay, Uighur, ulagh), The QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) in Mongolia also main- were exempt from other taxes. Ferries, wells, and bridges tained a postroad system that carried both urgent news were maintained, and even dogsled relays were used in and official goods. After establishing garrisons in Mongo- remote areas of Manchuria and Siberia (see MANCHURIA lia, the Qing set up a separate grain transport system, AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL which operated along the regular postroad routes. The EMPIRE.) In settled zones the jamchis were locals, while in Qing postroad stations were called örtege (modern örtöö, the steppe they were mostly deported subject peoples. Chinese, taizhan) and were divided into the official sta- The jam inspectors, called todqa’ul in the west and tions (guanshe taizhan) and the sumu stations (sumu todghasun in the east, were important officials. The two taizhan). The former contained five main trunk roads great lords in the west, CHA’ADAI in Turkestan and BATU by (jam or zam) through Inner Mongolia, the main western the Volga, controlled their jams separately. road from Beijing to Xinjiang and the northern road from Abuses of the jam soon became notorious. The Mon- Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) to Khüriye (modern ULAAN- gol nobility as well as the court freely issued paizas, often BAATAR), KYAKHTA CITY, and KHOWD CITY and on to Xin- for personal business. The excess traffic meant that sta- jiang. All of these were maintained by the central tions lacked horses, and envoys often came to blows over government in Beijing. The local sumu stations, however, them. Paiza holders expected excellent service and beat were operated by the local banners (appanages) and the jamchis when the food and drink was not up to par. sumus (SUM). All the roads through Mongolia were Widespread banditry necessitated guards, and RASHID-UD- manned as a public duty (ulaga, modern ulaa) by Mon- DIN FAZL-ULLAH noted that even minor persons would gols. By the 19th century, however, it was common for receive an escort of 200 horsemen, while major person- the more remote banner offices to hire substitutes nearer ages would have 500 to 1,000. MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) to the roads to fulfill their functions. limited some of these abuses. After 1911 this postroad system was inherited and maintained by the independent Mongolian governments THE JAM IN THE SUCCESSOR STATES (see REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD). Not The Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China maintained Ögedei’s until 1949 was the civilian duty of ulaa eliminated. system by dedicating vast resources and making reforms. See also TEMÜDER. QUBILAI KHAN (1260–74) in 1261 set up special “gerfal- con” posts exclusively for the highest officials. Even ordi- Jamugha (Jamuqa, Jamukha) (c. 1160–1205) Chinggis nary relays, though, had sumptuous hostels built. In Khan’s former blood brother and foremost rival within the 1269–71 the court limited the number of paizas assigned Mongol tribe to each office, set up a general administration of the jam Jamugha belonged to the Jajirad (or Jadaran) clan, which under the ministry of war, and specified written records considered itself a branch of the heavenly born BORJIGID be kept of all horses issued. Around 1330 the Mongol lineage, but which rivals claimed was really of illegitimate Yuan dynasty maintained (according to incomplete fig- birth. Jamugha was an orphaned only son, raised by ures) 1,400 stations, of which 913 were the conventional women of his father’s clan. In his childhood (around horse relays with 44,135 horses, 424 were water relays 1173) Jamugha first became ANDA (blood brother) with with 5,921 boats, and the rest sedan chair, ox cart, and Temüjin (the later CHINGGIS KHAN), likewise orphaned by foot relays. In Manchuria 15 dogsled relays disposed of his father’s murder. By around 1180 Jamugha had risen to 218 dogs. significant influence among the Mongols. When Temüjin Meanwhile, in Iran the jam system broke down asked Toghril Khan of the KEREYID khanate for help under the weight of overuse. Jamchis on well-traveled against the MERKID tribe, who had kidnapped his bride, routes fled, and the system reverted to the random requi- Jamugha joined him with a large force. Temüjin and sitions of Chinggis’s time. GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) Jamugha renewed their blood brotherhood, but the amity rebuilt the jam on a restricted scale, constructing a lim- broke down, and the two blood brothers separated. When ited number of hostels for those traveling at government retainers of the two camps clashed over horse stealing, expense but prohibiting the requisitioning of goods. Jamugha and Temüjin assembled their followers and Envoys from the court received a per diem stipend, and fought an inconclusive battle. The following years are those of the nobility traveled at their own expense. Only obscure; at some point Jamugha surrendered to Toqto’a, envoys bearing urgent military intelligence used the chief of the Merkid tribe. In 1201 those Mongols opposed staffed postal relay service. to Temüjin raised Jamugha as gür-khan (universal khan) 260 Jangar in alliance with the Merkid and other tribes. Temüjin and 17th–18th centuries. Frequent but only glancing refer- Toghril (now ONG KHAN) defeated Jamugha, who fled ences are made to the Buddhist cultural environment. north. Eventually, Jamugha and his supporters went over The time of origin of the Jangghar epic is not known, to Ong Khan. When Temüjin conquered the Kereyid in although its distribution, sketchy geography, and material 1203, Jamugha fled to the NAIMAN Khanate. After culture (e.g., stained glass, bayonets) all suggest an origin Temüjin defeated the Naiman, Jamugha was captured and among the late 17th-century Kalmyks. Jangghar’s rela- executed. Mongol sources portray Jamugha as the oppo- tively realistic themes parallel the epics of the neighbor- site of Chinggis—glib, untrustworthy, and brutal toward ing Turkic Muslim peoples, Nogay, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz, his followers—and Chinggis’s execution of his anda and some have related the hero’s name to the Persian title appears as a fratricidal sacrifice necessary to found the jihangir, “world conqueror. In the early 20th century new order. princes and monasteries among the Kalmyks, XINJIANG MONGOLS, and western Mongols (TORGHUDS, ZAKHACHIN, BAYADS, DÖRBÖD) patronized the janggharchi richly. Offi- Jangar See JANGGHAR. cially encouraged in the Soviet Union as a masterpiece of patriotic and nonclerical folk literature, on Joseph Stalin’s Jangghar (Janggar, Jangar, Zhangar) Jangghar is one recommendation 1940 was made the epic’s 500th of the great EPICS of the Mongolian peoples. It is the only anniversary. The living tradition of Jangghar performance epic of the KALMYKS on the Volga and one of the main among the Kalmyks was, destroyed by their exile to epics among the Mongols of Xinjiang and western Mon- Siberia in 1944, while that in Xinjiang was damaged by golia. Only short versions are found among the KHALKHA. the Maoist Cultural Revolution (1966–76). Janggharchis, or Jangghar singers, sing their tales in See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES. mostly alliterative verses organized into various episodes, Further reading: Arash Bormanshinov, “The Bardic varying from a few hundred to almost 2,000 lines. The Art of Eeljan Ovla.” In Fragen der Mongolischen Helden- recitation is always concluded with a “Praise of Holy dichtung, Vol. 2, ed. Walther Heissig (Wiesbaden: Harras- Jangghar.” In western Mongolia a “Jangghar biyelgee,” or sowitz, 1982): 155–167. mime, is also performed. Texts have been recorded both in native Oirat and Mongolian manuscripts and, since the beginning of the 19th century, by folklorists. The best- Jangjiya Khutugtu (Janggiya; Tibetan, lCang-skya, known version is that recorded from the Lesser Dörböd Changchya; Chinese, Zhangjia, Chang-chia) The bard Eelän Owla (Ilya Ovlaev) among the Kalmyks in Jangjiya Khutugtus were a lineage of INCARNATE LAMAS 1908–10. Ultimately 26 episodes were recorded among who oversaw Mongolian Buddhism for the QING DYNASTY the Kalmyks. Later publications from janggharchis among (1636–1912). The incarnate lama lineage originated the Oirat Mongols of Xinjiang have expanded the number among the Tu (Monguors) in western Gansu. The first of episodes to more than 60, covering some 1,700 pages. Jangjiya Khutugtu, Agwang-Lubsang-Choidan (Tibetan, The hero Jangghar is the son of Üzüng Aldar Khan of Ngag-dbang Blo-bzang Chos-ldan, 1642–1715), was a the mythical Northern Land of Bumba. At age five his lama of dGon-lung (Chinese, Youning Si) Monastery in father is killed, and he is captured by the enemy Mighty modern Huzhu county who had spent more than 20 Silver Shigshirge. This enemy’s son, the boastful and years in Tibet (1661–83). In 1693 he was summoned to drunken but good-hearted Red Swain, defends Jangghar. the court of the Kangxi emperor (1662–1722) as Jasag da As a task the five-year-old Jangghar with his steed Aran- blama (ruling head lama), nominally ruling all Mongolian zal is sent to steal the horses of Golden Chest. Hit by monasteries, and in 1706 he was made Da guoshi (great Golden Chest’s arrow, Jangghar is cured by Red Swain, state preceptor). Both titles were inherited by his succes- who brings Jangghar, Golden Chest, and Mighty Silver sors. In 1697, while on a mission to Tibet, he encouraged Shigshirge into alliance to rule the Northern Land of the TAIJI (noblemen) of Kökenuur to surrender to the Bumba. Qing. He supervised Huizong Temple (Mongolian, The subsequent episodes revolve around how Jang- Khökhe Süme, Blue Temple) in Dolonnuur, built to com- ghar and his companions (Red Swain, The World’s Hand- memorate the submission of the KHALKHA, and Songzhu some Mingyan, Fierce Black Thought, Heavy-Handed Temple in Beijing, a major center for Mongolian and Claw, etc.) defeat the attacks of various monsters who Tibetan block printing. Recognized in dGon-lung steal horses, wives, and companions from Jangghar. Jang- Monastery as the 14th of his lineage, the lineage’s name, ghar and his companions likewise steal horses, win brides, and sometimes the count of incarnations, was taken from and turn their defeated enemies into companions. Their his predecessor, a simple Tu lama of Zhangjia village. enemies include mythical monsters (White Camel, Blue- In 1723 the next incarnation, Rolbidorji (Tibetan, Headed Fly, etc.) and figures such as the Turkish khan and Rol-pa’i rDo-rje, 1716–86, also called Ishi-Dambi- Fierce Black Kinas (from Russian kniaz, “prince”) from Rome/Ye-shes bsTan-pa’i sGron-me), was forced to flee as the historical environment of the Kalmyks in the Qing troops ravaged the Tu monasteries, which had sup- Japan and the modern Mongols 261 ported the Mongol prince Lubsang-Danzin’s rebellion. In China. Mongolian aristocrats and lamas in Beijing were 1724 the new Yongzheng emperor (1723–35), who had impressed by the discipline and demeanor of Japanese been a disciple of his previous incarnation, rescued Rol- troops participating in the suppression of the Boxer bidorji from reprisals by summoning him to Beijing. Rol- movement in 1900. In 1903 Prince Güngsangnorbu bidorji studied Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese with (Prince Güng, 1871–1931) of KHARACHIN Right Banner the future Qianlong emperor (1736–96) in Beijing, and in visited Japan and was inspired by the country’s modern- 1745 Qianlong became Rolbidorji’s pupil, receiving the ization to invite Japanese teachers to staff a military Tantric Heruka initiation. Rolbidorji’s tutors had experi- academy and a girls’ school in his banner. Neighboring enced sharp conflicts with Yongzheng’s brother, Prince princes of southeastern Inner Mongolia followed suit. Yunli (Kheng-ze, 1697–1738), who supported the rNy- During the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) in Manchuria, ing-ma-pa (Old Order), but their pupil became an articu- the Japanese hired Mongolian and Chinese bandits as late defender of dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) interpretations, auxiliaries. With the conclusion of the war Prince Güng both in debate and in his widely used textbook, Presenta- sent several of his best students to Japan for higher edu- tion of Tenets (Grub-mtha’i rnam-bzhag). Rolbidorji cation; on returning to China they became leaders in chaired the Mongolian translation of the bsTan-’gyur Inner Mongolia’s political and cultural life. Treaties (canonical scripture commentaries), which was com- between Russia and Japan from 1907 to 1910 defined pleted in 1749 with an accompanying terminological dic- Outer Mongolia and northern Manchuria as Russia’s tionary, Merged garkhu-yin oron (Font of scholars). sphere and southern Manchuria as Japan’s but left Inner Rolbidorji sponsored both Yonghegong, Beijing’s first Mongolia undefined. Tibetan Buddhist teaching temple, and a unique Manchu- From 1900 Japanese scholars, students, tourists, and language temple. Buddhist monks frequently visited Mongol lands, build- Ishi-Dambi-Jalsan (Tibetan, Ye-shes bsTan-ba’i rGyal- ing up a vast fund of knowledge about the Mongols. The msthan, 1787–1846), from a Tibetan village near Xining, Japanese-owned South Manchurian Railway (Mantetsu) was confirmed by the Qianlong emperor as the third and the Kwantung (Guandong, Japanese, Kanto) Army incarnation. He spent six years from 1800 studying in that garrisoned the railway actively researched Mongolian Tibet and was not officially enthroned until 1819. He conditions and attempted to expand Japan’s influence sponsored the teaching of Mongolian in Beijing and was there in ways sometimes unapproved by Tokyo. the guru of the famous Mongolian poet and incarnate lama DANZIN-RABJAI. The lineage’s next two incarnations STRATEGIC AND IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICTS, died at ages 26 and 10, respectively. The last incarnation, 1911–1931 personally named Sangjaijab (Tibetan, Sangs-rgyas- During the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence skyabs, 1891–1958), was again a Tu. He received high from China and the overthrow of China’s last QING honors under the Republic of China (1911–49) for his DYNASTY, Kawashima Naniwa, a Japanese adviser in the staunch opposition to both Mongolian independence and Chinese government, encouraged Manchu and the eastern modern ideas, although his influence among the Mongols Inner Mongolian nobility to create a separate Manchuria was slight. He fled to Taiwan in 1949. under the Qing emperor. In December 1911 Kawashima See also TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. arranged for loans and supplies of rifles for Prince Güng Further reading: E. Gene Smith, Among Tibetan and other Inner Mongolian nobles in return for MINING Texts: History and Literature of the Tibetan Plateau (Boston: concessions. That spring, however, the foreign ministry Wisdom Publications, 2001), 133–146. decided to recognize the Chinese Republic and in April recalled Kawashima to Japan. The arms shipments went Japan and the modern Mongols Invaded by Mongol forward, however, until mid-June 1912, when the new soldiers in the 13th century, Japan came in contact with Chinese Republican authorities captured the weapons en the Mongols again around 1900. After 40 years of the route, resulting in several casualties on both sides. On Manchu-Mongolian policy that put Japan in occupation July 8 Japanese and Russian negotiators defined southeast of most of Inner Mongolia, Japan’s catastrophic defeat in Inner Mongolia (Josotu, including Kharachin, JUU UDA, 1945 again cut off contact with the Mongols. Eventually KHORCHIN, and Front Gorlos) as Japan’s sphere. However, Japan’s old links to both Mongolia and Inner Mongolia while maintaining informal contacts and subsidizing stu- were revived on a new footing, and after 1990 Japan dents, Tokyo did not imitate Russia’s support for an auton- became Mongolia’s leading aid donor and the main desti- omy movement within its sphere. nation of Inner Mongolian students. (On the Mongol inva- Compared to Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia’s case sions of Japan, see JAPAN AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE.) was rather simple. When Outer Mongolia declared inde- pendence with Russian assistance in 1911, Japan’s foreign EARLY CONTACTS ministry immediately recognized Russia’s predominant Japan’s first modern contact with the Mongols came influence there and refused Mongolia’s several attempts to about as a result of the country’s expanding influence in open relations. The ministry also disclaimed all connection 262 Japan and the modern Mongols with the unauthorized negotiations carried on in Mongolia ing the Mongols against CHINESE COLONIZATION and in 1913 by Kodama Toshimasa, a Japanese naval reserve increased the power of local Mongol government. Nev- officer in the employ of Mantetsu. ertheless, instead of a unified Mongolian autonomous During World War I (1914–18) and the Russian civil area, they set up four provinces, called Khinggan South, war (1918–20), Japanese commercial and politicomilitary North, East, and West. influence on the mainland expanded rapidly, while that of Once having occupied Manchuria, the Kwantung Russia receded. The Japanese Mitsui firm established a Army agents worked to infiltrate western Inner Mongolia. representative in Outer Mongolia’s capital, Khüriye, and in This time they paid special attention to the previously 1918 agents visited Outer Mongolia. In February 1918 the Soviet-affiliated nationalists. By August 1935 they had Japanese general staff sent arms and 49 trainers headed by penetrated the Mongol nationalist circle in the autonomy Kuroki Tikanori to the headquarters of the half-Buriat movement of PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB (Prince De). Mongolian Cossack commander Grigorii M. Semënov While Prince De at first hoped to secure greater auton- (1890–1945), then planning to attack the new Soviet Rus- omy from China, by 1936 he was working with the sian regime. Semënov’s pan-Mongolist plans eventually Kwantung Army to attack the northwest Chinese war- alienated both anticommunist Russians and the other lords. Not until the full-scale Japanese invasion of 1937, world powers, and on May 16, 1919, the liberal adminis- however, did Prince De and his Japanese backers gain tration of Japanese prime minister Hara Kei withdrew sup- control of most of western Inner Mongolia. By 1938 port from Semënov, forcing Kuroki and the other advisers about 80 percent of the INNER MONGOLIANS were living to leave his camp in August. Despite this withdrawal, the under Japanese-controlled governments. Japanese schol- Soviet leadership (and subsequent Communist historians) arships and schools created a large number of Inner Mon- believed that Semënov’s pan-Mongolist movement of 1919 golians fluent in Japanese by 1945. and his subordinate BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON While the Soviet Union allowed Japan to take over its UNGERN-STERNBERG’s 1920–21 invasion of Mongolia were interests in Manchuria for compensation, border clashes simply tactical variations in the advance of a unitary began along the Mongolian-Manchukuo boundary in Jan- “Japanese imperialism” aiming not just at Mongolia but uary 1935. Since the border had never been demarcated, even the BURIATS of southern Siberia. the Mongolian and Manchukuo governments held four From the Soviet victory in the Russian Civil War and sessions of talks from June 1935 to September 1937 to the Soviet-supported 1921 REVOLUTION in Outer Mongo- attempt to resolve border issues, yet Tokyo’s and lia on, both sides sought influence throughout the region. Moscow’s growing suspicions of “their” Mongols helped The Japanese ideology of pan-Asianism and monarchic prevent a peaceful resolution. In Khinggan North modernization and the Soviet ideology of anticolonialism province (Hulun Buir) on Manchukuo’s Soviet-Mongo- and class revolution became intertwined with the two lian frontier, the Japanese executed the governmental countries’ national interests. Supported mostly by the chairman, Lingsheng (1889–1936), on April 24, 1936, as monarchist nobility and bandit chiefs and the Tibetan a Soviet spy and imprisoned many others, while the Panchen Lama, then active in Inner Mongolia, Japan lost Soviet GREAT PURGE destroyed the Mongolian People’s the support of young Mongols to Soviet-supported Republic’s entire elite on charges of being “pan-Mon- nationalist movements. Meanwhile, in the Soviet-oriented golist” spies for Japan. The conflict eventually resulted in Mongolian People’s Republic, Moscow stymied the the pitched BATTLE OF KHALKHYN GOL in May–September DAMBADORJI regime’s attempts from 1925 to 1928 to con- 1939, in which the Red Army won a decisive victory over tact Japanese diplomats. Incidents such as the summer Japanese forces. Quadrilateral Soviet-Mongolian- 1928 Soviet-inspired rebellion in HULUN BUIR caused vio- Japanese-Manchukuo negotiations from September 9–16, lent press polemics, yet both sides avoided real clashes. 1939, resulted in a recognition of the frontier claimed by the Soviet and Mongolian side. In May 1941 the Soviet JAPANESE OCCUPATION IN INNER MONGOLIA Union and Japan signed a nonaggression pact. The Great Depression, China’s increasingly hostile Japanese rule in Inner Mongolia came to an end with Nationalist regime, and enthusiasm in the Japanese the sudden Soviet-Mongolian invasion on the night of press forced Tokyo to back the Kwantung Army’s coup August 9–10, 1945. In Wang-un Süme (Ulanhot), the d’état of September 18, 1931, and occupy all of capital of the Khinggan provinces, the Mongols, led by Manchuria, including eastern Inner Mongolia. The May KHAFUNGGA, rose up and killed their Japanese advisers. 1933 campaign added Rehe (or Jehol, including Juu Elsewhere, the Japanese fled. While Mongolia declared Uda, Kharachin, and Fuxin). While returning the last war on Japan, it was not allowed representation in the Qing emperor to the throne of “Manchukuo” and send- peace conference or in the payment of reparations. Of the ing the former bandit Ganjuurjab to win over anti-Chi- many thousands of Japanese prisoners of war captured by nese militiamen, the Kwantung Army did not attract Soviet forces, 12,318 were sent to work in Mongolia in much more than passive support from young Mongol November–December 1945. Of these, 13 percent died nationalists. The Japanese assumed the role of protect- before being sent back to the Soviet Union in October Japan and the Mongol Empire 263 1947 for ultimate repatriation to Japan. Many of the See also FOREIGN RELATIONS; MONGOLIA, STATE OF; buildings they built, including the government palace in MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; ULAANBAATAR, still exist. SAINCHOGTU, NA.; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Further reading: Tsedendambyn Batbayar, “Mongolia FOREIGN RELATIONS, 1954 ON and Japan in 1945–1995: A Half Century Reconsidered,” In 1954 Japanese inquiries about prisoners of war in in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cos- Mongolia opened the first channel of relations. Serious mopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman discussion about normalization of relations began with (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 191–222; Robert B. Mongolia’s membership in the UNITED NATIONS in 1961. Valliant, “Inner Mongolia, 1912: The Failure of Indepen- The main issue was reparations and the state of war. dence,” Mongolian Studies 4 (1977): 56–92. Mongolia demanded that Japan declare peace with Mon- golia and pay reparations, while Japan felt that since Mongolia had been until 1946 de jure a part of China, no Japan and the Mongol Empire Qubilai’s expeditions state of war existed and that any claim Mongolia had against Japan, finally wrecked by the famous kamikaze against Japan was canceled by Mongolia’s callous and (divine wind), became great burdens on Mongol-ruled unlawful exploitation of Japanese prisoners of war. Only China and Korea. By the 13th century the military gov- in February 1972 were these issues resolved, with Mon- ernment in Kamakura (1185–1333), dominated by the golia’s legislature unilaterally abolishing its state of war Hojo family, had removed the emperor in Kyoto from with Japan and Japan paying reparations worth US $17 actual administration. Japan had no formal relations with million by funding the Gobi CASHMERE Factory. The the mainland, but Japanese Buddhist pilgrims, merchants, Soviet Union encouraged this denouement so as to and pirates all regularly crossed the East China Sea. strengthen Mongolia’s economy by giving it access to the QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) first learned of Japan in 1265 Japanese market but otherwise forced the Mongolians to from a Korean interpreter. From 1266 to 1272 Qubilai’s keep Japan at arms length. repeated dispatch of envoys was stymied first by Korean From 1987, with the growing liberalization in the noncooperation and then by the Hojo family’s refusal to Soviet bloc, Japanese-Mongolian relations flourished, allow the Japanese emperor to receive them. In July 1271 accelerating after Mongolia’s 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLU- the Korean interpreter Cho Kaesung ˘ first proposed inva- TION and the cessation of Soviet aid in 1991. Cultural ties sion. In November 1274 a fleet under Prince Hindu and between Japan and Mongolia have greatly expanded, the Korean Hong Tagu (1244–91), with 1,000 transport whether in scholarship (see ARCHAEOLOGY), journalism, or ships, 300 ba’atur (hero) light warships, and 300 smaller religion. In August 1991 the Japanese prime minister, craft and 15,000 fighting men, set out from Korea against Toshiki Kaifu, became the first leader of a developed Japan. The flotilla seized a beachhead at Hakata (modern democracy to visit Mongolia, a visit repeated by Prime Fukuoka), defeating the Japanese defenders. Soon, how- Minister Keizo Obuchi in 1999. From 1991 Japan has ever, a storm threatened the fleet, forcing it to reembark been consistently the largest aid donor to Mongolia. From with heavy losses. The Hojo now extensively walled the 1993 to 1997 annual grant aid averaged US $52 million, Hakata waterfront and slew Qubilai’s later envoys. technical cooperation $25.5 million, and loans almost $24 In 1280 Qubilai ordered the Song defector Fan million. Mongolia began trading with Japan in the 1960s, Wenhu to lead what was said to be a 100,000-man fleet but such trade by 1990 still amounted to only US $17.4 from Quanzhou (Amoy) against Japan. Korea was to ferry million, or 1 percent of Mongolia’s total trade turnover. By 40,000 North Chinese, under Aq-Taghai (1235–90) of the the year 2000 it expanded to $81.4 million, or 7.5 percent. Suldus, on 900 ships and contribute 10,000 men. The This percentage, however, remains below that of the northern fleet sailed on June 10, 1281, reaching United States or the European Union. Munakata. Fan Wenhu’s fleet landed at Imari somewhat After 1945, Inner Mongolia came under Chinese Com- later. On August 15 and 16 a typhoon destroyed much of munist control, and all contact with Japan was cut off for both fleets. Aq-Taghai and Fan Wenhu embarked for the over 30 years. Even so Japanese, rather than Russian or mainland with the seaworthy ships, leaving the remaining English, remained the major foreign language taught in troops to be crushed by the Japanese, who butchered the Inner Mongolia’s Mongolian-language schools, a status captured Mongol, Korean, and Han (North Chinese) men assisted by the similarities in Japanese and Mongolian and enslaved the “Tang” (South Chinese). From 1283 to grammar (see ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY). With the opening 1286 Qubilai amassed ships, grain, and sailors for another of the People’s Republic of China in 1979 many Inner Mon- expedition, even recruiting tattooed criminals and former golian students again began to study in Japan. In 1999 the salt smugglers as marines. Qubilai finally canceled the association of ethnic Mongol students from China studying expedition so as to facilitate his invasion of VIETNAM. in Japan had more than 330 members. The world’s first test- Shinto priests believed the storm that destroyed the tube goat was created in 1984 by Shuurgan (b. 1940), an Mongol fleet to be a “divine wind” (kamikaze). The Moko Inner Mongolian scientist researching in Japan. shurai ekotoba (“The Mongol Invasion Painted Scroll,” 264 Jargalant c. 1293) is one of the masterpieces of Japanese painting for subjects of the MONGOL EMPIRE. In 1204 the Uighur and a valuable source on the invasion. scribe Tatar-Tong’a entered the service of CHINGGIS KHAN See also KOREA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. (Genghis, 1206–27), and the court soon began issuing Further reading: Thomas Conlan, In Little Need of patents, or decrees, stamped with the emperor’s vermilion Divine Intervention: Takezaki Suenaga’s Scrolls of the Mon- seal (al tamagha). The term jarliq was most often used for gol Invasions of Japan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University written patents of immunity (DARQAN) granted religious Press, 2001). institutions or those who had performed special service, and for warrants (accompanied by a tablet, or PAIZA) to Jargalant See KHOWD CITY. use the postroads (JAM). Given the constant possibility under Mongol rule of irregular demands for provisions or room and board, such a jarliq (Uighur pronunciation, jarghuchi (yarghuchi) The position of jarghuchi, or yarligh) was a vital protection to its possessor, as well as judge, was always linked to the census and taxes and being a matter of honor and prestige. At the coronation of tightly guarded by the khan’s household. Conflicting tra- a khan, all old jarliqs with the vermilion seal were auto- ditions point to his adoptive son SHIGI QUTUQU or his matically renewed, so that conflicting and duplicate brother Belgütei as being CHINGGIS KHAN’s (Genghis, jarliqs circulated constantly. 1206–27) first jarghuchi (Uighur, yarghuci, modern Mon- QUBILAI KHAN began the practice of having the four golian, zargach). Members of the KESHIG (imperial guard) great aristocrats in his KESHIG sign all jarliqs, a practice that assisted the jarghuchis. Chinggis’s sons and “companions” spread to all other successor states. In the Mongol IL- (NÖKÖR) all received their own jarghuchis. Under ÖGEDEI KHANATE in Persia, GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) reformed KHAN (1229–41) CHINQAI, then chief scribe, tried impor- the issuance of jarliqs, creating set forms and graded seals, tant cases, but under the reigns of GÜYÜG (1246–48) and ordering that all jarliqs be kept on file at court, and invali- MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) the position of great judge (yeke dating all jarliqs older than 30 years. In the GOLDEN HORDE jarghuchi) at court was separated from that of chief scribe. the chancellery language switched to Turkish in the 14th In North China the supreme governor also began to century, and many Turkish yarlighs from the 15th century bear the title “great judge” (Mongol, yeke jarghuchi; Chi- are preserved in the archives of Moscow and Istanbul. nese, da duanshiguan) from the appointment of Shigi Further reading: Francis Woodman Cleaves, “A Qutuqu in 1235. From then until 1259 the yeke Chancellery Practice of the Mongols,” Harvard Journal of jarghuchis in Yanjing (modern Beijing) handled adminis- Asiatic Studies 14 (1951): 493–526. trative and judicial matters. Judicial procedure routinely involved beatings to extract confessions. At this early jasaq (yasa, yasaq) The famous jasaq was the body of stage there was no complete law code, and jarghuchi had laws and practices decreed by CHINGGIS KHAN and his enormous latitude, even in capital cases. The princes successors, which gradually came to form a sort of consti- appointed their own jarghuchis for their own appanages, tution of the MONGOL EMPIRE. As Chinggis Khan who were even less accountable. (Genghis, 1206–27) rose to power, he repeatedly declared In the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China QUBILAI KHAN judgments on various matters relating primarily to the (1260–94) restricted the jarghuchis to judicial affairs and administration of the army, court, and imperial preroga- organized them under the Court of the Imperial Clan, a tives. These decisions and the punishments for the guilty, high-ranking office always headed by a powerful noble- called jasaq (ordinance, modern zasag, Uighur pronunci- man and staffed by members of the keshig. Decisions ation, yasaq), served as precedents for future cases, and from 1311 to 1328 eventually restricted the jarghuchis’ with the adoption of writing such judgments were jurisdiction to cases involving Mongols, SEMUREN (vari- recorded permanently. At the coronation of Chinggis ous sorts), the keshig (imperial guard), and the postroads Khan’s son ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), the new khan pro- in the metropolitan area, while attempting to abolish the claimed for the first time the “Great Jasaq” as an integral separate appanage jarghuchis. In the IL-KHANATE the posi- body of precedents, confirming the continuing validity of tion of yarghuchis (Uighur pronunciation of jarghuchi) all the ordinances and commands of his father, while was also reserved for Mongol nobles, but little is known adding his own. While many of the jasaqs of Ögedei were of the institutional framework. in turn frequently cited, subsequent reigns provided See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL much less in the way of new decisions. EMPIRE; MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG; MENGGESER By the time of MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59), the jasaq NOYAN. had become a body of written precedents consulted at the great assemblies (QURILTAI) that elected new khans, mobi- jarliq (yarligh, yarlyk) The jarliq, or decree (Uighur, lized campaigns, and dealt with administration. Collec- yarligh, modern Mongolian, zarlig), particularly the writ- tions of such precedents, called the Great Book of Jasaqs, ten patent conferring immunity from taxation on families were kept in the treasuries of the khan and the other or institutions, was one of the most important documents great princes. Members of the Besüd clan always attended jewelry 265 such readings of the jasaq, where they performed Tayichi’ud lords, shot one of Chinggis’s favorite horses shamanic rituals. The jasaq shared its importance at the dead. After the battle Jebe boldly acknowledged his deed quriltais with the codified biligs, or wise sayings of and promised to fight similarly for him. Chinggis Chinggis and his descendants, which were also written admired his honesty and prowess and changed his name, down by scribes from day to day in versified form. Mem- originally Jirgho’adai, to Jebe, “weapon.” Chinggis called orization and recital of these proverbs were important Jebe, with Qubilai Noyan (not to be confused with the accomplishments of Chinggisid princes. khan), Jelme, and SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR, his “four dogs,” and The jasaq must not be understood as a formal law from the 1204 Battle of Keltegei Cliffs on, used Jebe in code. Sources such as the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS the vanguard to command his heaviest cavalry. In the show how the promulgation of jasaqs was connected to attack on North China in 1211, Jebe was the first to specific events, without any effort at systematization. The attack the JIN DYNASTY’s frontier fortresses. Both at Juy- repeated reference of Persian writers under the Mongols ongguan Pass (October 1211) and Dongjing city (January to the “yasa/yasaq [ordinances] and the yosun [customs]” 5, 1213), Jebe lured the Jin defenders out by feigned show that the jasaq was only one part of a much larger retreat and then crushed them and seized the fortifica- body of unwritten customs, which were equally binding. tions. In 1217–18 Chinggis Khan dispatched Jebe against Despite this lack of codification, the jasaq came to Küchülüg, a fugitive NAIMAN prince who had taken over exert a profoundly conservative influence on the Mongol the QARA-KHITAI Empire in Turkestan. Jebe surprised Empire. Innovations, whether they were QUBILAI KHAN’s Küchlüg at Kashgar and chased him into Badakhshan, (1260–94) partial adoption of Chinese administrative and where the locals captured him and handed him over. legal precedents or the adoption of Islam in the IL- During the attack on KHORAZM Chinggis dispatched Jebe KHANATE of Iran or the CHAGHATAY KHANATE of Central and Sübe’etei in May 1220 to capture the fugitive sultan Asia, gave opponents the slogan of defending the “ordi- ‘Ala’ud-Din Muhammad. Racing through Iran, the Mon- nances and customs” of Chinggis Khan. However, the gol force finally blockaded him on an island in the lack of systematization also made it easy for those bent Caspian Sea. They then pursued his armies through west- on reform to advertise them as only a further elaboration ern Iran, GEORGIA, and Azerbaijan, Jebe repeatedly using of the ancient precedents. his trademark ambush. Passing north through Derbent, The perception of the jasaq among the subject peo- they defeated the OSSETES (Alans) and then the QIPCHAQS ples was heavily influenced by their own ideas about law. and Russians at the BATTLE OF KALKA RIVER (May 31, Chinese writers minimized both Chinggis Khan’s role in 1223), before riding home through the Kazakhstan making Mongol institutions and the very term jasaq steppe. Soon after this extraordinary display of military itself, emphasizing the role of Chinese advisers under prowess Jebe died. Ögedei and especially Qubilai in developing formal insti- See also JUYONGGUAN PASS, BATTLES OF. tutions. Islamic writers saw the jasaq (Persian, yasa) as a Mongol equivalent of the wide-ranging shari‘a, or code of Jebtsundamba See JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. Islamic law, some emphasizing their compatibility and others their antagonism. Armenian and Syriac Christian Jenghiz Khan See CHINGGIS KHAN. writers, by contrast, reduced the jasaq to a Mongol Ten Commandments made up of a small number of short, numbered, rules. Jetsun-Dampa See JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. See also CHA’ADAI; QAIDU. Further reading: Igor de Rachewiltz, “Some Reflec- jewelry From the 17th to 19th centuries jewelry in tions on Chinggis Qan’s Jasagh,” East Asian History 6 Mongolia began to develop in elaborate and distinctive (1993): 91–104. forms for each AIMAG, or subethnic group. Such jewelry was rejected as feudal and old fashioned in the 20th Java See SOUTH SEAS. century. In the time of the MONGOL EMPIRE the khans and nobles avidly collected pearls and gemstones as tangsuqs, Javhlant See ULIASTAI. or precious things, encouraging ORTOQ merchants to pre- sent them by offering colossal sums for fine samples. The Jebdzundamba See JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. great khan Temür (1294–1307) once paid 140,000 ding of paper currency for a fine ruby weighing about 6 grams Jebe (Yeme) Commander of Chinggis Khan’s vanguard of (two ounces). This he wore on his hat during the great heavy cavalry assemblies of WHITE MONTH and the summer (see Jebe belonged to the Besüd lineage, clients of the QURILTAI). Married women wore jewelry mostly on or TAYICHI’UD branch of the BORJIGID. In 1201, when CHING- hanging from their BOQTA (headdress). The forms of these GIS KHAN crushed the Tayichi’ud, Jebe, fighting for his pendants resemble later Mongolian jewelry. 266 jewelry beads, like rosaries, wrapped around the head, and for married women a wooden pin built into the braids with a horizontal cross pin sticking out from which ornaments could be hung. Among the KHALKHA (including the MING- GHAD and the New BARGA), the hair swung out from behind the head into enormous “horns” held by silver hair clasps and fed into cylindrical silver braid cases. On top of the head was a silver skull cap. In central Inner Mongolia (CHAKHAR, SHILIIN GOL, ULAANCHAB, and ORDOS) the face was framed in cascades of beads of coral and semiprecious stones hanging from a decorated cloth bonnet or fillet on the head. The earrings were bowed plates, again so heavy they had to be hung from the top of the head. In Ordos the braids were still slung over the chest, but elsewhere in cen- tral Inner Mongolia they were often rolled up and encased in open coral nets, again with pendants. In eastern Inner Mongolia (KHORCHIN, JUU UDA, KHARACHIN, Daurs, etc.), however, an entirely different pattern of jewelry, based on the Manchu-style coiffure, was used, in which the hair was held in a bun with hairpins. Like many distinctive pieces of Mongolian dress, such as the boots, jewelry was made by both Mongolian and Chinese craftsmen, although the latter always fol- lowed the local taste. The most common material in tra- Central Khalkha married woman’s hat, with her hair pulled into “horns” and adorned with jewelry (From Mongolian Arts and Crafts [1987]) From the late 16th century onward, Mongolian jew- elry developed a profusion of local forms. The starting point from which these designs evolved can be seen in both early temple painting and in the conservative styles current in 1900 among the DÖRBÖD, BAYAD, and ALTAI URIYANGKHAI of western Mongolia. This jewelry included earrings, sometimes linked underneath the chin, and a rosary or amulet as necklace, while the hair was gathered into two braids descending down the front of the chest and wrapped in black cloth. This braid case was sometimes ornamented with round silver plaques and ended in a pendant. Such jewelry (zasal chimeg) was prepared before a marriage by the groom’s family and given to the bride’s family. The bride then brought it to her new home as an indirect dowry. Other jewelry included amulets, breast ornaments, chatelaines, bracelets, and finger rings. Among the other Mongolian yastan, or subethnic groups, jewelry became more complicated. The Khori Üjümüchin married woman’s jewelry, typical of the central BURIATS were distinguished by vast hoop earrings (slung Inner Mongolian style (From Mongolian Arts and Crafts from the head due to their weight), strings of large coral [1987]) Jibzundamba Khutugtu 267 ditional Mongolian jewelry was silver; gold was very Jibzundamba Khutugtu (Jebdzundamba, rJe-btsun rare. Silver was worked by embossing, chasing, engrav- Dam-pa, Jebtsundamba, Jetsun-Dampa) The INCAR- ing, filigreeing and enameling. Red coral was the NATE LAMA lineage of Jibzundamba Khutugtus from 1639 favorite bead; agate, lapis lazuli, amber, and turquoise to 1924 formed the center of KHALKHA religious beliefs, were also used. Inlays were held simply with wax and so identity, and political life. The Jibzundamba Khutugtus were often lost. were known among their Khalkha Mongols as the Bogda Mongolian jewelry was highly polychrome, and vir- (Holy One) or Bogda Gegeen (Holy Brilliance or Holy tually every flat surface was decorated. Most of the deco- Incarnate Lama). In Inner Mongolia, they were called the ration is based on patterns of symbols, such as the Aru Bogda, or “Northern Holy One.” dharma wheel, lotus, double fish, endless knot, “cash” symbol (a square inside a circle), interlocking circles and RELIGIOUS STATUS OF THE diamonds (symbolizing marriage), fan, vase, Chinese JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTUS “double happiness” and rui characters, dragon, lion As finally canonized in the 18th century, the Jibzun- (often looking more like a dog), bat, and butterfly. Bor- damba (from Tibetan rJe-btsun Dam-pa, Reverend Noble ders of key scrolls or vegetation were used profusely. One) Khutugtus of Mongolia formed only the conclusion In the 1920s and 1930s the Mongolian headdress of a long line of incarnate lamas in India and Tibet, went out of living use due to revolutionary criticisms of stretching from the time of Shakyamuni Buddha to the its class character, its link to arranged marriages, and ’Jo-nang-pa hierarch rJe-btsun (reverend) Taranatha changing fashions. Rings and bracelets continue to follow (1575–1634). Despite this sequence, Jibzundambas are the Mongolian jewelry tradition. numbered from first Mongolian one. See also CLOTHING AND DRESS. The FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU (Zanabazar, Further reading: Martha Boyer, Mongol Jewelry (Lon- 1635–1723) was the second son of the Khalkha khan don: Thames and Hudson, 1995). Gömbö-Dorji. In 1639 he was enthroned as an incarna- tion and in 1647, even before visiting Tibet, was referred to in QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) court records as the Jewel Translucent Sutra (Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur) Jibzundamba Khutugtu, clearly linking him to rJe-btsun This biography of ALTAN KHAN (1508–82) and his immedi- Taranatha. The oldest Tibetan sources record the Jibzun- ate successors, also known as Altan Khaghan-u tughuji, “The damba simply as the emanation body of ’Jam-byangs (i.e., Biography of Altan Khan,” is the major extant literary mon- the bodhisattva Manjughosha or Manjushri). ument of the NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY (1368–1634). The When the Fifth Dalai Lama proscribed Taranatha’s work, which survived in a single manuscript, was written ’Jo-nang-pa lineage as heretical during the First Bogda’s in 1607 in quatrains of alliterative verse in an elegant style first visit to Tibet, the Jibzundamba Khutugtu was initi- filled with Buddhist rhetorical tropes, although the author ated into the dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) lineage. While was evidently not a monk. The unknown author probably Taranatha’s prodigious scholarship preserved his place in knew Chinese and is far more reliable on chronology than the lineage, ’Jam dbyangs/Manjughosha was then reinter- are later Mongolian chroniclers. The author used written preted as an old dGe-lugs-pa master ’Jam-dbyangs Chos- sources, including a no longer extant account by Dayan rje (1379–1449), giving the Jibzundamba Khutugtus a Kiya, a powerful official at Altan and his successors’ court. link to the dGe-lugs-pas lineage. The Jibzundamba The work describes how Altan Khan established the Khutugtus were now seen as emanatron-bodies of the state through conquest, brought China into it through bodhisattva Vajrapani. negotiations, and then how he became patron (alms-giver) to the Dalai Lama. It concludes with how Sengge-Düüreng FIRST AND SECOND INCARNATIONS (1582–86) continued his father’s work and how the FOURTH The Jibzundamba Khutugtu was the foundation stone of DALAI LAMA was born under Altan’s grandson Namudai Khalkha identity. The first two incarnations were found Sechen (Chürüke, 1586–1607) and many Buddhist scrip- in the family of the Khalkha Tüshiyetü Khans. The First tures were translated from Tibetan into Mongolian. Jibzundamba Khutugtu, or Zanabazar, began the creation The theme of the work is the harmony between the of Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) in the KHENTII RANGE “TWO CUSTOMS” of Buddhist religion (shashin) and as the new Khalkha center. An accomplished artist, he Chinggisid state (törö), the former incarnate in the Dalai sculpted many of the main shitügens (objects of worship) Lama and the latter in the cult and lineage of CHINGGIS of its temples. To him is also ascribed the design of the KHAN. It extolls the TÜMED tümen as the center of this tsogchin dugangs (main assembly halls), the dress of the restored legitimate rule. lamas, the exalted place of the gebkhüi (proctor) in the See also EIGHT WHITE YURTS; LITERATURE. precedence, and the establishment of the umdzad, or can- Further reading: Carl Johan Elverskog, Jewel tors, of the Khüriye monasteries. Translucent Sutra: Altan Khan and the Mongols in the Six- Politically, the First Jibzundamba aimed for reconcili- teenth Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003). ation between the Khalkha princes and between Russia 268 Jibzundamba Khutugtu and China. Yet the Oirat ruler, GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN, During this period the Bogda’s principal function saw in his growing importance a challenge to the author- came to be simply to receive offerings and give blessings. ity of the Dalai Lama, which he took as his task to Vast numbers of worshipers came from Khalkha, Inner defend. When open war broke out between the Khalkhas Mongolia, Buriatia, and Tibet. The most ordinary form of and the OIRATS in 1688, the First Jibzundamba led the worship, conducted once every two to five days, con- Khalkhas into allegiance to the Qing emperor Kangxi sisted of the Bogda in a litter placing a prayer wheel on (1662–1722). The Bogda and the emperor established a the heads of worshipers. The Bogda also daily received strong bond, and the lama resided in China until 1702. silver mandalas from wealthier worshipers. Finally, annu- From 1701 he began the reconstruction of Khalkha after ally and triennially, Mongolian nobles and lamas pre- the devastation of Galdan’s invasions. sented to the Khutugtu prayers and rich offerings at the The Second Jibzundamba (1724–58), the great- ceremony of DANSHUG (firm abiding). grandson of the first’s elder brother, continued to expand The discovery of the new Jibzundamba Khutugtu in the monasteries of Khüriye. The Qing emperor Qianlong Tibet involved the approval of the emperor in Beijing and (1736–96) began to limit the autonomy of the Bogda, the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. The final selection among chastising him for traveling to ERDENI ZUU, for example, the three final candidates was made by a drawing from a without authorization. The Bogda played an ambivalent golden urn in Lhasa. The boy was then invited from role during the disturbances of CHINGGÜNJAB’s REBELLION Lhasa at about five years of age, the total expenses of (1756–57) but died soon after of smallpox. Religiously, which could reach 400,000 taels of silver. The Bogda also his reign saw the inception of a college (datsang) of brought with him tutors and teachers of specialized top- tsanid (Buddhist philosophy and scholarship); two dat- ics as well as his relatives, who received titles and wealth. sangs of medicine followed shortly after his death in Upon his death the Jibzundamba Khutugtu was 1760. embalmed and his remains placed in a stupa. These stu- pas were housed in either Amur-Bayaskhulangtu Her- THIRD AND FOURTH INCARNATIONS mitage (Baruunbüren Sum, Selenge) or in Dambadarjaa With the death of the second Jibzundamba Khutugtu, the Hermitage in Khüriye (Ulaanbaatar). The Fourth Jibzun- Qianlong emperor ignored the Khalkha candidates and damba had individualized images of the first and second decreed that the Third Jibzundamba be found in Tibet. incarnations made on the basis of these relics. The Khalkha nobility, in response, asked that in that case the Jibzundamba be moved to Dolonnuur and his estate, FIFTH INCARNATION TO 1900 the GREAT SHABI, be dissolved. Both requests were From 1813 the Bogda’s status with the Qing emperors rejected, and the Third Jibzundamba (Ishi-dambi-Nima, steadily declined, as did the social origin of the families November 1, 1758–November 5, 1773) was identified in in which the Bogda was discovered: noblemen (First the family of the prince of Litang in eastern Tibet. through Fourth), rich commoner (Fifth, born 1815), With the end of the short life of this Third Bogda, the muleteer (Sixth, born 1842), and ordinary layman (Sev- Khalkha nobility again hoped for a Mongolian incarna- enth, born 1850). (The Eighth was born in 1870, again in tion but were disappointed. The Fourth Jibzundamba a high-ranking Tibetan family.) From 1835 the imperial Khutugtu (Lubsang-Tubdan-Wangchug, 1775–1813) was treasury no longer subsidized the Bogda’s trips to Lhasa. discovered in the family of the Seventh Dalai Lama’s elder In 1837 donations of able-bodied taxpayers to the Bogda’s brother. Legendary for his “fierce aspect” (dogshin düri), Great Shabi were prohibited. The Beijing authorities he enforced clerical discipline with blows. He invited restricted the great danshug ceremony to once every three numerous images from Tibet and introduced the services years. The last imperial audience was granted, very and study of the Düinkhor (Kalachakra) Tantras into unwillingly, in 1840. After 1865 the Khutugtu’s estate Mongolia. He also made many visits to China, during the went into a steady decline. last of which he caught a cold and died. While the Fifth Jibzundamba had no distinctive char- acter and the Sixth survived only 49 days in Mongolia, THE INSTITUTION the Seventh and Eighth were famous, or notorious, for During the reigns of the Fourth through Seventh Jibzun- their self-willed lives. The Seventh Jibzundamba dambas, the institution reached its acme of wealth. The Khutugtu (1850–December 14, 1868) as a child was par- Bogda controlled a vast estate. In 1825 his personal herd ticularly attached to a court lama locksmith who showed reached 28,790 horses, 3,470 camels, 9,780 cattle, and him how to make Buddha figures. Around 1863, how- 41,880 sheep and goats. His “disciples” (subjects) in the ever, he came under the influence of the Setsen khan Great Shabi measured 27,779 lamas and 83,687 layfolk, Ardashida, who reverenced the Bogda greatly after defeat- distributed in 16,653 households and controlling ing the khan’s shamanic powers. The khan and his two 1,448,718 head of livestock. This entire estate was sons led the Bogda into ARCHERY, drinking, and smoking, administered by the office of the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA, and by 1868 the Bogda was living with Ardasida’s daugh- staffed by Khalkha lamas. ter. The connection was broken and the Bogda died soon Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth 269 after. Around his 15th year the Eighth Jibzundamba the 17–20th Centuries (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, (Agwanglubsang-Choijin-Nima-Danzin-Wangchug-Bal- 1992). sangbu, 1870–1924) also began to rebel and lived long enough to force the Khalkha and Qing authorities to accept his marriage to his consort, Dondugdulma Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth (1870–1924) Last (1874–1923). theocratic emperor of Mongolia, the Eighth Jibzundamba Khutugtu consistently supported Mongolian independence IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The Eighth Jibzundamba (religious name, Agwanglub- Despite his Tibetan origin, the Jibzundamba acquired a sang-Choijin-Nima-Danzin-Wangchug-Balsangbu) was strong identification with Mongolia. From 1895 the born on September 8, 1870, in Lhasa into the family of an Bogda began to take a political role. In December 1911, official of the Dalai Lama’s estate. He was brought back as the Qing dynasty was falling, the Eighth Jibzundamba from Tibet in 1874 with his Tibetan parents. The Bogda declared Mongolia independent and was enthroned as the (Holy One) lived in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) with holy emperor (or Bogda khan) of religion and state. his parents and a lama tutor until 1882, when, on his In theocratic Mongolia, the Jibzundamba’s establish- father’s death, he was separated from his mother except ment expanded tremendously in both wealth and pres- for daily audiences. The Eighth Bogda was unusually tige. Resentment of this expansion in clerical power was intelligent and always fascinated with clocks, models, an important factor in pushing the secular nobility to devices, and illustrated magazines from Russia. Beginning approve the return to China in 1919. The Russian Whites in the 1890s, he began to build a private zoo, which under BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON UNGERN-STERN- eventually even included an elephant. BERG (1886–1921) briefly restored the theocratic govern- From 1885 he began to rebel against his tutors; in ment and the privileges of the Bogda Khan before being 1887 his mother died. He began to drink, smoke, and overthrown in turn by the revolutionary government travel the streets of Khüriye playing life-threatening prac- installed with Soviet Russian troops in July 1921. tical jokes. He took regular trips to the rural Amur- The new revolutionary government confirmed the Bayaskhulangtu Hermitage, where he felt freer than in Jibzundamba Khutugtu as the Bogda Khan, but as a “con- Khüriye. Despite his wild behavior, most of the lamas and stitutional monarch.” In fact, his powers were constantly princes came to see in his behavior a deep religious sig- whittled down. With the death of the Eighth Jibzun- nificance, and the few skeptics muted their suspicions. damba in 1924, 40,000 taels of silver were expended on In his youth the Bogda had many lovers, male and his death, but in September 1925 the Bogda’s property female, and a married lady bore him an illegitimate was confiscated for the state treasury. Meanwhile, all dis- daughter. In summer 1902 Dondugdulma (Dondogdu- cussions of the continuation of his incarnation were post- lam, 1874–1923), a former maid and concubine of one of poned. The high lamas found a boy, this time in his noble-born companions, was enthroned as his con- Mongolia, but in July 1925 the party authorities declined sort. The two had no children, although after he became to accept him and instead proposed to consult with the emperor of Mongolia the two adopted a boy, Lamyaa. At Dalai Lama in Tibet. In September the party congress some point in his youth the Bogda contracted syphilis, tactfully decided that the next Jibzundamba Khutugtu and his eyesight began degenerating in 1911. would be born in the hidden Buddhist kingdom of Sham- bala, and a mission was to be sent to the Dalai Lama to POLITICAL LIFE, 1895–1911 confirm this. Not until February 15, 1929, was the find- Already in his childhood the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU lin- ing and enthroning of incarnate lamas categorically pro- eage had reached the nadir of its prestige at the QING hibited. DYNASTY court in Beijing. As an incarnation of the FIRST In Tibet, however, a child was discovered as the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, who was a Chinggisid, the Ninth Jibzundamba (religious name, ’Jam-dpal rNam- Eighth Jibzundamba believed himself to be a descendant grol Chos-kyi rGyal-mtshan; Mongolian, Jambal-Nam- of CHINGGIS KHAN and deeply resented the lack of respect dul-Choiji-Jaltsan, b. 1930), but he was not enthroned shown to him and via him to Buddhism and Mongolia. before the fall of the theocratic government in Tibet and In 1891 the Bogda had a dream of meeting with an his exile to India. With the establishment of religious envoy of the god Indra, which he later recalled as an freedom in Mongolia in 1990, the Fourteenth Dalai omen of achieving sovereign power. In 1900 (some Lama (b. 1935) enthroned him as the Ninth Jibzun- sources say 1895) he secretly asked whether Russia damba. In 1999 the Ninth Jibzundamba made his first would support Mongolian independence from the Qing, visit to Mongolia. but the Russian authorities told him to be patient. In See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. 1904 the Thirteenth Dalai Lama arrived in Khüriye after Further reading: C. R. Bawden, trans., Jebtsundamba fleeing the British invasion of Lhasa and was housed in Khutukhtus of Urga (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, GANDAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY. A rivalry between the 1961); Alice Sárközi, Political Prophecies in Mongolia in two great incarnations immediately developed, yet the 270 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth clerical privileges. He remained a fearsome drinker, sometimes spending a full week in a stupor, and was strikingly indulgent with intimates such as BADMADORJI and the Darkhan Wang Pungtsugtsering, even if they betrayed his policies. Nevertheless he never became either an autocrat or a mere puppet. Domestically, the Bogda’s decrees most often treated religious and cultural topics. The cults of Mongolia’s mountains and of Khalkha’s first Buddhist khan, Abatai (1554–88), were revived and expanded. Statues of the female deity Baldan Lhamo with prayer texts were to be placed in every yurt in the land. Fowling and fishing were prohibited, as were drinking and gambling. Proper legal and Buddhist procedures were established for executions and intermarriage with Chinese was prohibited. While he turned previously appointive offices in HULUN BUIR, DARI- GANGA, and western Mongolia into hereditary fiefdoms, he also created a parliament in 1914, albeit with limited powers. He donated 1,000 taels of silver to the fledgling Mutual-Aid Cooperatives, intended to displace Chinese merchants. The Bogda also supported several construction pro- jects, which were as distinguished artistically as they were damaging financially. The 24-meter (80-foot)-high statue of Migjid Janraisig (“Eye-Opening Avalokitesh- vara,” a Buddhist deity) cost 900,000 taels of silver, while the Andingmen Gate (Gate of Firm Peace, Mongolian, Amugulang Engkhe-yin Khagalga) cost 280,000 taels. The Eighth Jibzundamba Khutugtu, painted by “Busybody” FOREIGN OCCUPATION AND REVOLUTION Sharab. Early 20th century. Mineral paints on cotton, 48 × 32 centimeters (From N. Tsultem, Development of the Mongo- By 1919 turmoil in Russia and the expansion of the lian National Style Painting “Mongol Zurag” in Brief [Ulaan- Bogda’s personal subjects (see GREAT SHABI) led an influ- baatar, 1986]) ential body of aristocrats to push for the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY. Warned by dreams and his own long-standing beliefs, the Bogda opposed this from the beginning but Dalai Lama’s presence showed the need to plan for future did not crack down on the plans. The assimilationist pol- changes. icy of the Chinese general Xu Shuzheng (1880–1925) In 1909, as the Qing government began pushing the fully justified his fears. NEW POLICIES of colonization and modernization, the In June 1920, however, Xu’s warlord clique in Beijing Bogda instructed his people in his lüngden (prophecy, or was overthrown, and he fled. In July the Bogda, prophesy- pastoral message) that they needed to consider new ways ing that Chinese rule would last only three years, autho- to maintain their old religion and way of life. From 1910 rized appeals to Soviet Russia and other countries. Several on he quarreled openly with the new Qing AMBAN, Sandô, of his leading conspirators were arrested, but Mongolian and secretly discussed independence with his entourage. People’s Party commoners contacted Soviet Russia. On His plans for the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian inde- October 2 the Bogda secretly approved the offer of White pendence were favored by Russian assistance and the Russian BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON UNGERN-STERN- times, and on December 29 the Bogda was proclaimed BERG (1886–1921) to liberate Mongolia from the Chinese. the holy emperor (Bogda Khan) and “Dual Ruler of Reli- The Chinese finally arrested the Bogda on October 26, gion and State.” Dondugdulma became the “Mother- holding him at their headquarters in Khüriye. The lamas Angel (Ekhe Dagini) and “mother of the nation.” performed exorcisms against the gamings (Chinese republi- cans), and on December 22 the Bogda was released, when AS THEOCRATIC RULER China’s “Mongolia hand,” Chen Yi, tried a softer approach. Once the Mongolian government had declared indepen- On February 1, as Baron von Ungern-Sternberg dence, the Bogda Khan’s influence was always on the side attacked Khüriye a second time, a 50-man commando of full independence for Mongolia, the inclusion of Inner force under the Tibetan Shagja Lama, Jamyangdanzin (d. Mongolia in a pan-Mongolian state, and the expansion of 1922), invaded the Bogda’s palace, killed his Chinese Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First 271 guards, and escorted him and his consort through deep the boy took the lowest ubashi vows and received the snows to Manjushri Hermitage, south of the city. On name Zanabazar (from Sanskrit jñanavajra). The next February 21 the Bogda was again enthroned as khan. By year the western Tibetan incarnate lama dBen-sa sPrul- July, however, the baron’s government disintegrated as the sku administered further initiations, giving him the name Red Army with the Mongolian People’s Party revolution- Lubsang-Dambi-Jaltsan-Balsangbu at Shiregetü Tsagan aries marched into Khüriye. On July 11 the revolutionar- Nuur (Bürd Sum, South Khangai). The Khalkha nobles ies enthroned him as the constitutional monarch of the presented the boy with 108 households, marking the People’s Government. beginning of the GREAT SHABI, or clerical estate of the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. AS CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCH By this time the boy was recognized as an incarna- In the oath of November 1, 1921, the Bogda Khan’s tion of Taranatha (1575–1634), a revered scholar of the supreme powers were restricted solely to religious affairs. Jo-nang-pa lineage of the Sa-skya-pa monastic order. In In secular affairs his rights extended only to consultation 1647 the Khutugtu (blessed one) paid symbolic homage with the prime minister. The Bogda and the new prime to the Qing emperor in Beijing under the name Jibzun- minister, BODÔ, agreed on the need to cultivate relations damba Khutugtu (from Tibetan rJe-btsun Dam-pa, Rev- with other countries as an alternative to dependence on erend Noble One). In 1649 Gömbö-Dorji escorted his son Russia. In December the Bogda’s rescuer of February, the to Tibet. The hierarchs of the dGe-lugs-pa order, the Shagja Lama, was arrested with 48 other lamas. They Panchen and Dalai Lamas, were just then proscribing the were released on the Bogda’s appeal, but on August 31, Jo-nang-pa order for its heretical beliefs and seizing its 1922, Shagja, Bodô, and 13 others were executed. In May monasteries for their own order. Even so, both received 1923 his personal physician, Lama Seriinün (Sereenen), him, and the Panchen Lama administered the getsül was executed in another case. (novice) vows and further initiations. Even in religious matters the government began rapidly abridging previous privileges, limiting and then abolishing his rights to public funds, the immunities of his personal subjects, or Great Shabi, and state-funded religious ceremonies. By February 1924 the party cell in the Shabi ministry proposed to register all the Bogda’s property, but this he strenuously resisted, and the pro- posal was rejected. In June 1923 the Bogda’s consort, Dondugdulma, died, and a young wrestler’s wife was chosen by the Bogda from a list prepared by princes in his entourage. During winter 1923–24 the Bogda became ill and was examined by Russian doctors, but he died on May 20. For a last time the religious ceremonies of his funeral were paid from state funds, while his seal as emperor was “temporarily” transferred to the interior ministry. See also CHOIJUNG LAMA TEMPLE; PALACES OF THE BOGDA KHAN; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Further reading: C. R. Bawden, trans., Tales of an Old Lama (Tring, England: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1997). Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First (Zanabazar, Öndör Gegeen) (1635–1723) Khalkha cleric, political leader, and artist The First Jibzundamba Khutugtu was born on November 4, 1635, the second son of the KHALKHA tüshiyetü khan Gömbö-Dorji. For his birth his father planned an early winter migration, camping his yurt near today’s Yösön Züil (South Khangai), where tradition said ABATAI KHAN had had a vision of the Third Dalai Lama. The boy is said to have shown miraculous abilities, and the Khalkha Print of the First Jibzundamba Khutugtu Zanabazar. Such prince Sholoi Makhasamadi Setsen Khan (1577–1652) prints were folded up and kept as amulets. (From N. Tsultem, named him Gegeen Keüken, “Brilliant Child.” In 1638 Eminent Sculptor Zanabazar [1982]) 272 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Upon his return to Mongolia accompanied by Tibetan monks and artisans and scriptures from the for- mer Jo-nang-pa monasteries, he began in 1654 a new establishment, Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye in KHENTII PROVINCE, which was finally completed in 1680, becom- ing the nucleus of Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). He also introduced new rituals, such as the Maitreya proces- sion he learned from the Panchen Lama’s monastery of bKra-shis Lhun-po (modern Zhaxilhünbo, near Xigazê). Zanabazar was known as the Öndör Gegeen, “Tall Majesty,” due to his unusual height. Portraits made from his preserved body show a round-headed bald man with a kindly expression. Zanabazar, like many later Mongolian lamas, kept a consort. Supernatural and artistic powers, like those of Zanabazar himself, were ascribed to his “Girl Prince” (Kheükhen Noyan). After her death at age 18 (shortly after 1706), her ashes were included in the pro- duction of a scripture set. POLITICAL ACTIVITIES In 1686, at the behest of the Qing emperor Kangxi (1662–1722), the Jibzundamba Khutugtu joined repre- sentatives of the Dalai Lama and the emperor himself in an assembly to resolve the bitter feud between the eastern Tüshiyetü khan, now Zanabazar’s elder brother Chakhun- dorji (r. 1655–99), and the western Zasagtu khan. Despite the seemingly successful conclusion to the con- ference in November 1686, the Oirat GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN, who was the incarnation of the dBen-sa sPrul-sku, who had initiated Zanabazar decades before, believed the Jibzundamba was being built up to reduce the influence of the Dalai Lama, with whom the OIRATS were closely Vajradhara, by the First Jibzundamba Khutugtu. Now kept in allied. In 1687, after another outbreak of violence Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery (From Eminent Sculptor between the Tüshiyetü and Zasagtu khans, Galdan Zanabazar [1982]) invaded Khalkha. Sought constantly by Galdan as his chief enemy, the Khutugtu fled with Chakhundorji’s fam- ily and 300 disciples to Abaga (Abag) banner in Inner Mongolia, where in summer 1688 he appealed to the who was a KHORCHIN Mongol, had particularly deep faith emperor Kangxi for assistance. in him. Later hagiographies claim that at Aru-Elestü in Inner In 1701, with Galdan dead and Khalkha resettled, Mongolia the Khalkha princes and khans assembled, and Zanabazar returned to Khalkha’s venerable ERDENI ZUU the Jibzundamba Khutugtu counseled that as the Qing Monastery and supervised the repair of the tremendous were Buddhists and buttoned their clothes on their right damage done by Galdan. During the next 20 years he they were acceptable, whereas the non-Buddhist Russians built many temples and reorganized the liturgy, dress, who buttoned their clothes on their left were not. In fact, and music in Khalkha temples, following in most such an assembly never occurred, but the story illustrates aspects the Panchen Lama’s model. All the while, he the reasoning that brought the Khalkha into the Qing diligently supported the Qing war effort, encouraging orbit. domestic peace among the princes, reporting on condi- After the Qing armies defeated Galdan in 1689–90, a tions to the emperor, and blessing the troops going off great assembly was held at Dolonnuur (modern Duolun) to war. in May 1691, at which the Jibzundamba Khutugtu led the In 1722, hearing news of Kangxi’s death, the aged nobles in obeisance to the emperor (see DOLONNUUR lama traveled to Beijing, where shortly after the enthrone- ASSEMBLY). After the assembly Zanabazar followed the ment of his successor, the emperor Yongzheng emperor back to Beijing, staying with him until 1701. (1723–35), the Jibzundamba died on February 18, 1723, Mongolian stories reflect a close sympathy between the poisoned, rumors said, by the new emperor. His emperor and the Mongolian cleric. Kangxi’s grandmother, embalmed body was returned to his monastery, and his Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second 273 reliquary was installed in 1728 at Amur-Bayaskhulangtu rank) Dondubdorji, to be an incarnation of an Indian Hermitage, built with 10,000 taels of silver from the pandita. Dondubdorji reigned briefly as Tüshiyetü khan imperial treasury. but was deposed in 1702 by the Kangxi emperor (1662–1722) for moral delinquency. In 1723 Kangxi’s ARTISTIC AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES son, the Yongzheng emperor (1723–35), again raised One of Zanabazar’s greatest legacies to Mongolia was his Dondubdorji’s rank for his achievements in battle against sculpture. In 1655 he set up a forge at his retreat of the ZÜNGHARS and bestowed on him a Manchu princess Shibeetü-Uula, near Erdeni Zuu, and that year he sent of the royal family. Hearing the First Jibzundamba’s his first mature images, now lost, to the Manchu court. deathbed prophecy that the Darkhan Chin-Wang would His great masterpieces, including Five Transcendent Bud- father his successor with a woman born in the monkey or dhas and the Vajradhara, now the main image of Ulaan- chicken year, the Darkhan Chin-Wang took another wife, baatar’s GANDAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY, were produced Bayartu, from the KHOTOGHOID in northwest Mongolia, in 1683. His sculptures combine a faithful adherence to born in the monkey year (i.e., 1704). the standards of Indo-Tibetan iconography with extraor- Although a son was born nine months later on dinarily lifelike human beauty. His masterworks of the February 24, 1724, the KHALKHA nobility put forward female figure, White Tara and Green Tara, were said to be several other candidates, of whom the child of the Setsen modeled on the “Girl Prince” in puberty and maturity, khan was the most probable. First the oracle in Lhasa and respectively. (The Green Tara was produced in 1706 for then the Yongzheng emperor decided that the son of the the restored temple of the deity.) The school of Zan- emperor’s son-in-law was the incarnation. In 1728 Don- abazar continued to produce masterpieces into the late dubdorji’s son was given the initial ubashi (or genen) 18th century. vows with the name Lubsang-Dambi-Döngmi and the Although Zanabazar is said to have been a master next year was installed in Da Khüriye by the Khalkha painter, no reliably attributed works survive. Zanabazar is princes as the second Jibzundamba Khutugtu. In 1730 he also said to have designed numerous temples, the earliest was immunized from smallpox in preparation for his being Baruun Khüriye (Shankh, South Khangai), begun journey to Beijing, but with the renewed Zünghar inva- in 1647. The innovative marquee-style roof of the sion of 1731 he was relocated to Dolonnuur (modern tsogchin dugang (main assembly hall) at Nom-un Yekhe Duolun) in Inner Mongolia, where he stayed until 1735. Khüriye became a canon for later Mongolian assembly After Yongzheng’s death the boy traveled to Beijing, halls. where the Qianlong emperor (r. 1736–96, d. 1799) Zanabazar was also skilled in literary arts, personally treated him with great favor. copying and block printing many scriptures. His Byin- On his return to Khalkha the boy as an adolescent rlabs mTshog-stsol (Mongolian, Jinlab-Tsogdzol), or bless- began to harass his entourage with murderous pranks, ing of peace, composed in Tibetan, became a widely although the hagiographies say either that the victims memorized prayer for Khalkha Mongolian Buddhists. He were unharmed or that some karmic purpose was at also created a new script, the SOYOMBO SCRIPT, into which work. Given a gold foil patent and golden seal from the he translated a number of scriptures. The SOYOMBO SYM- LIFAN YUAN in 1738, the Khutugtu began a program of BOL, found at the inception of every text written in this rebuilding and renovating the temples of both Khüriye script, became the symbol of the Khalkha as the people of (modern ULAANBAATAR) and ERDENI ZUU. From his youth the Jibzundamba and is now on the Mongolian national the boy had studied tsanid (Tibetan, mtshan-nyid, aca- flag. demic study of Buddhist philosophy, discipline, and Further reading: N. Tsultem, Eminent Mongolian tantra), and in 1755 he founded and devised the statutes Sculptor G. Zanabazar (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing for the first tsanid school in Khalkha. House, 1982); J. Choinkhor, ed., Undur Geghen Zan- During the Second Jibzundamba’s reign the Manchu abazar (Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian National Commission court began to curtail his autonomy. In 1741 the Qian- for UNESCO, 1995); Junko Miyawaki, “How Legends long emperor ordered attendants placed by the side of the Developed about the First Jebtsundamba: In Reference to Khutugtu and suggested that the Khalkhas consider his the Khalkha Mongol Submission to the Manchus in the removal to Dolonnuur, a proposal that they did not take Seventeenth Century,” Memoirs of the Toyo Bunko 52 up. An unauthorized visit by the Khutugtu to Erdeni Zuu (1994): 45–67. in 1743 earned him a reprimand from the emperor. In 1756, while the Khutugtu and his distant cousin Yampil- Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second (1724–1758) Last dorji, the Tüshiyetü khan (r. 1745–58), were visiting Bei- of the great incarnate lama lineage of the Jibzundamba jing, Qianlong ordered his half-brother Erinchindorji Khutugtus to be born in Mongolia and ambivalent preserver executed for allowing the rebel AMURSANAA to escape. of Qing rule in Mongolia That summer, as CHINGGÜNJAB’S REBELLION began, the The great lama First Jibzundamba had declared his great- Khutugtu and the Tüshiyetü khan secretly contacted the grandnephew, the Darkhan Chin-Wang (prince of first Russian commandant at Selenginsk. The Second Jibzundamba Khutugtu. Note the scenes of his infancy among the Mongolian yurts. Mineral paints on cotton, 60 × 42 centimeters (From N. Tsultem, Development of the Mongolian National Style Painting “Mongol Zurag” in Brief [Ulaanbaatar, 1986]) Jin dynasty 275 Publicly, however, he maintained a loyal stance. On Buddhism, the Jin dynasty emphasized CONFUCIANISM. September 19 the Khutugtu transmitted with his endorse- Nevertheless, Confucian scholars held little power, as the ment an imperial decree against the rebels. In October Jurchen generals and the prolific Wanyan clan monopo- the Khutugtu convened an assembly of the Khalkha lized high positions. The military was built around a mili- nobles with the Second JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU of Beijing and tia of Jurchen households and their slaves organized into the loyalist Khalkha general in chief of ULIASTAI to reiter- a DECIMAL ORGANIZATION of 100s and 1,000s. The Jin had ate their loyalty to the Qing. While the nobility looked to created their own script to write the Jurchen language in him for leadership in any rebellion, the Khutugtu 1119, which continued in use through the 14th century. expressed his discontent with Qing rule only covertly. His Along the frontier the Jin recruited tribal auxiliaries, request to spare Chinggünjab’s life was ignored. That year called Jiu (Mongolian Jüyin) and including Tangut, ÖNG- a smallpox epidemic ravaged Khalkha, and he died on GÜD, and Kitan elements, to guard the frontier against February 5, 1758, three days before the new year’s assem- nomadic incursions. This was somewhat risky, as many bly opened. Kitans, in particular, nursed a deep grudge against the After his death the Qianlong emperor insisted on Jurchen as usurpers. finding the next JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU in Tibet. One portrait of the Second Jibzundamba includes scenes of THE JIN AND THE MONGOLIAN TRIBES his childhood in a Mongol YURT, perhaps to distinguish While the Kitan Liao dynasty had occupied the Mongo- him from the later Tibetans who occupied the throne. lian plateau, the Jurchens could not effectively pacify the area. The Jin collected tribute from the tribes and encour- Jin dynasty (Chin, Kin) During the rise of the Mon- aged rivalries among them to keep them weak. Around gols the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) ruled North China and the middle of the century, when the MONGOL TRIBE (in the became bitter enemies of the Mongols. narrow sense) unified under a charismatic khan, the Jin encouraged the Tatar tribe to whittle down the new RISE AND RULE OF THE DYNASTY khanate. The TATARS captured the Mongol khan Ham- The Jin dynasty arose in east Manchuria among the baghai and handed him over to the Jin frontier authori- Jurchen people, who spoke a language in the Manchu- ties, who nailed him to a wooden mule, and the Mongols Tungusic family and were ancestors of the later Manchu swore vengeance against the “Golden Khan.” Under the people. By the 10th century the Jurchen had come under emperor Wanyan Yong (titled Shizong, r. 1261–90), Jin the power of the Liao dynasty, founded by the Kitan peo- armies conducted regular punitive expeditions against ple of eastern Inner Mongolia. While the KITANS were the nomads, enslaving them or driving them north. seminomadic, the Jurchen were primarily farmers living Under his successor, Wanyan Jing (titled Zhang- in cabins and raising millet, wheat, flax, oxen, and pigs. zong, r. 1190–1209), Jin policy turned defensive. Ram- Hunting, fishing, and ginseng collecting also played an parts were built in Inner Mongolia, and the Jiu border important role in their economy. The Jurchen shared in auxiliaries became restive. In 1196 the grand councillor, the horse-based Inner Asian warrior tradition that used Wanyan Xiang, even allied with the Mongols and the great collective hunts as training for war. KEREYID Khanate against their erstwhile Tatar allies. For By the 10th century the Wanyan had become the their role in this expedition, the Mongol chieftain leading Jurchen clan. Wanyan Aguda (1068–1123) chal- Temüjin was offered the title zhaotaoshi, or “bandit sup- lenged the Liao dynasty, defeating them with astonish- pression commissioner,” and the Kereyid khan Toghril ing speed and proclaiming his own Jin, or “Golden,” received the title ong, “prince” (modern pronunciation dynasty. (Due to this dynastic name, the Mongols called wang). By 1202–04 both envoys and the Jiu border aux- the Jin rulers “Altan Khan” or “Golden Khan”; this was iliaries were defecting to Temüjin, yet the Mongols still the origin of MARCO POLO’s “Golden King.”) The SONG paid tribute. When Temüjin was proclaimed emperor DYNASTY (960–1279), then ruling most of China, with the title CHINGGIS KHAN (r. 1206–27), the Jin were unwisely encouraged the Jurchen to destroy the Liao distracted by war with the Song. Wanyan Jing died in and then attacked the Jurchen themselves. The Jurchen 1209, and his brother Wanyan Yongji (titled King of thereupon defeated the Song, conquering all of North Weishao, r. 1209–13) usurped the throne. Wanyan China. From then on until the Mongol conquest, the Yongji had served on the frontier, and Chinggis despised Jurchen Jin occupied North China, Manchuria, and him. From that year the Mongols discontinued tribute. Inner Mongolia, while the native Chinese Song dynasty held South China. CONQUEST OF CHINA NORTH OF THE HUANG At its apogee around 1175, the Jin dynasty combined (YELLOW) RIVER both traditional Chinese and Jurchen institutions. The Chinggis Khan’s ensuing campaign against the Jin can be capital was moved south to Zhongdu (Chung-tu, modern divided into three stages. In the first stage, from spring Beijing). A Chinese-style bureaucracy was set up with 1211 to summer 1213, the Mongols had two aims: clearing officials chosen by exams. While the Liao had patronized away Jin fortifications down to the mountains bordering Northern Frontiers of the Jin Dynasty, 1211–1213 Qingzhou Kitans Linhuang Fish Lake Shara Moren R. Ö n g g ü d Huanzhou Jingzhou . aR oh La Gaili Lake Lua nR Fuzhou . Fengzhou Huan g (Ye Huan'erzui Beijing llo w) Riv e r Yehuling Ridge Xuande Dongsheng (Xuanhua) Dexing Huihebo Fort Jinshan Migukou Gap (Huai’an) (Zhuolu) (Yanqing) Hongzhou Xijing Juyongguan Pass (Datong) Hualai Jin dynasty earthen rampart Nankou e Önggüd Tribal entity g n a Main capital of Jin dynasty Zhuozhou Zhongdu R Subordinate capital of Jin dynasty (Zhouxian) (modern Beijing) g Zijingkou Battle Gap Yizhou an (Yixian) Bo Gulf h 0 100 miles i 0 100 km Ta Jin dynasty 277 the North China plain and seizing the passes through northern nomads might raid but could never conquer those mountains. Meanwhile, the Jin tried to defeat the walled cities. Mongols in the field. In repeated battles, including Huan’erzui (“The Badger’s Mouth,” February 1212), and THE JIN IN HENAN Jinshan (July to August 1213), the Mongols smashed Jin The relocation of the Jin dynasty to Henan caused armies, each numbering, according to the sources, in the tremendous hardship yet also illustrated the regime’s sur- hundreds of thousands. They broke through Juyongguan prising strength: 420,000 military households migrated Pass and Zijingkou Gap by November 1213. south, as did thousands of civil officials, straining local In the second stage, from autumn 1213 through resources. While defections to the Mongols constantly spring 1214, the Mongols roamed at will, pillaging the drained Jin military strength, few civil officials went over entire North China plain. The strategic aim was to force to the Mongols, and even fewer deserted to the Song the Jin dynasty to surrender and become a tributary state. dynasty in South China. Not all defections to the Mon- The Jin were now on the defensive, never venturing to gols were voluntary or permanent. The greatest general of meet the Mongols in the field. In summer 1213 the Jin the Jin’s last stand, Wanyan Hada, had been forced by cir- general Heshilie Hushahu had murdered the emperor cumstances and rebellious troops to desert in 1213 but Wanyan Yongji and enthroned his nephew Wanyan Xun soon returned to the Jin standard. Indeed, by the 1220s (title Xuanzong, r. 1213–24). This second stage ended the dynasty’s remaining positions in Shaanxi and Shan- when the Mongols besieged the capital, Zhongdu (mod- dong depended on the loyalty of warlords and volunteer ern Beijing), and the Jin temporarily agreed to become forces ruling their cities and mountain fortresses as inde- tributaries of the Mongols, presenting a Wanyan princess pendent fiefdoms. to the Mongols. Believing the war was over, Chinggis Guarded to the north by the Huang (Yellow) River withdrew from the North China plain, although he still and on the west by the Tongguan Pass, the remaining held the passes and the territory north of the ranges. Jin heartland was hard to attack. When Chinggis Khan’s The third stage began when the new Jin ruler, Wanyan son ÖGEDEI KHAN (1228–41) ascended the throne, he Xun, fled the capital to the southern city of Kaifeng, south rebuffed Jin offers of peace talks. In 1230 he sent of the Huang (Yellow) River, making it his redoubt against Doqulqu to attempt a frontal attack on Tongguan Pass, the Mongol invasions. Only then did Chinggis alter his but Wanyan Hada first crushed Doquluqu’s army and strategic aim to one of actual Mongol conquest and rule of then defeated the famed general SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR. That the North China plain. Beginning in December 1214 the autumn Ögedei and his brother Tolui campaigned per- Mongols first wiped out remaining Jin centers of control in sonally, first subduing Fengxiang, the Jin’s last major southern Manchuria, then moved to the area of Zhongdu, stronghold in Shaanxi. In spring 1232 Tolui led the starving it into surrender on May 31, 1215. They then sys- Mongols through Song territory and invaded Henan tematically rooted out all resistance in Shanxi, Hebei, and from the south, while Ögedei pushed through the Tong- lowland Shandong from 1217 to 1223. In these later cam- guan Pass from the west. Tolui’s troops killed Wanyan paigns, MUQUALI, Chinggis Khan’s most trusted surviving Hada on February 13, 1232. From then on the Jin’s wan- NÖKÖR (companion), served as commander, while the khan ing hopes rested on siege warfare. Sübe’etei invested the fought in Central Asia. After 1217 regular Jin armies did southern capital of Kaifeng from April 1232. Sensing not hold cities in the plains; the Mongols mostly fought correctly that Sübe’etei was planning a complete mas- local strongmen and deserters to the Jin or Song standards. sacre, the inhabitants of the capital held out in desper- From Muqali’s death in 1223 to 1230, the Mongols could ate resistance. Finally, in February 1233 the emperor not challenge the Jin hold on Henan, central Shaanxi, and Wanyan Shouxu (titled Aizong, r. 1224–34) fled to southeast Shandong. Guide, and on March 5 the city surrendered. YELÜ CHU- The Mongols’ destruction of what had been East CAI, once a Jin official and now Ögedei Khan’s leading Asia’s most feared military machine is hard to explain, minister, intervened to spare the city from wholesale but the Jin leadership’s incessant internal strife certainly slaughter. Hunting down Wanyan Shouxu and besieging played a part. This conflict peaked in summer 1213, him in Caizhou, the Mongols, with the belated assis- when Heshilie Hushahu abandoned the defense of tance of the Song, finished off the Jin in February 1234. Xijing (modern Datong) and returned to Zhongdu to The remaining Jin-held citadels in Shandong and overthrow the emperor Wanyan Yongji and replace him Shaanxi surrendered at the same time. with Wanyan Xun. Another weakness was disaffection among the Jin’s ethnic auxiliary armies. When the Mon- LEGACY TO THE MONGOL EMPIRE gol attack began in 1211, the entire network of frontier The relatively sophisticated Jin institutions had a tribes supposedly guarding the border was already on delayed influence on the Mongols. While many institu- the Mongol side. Kitan army units and leaders repeat- tions of Mongol rule in China, such as the decimal orga- edly deserted the Jurchen cause. Finally, the experiences nization, a military system combining features of a tribal of the past had misled the Jin officials to expect that militia with a professional military caste, and the strong 278 Jingim role for the imperial family, recall Jin practice, they were it up, the text of the memorial leaked, and Qubilai became also the predictable results of the encounter of Inner furious. In the midst of this crisis Jingim fell ill and died. Asian conquerors with Chinese traditions. Such civil Jingim’s widow, Bairam-Egechi (Kökejin), remained administration as the Mongols had in North China high in Qubilai’s favor, however, and in 1291 Jingim’s under Chinggis Khan was mostly set up by former chief steward, Öljei, became the secretariat’s senior grand Jurchen officials, but chaotic conditions and Mongol councillor. Bairam-Egechi saw her third son, Temür, indifference prevented any close imitation of the com- crowned in 1294. Jingim’s eldest son, Gammala plex Jin bureaucracy. Under Ögedei Khan Yelü Chucai (1263–1302), who had a slight stammer, tried to contest began to draw more successfully on Jin administrative the election, but at the QURILTAI Temür won in a competi- precedents, despite considerable opposition from those tion to recite biligs (wise sayings). After Temür died who hated everything associated with the fallen regime. childless in 1307, the sons of Darmabala (1264–92), After the fall of Kaifeng, Yelü Chucai and sympathetic Jingim’s second son, succeeded him. In 1323, after a coup Chinese commanders in Mongol service protected and d’état, Gammala’s son Yisün-Temür was made emperor for repatriated former Jin officials. They eventually came to five years before his death and a civil war returned the gravitate around QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), who inter- throne to Darmabala’s descendants. viewed and employed scores of them. Thus, the signifi- cance of Jin precedents for the later Mongol YUAN Jirim See KHORCHIN; TONGLIAO MUNICIPALITY. DYNASTY, while delayed and indirect, was profound. See also HUAN’ERZUI, BATTLE OF; JUYONGGUAN PASS, Jochi (Jöchi, Jüchi, Tushi) (d. 1225?) Ancestor of the BATTLES OF; KAIFENG, SIEGE OF; MANCHURIA AND THE MON- khans of the Golden Horde and Chinggis Khan’s eldest son; GOL EMPIRE; MASSACRES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; suspicions of illegitimacy alienated him from his father ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF. Jochi’s mother, CHINGGIS KHAN’s main wife, BÖRTE ÜJIN, Further reading: Henry Desmond Martin, Rise of gave birth to him after she had been raped by MERKID Chingis Khan and His Conquest of North China (Balti- tribesmen. While Chinggis always treated him as legiti- more: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950; rpt., New York: mate, later taunts of illegitimacy, reflected in his very Octagon Books, 1971); Hok-lam Chan, Fall of the name, meaning “guest,” dogged Jochi. His relations with Jurchen Chin: Wang E’s Memoir on Ts’ai-chou under the CHA’ADAI, Chinggis’s second son and the presumed heir Mongol Siege (1233–1234) (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, should Jochi be disowned, were particularly bad. 1993); Herbert Franke and Hok-lam Chan, Studies on By 1203 Chinggis Khan had arranged marriages for the Jurchens and the Chin Dynasty (Aldershot, Hamp- Jochi with both Börte’s QONGGIRAD clan and with his shire: Ashgate, 1997). KEREYID allies, suitable-in-laws (QUDA) for an heir appar- ent. Jochi held a command in the conquest of the north- Jingim (Zhenjin, Chen-Chin) (1243–1285) The heir ern Merkid tribe in 1204, and after the unification of apparent of Qubilai Khan and patron of Chinese culture Mongolia Chinggis dispatched Jochi in 1207 to Siberia, Born the second son of QUBILAI KHAN and his principal where he brought the forest peoples into submission (see wife, CHABUI, Jingim was named “True Gold” (“Jingim” in SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). Jochi campaigned with 13th-century Chinese, “Zhenjin” in contemporary pro- Cha’adai and Ögedei in southwest Inner Mongolia nunciation) by the Chinese Dhyana (Zen) monk Haiyun. (November 1211) and in Hebei and Shanxi (autumn As a child Qubilai assigned Jingim Yao Shu (1203–80) as 1213). Jochi also accompanied SÜBE’ETEI BA’TUR’s first his senior Confucian tutor. campaign against the Qipchaqs (1218–19). Qubilai’s eldest son was sickly, and after being elected However, according to the SECRET HISTORY OF THE khan in 1260 he groomed Jingim to succeed him. In 1262 MONGOLS, Chinggis Khan passed over both Jochi and Jingim was made prince of Yan and concurrent director of Cha’adai and chose Ögedei as his successor in 1219. the secretariat and commissioner of the bureau of military Jochi’s reputation solely as a hunter did not inspire confi- affairs. From 1264 he began attending meetings of the sec- dence in his abilities as ruler. During the Central Asian retariat monthly. In 1273 he was formally designated heir campaign Jochi commanded the right flank, sacking the apparent. While often joining the princes in sessions of cities along the Syr Dar’ya (spring 1220) before joining reciting the Mongolian biligs (wise sayings) and of his brothers Ögedei and Cha’adai at the destruction of ARCHERY, his private interests were in Chinese histories. Urganch (spring 1221). By the 1270s Jingim was publicly hostile of Qubilai’s Chinggis Khan assigned to Jochi KHORAZM and the chief adviser, AHMAD FANAKATI, and he became the hope of steppes from the river Chu on west, intending them as a the Confucian officials at court. Ahmad’s death in 1282 base for the conquest of the Qipchaqs. Instead, Jochi dal- brought Jingim into his own. In 1285 a South Chinese lied in the hunt. Jochi presented his father with vast scholar unwisely composed a memorial asking that Qubilai herds of wild asses in 1224, but by this time the two were abdicate in favor of Jingim. Despite Jingim’s effort to hush seriously estranged. The gathering crisis ended when Juu Uda 279 Jochi died prematurely, leaving his ulus (people) to his gol social interaction, and as a result he blamed his hosts second son, BATU. He received the posthumous title Ulus- for their lack of hospitality. Idi (Lord of the Realm). Once incorporated in Vincent de Beauvais’s encyclo- See also BLUE HORDE; GOLDEN HORDE; ÖGEDEI KHAN. pedic Speculum Historiale (Historical mirror), John’s His- tory of the Mongols was widely read during the Middle John of Plano Carpini (1182–1252) Papal envoy who Ages. In 1832 a manuscript with a brief account written wrote an important description of the Mongols’ history, mili- by his companion Benedict the Pole was also found in tary, and customs the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. In 1957, another Born at Plano Carpini (Italian Pianô Carpine, modern manuscript, called the “Tartar Relation” (Historia Tar- Magione) near Perugia, John became a Franciscan friar tarorum) was discovered, which appears to be a copy of and served from 1221 as administrator of the order’s notes taken from a lecture John gave on his experiences mission in Germany. Interrupted by a brief stint in in Asia. (Despite the controversy over the attached Vin- Spain, he served from 1228 as the provincial of Saxony, land Map, the authenticity of the “Tartar Relation” is actively promoting the Franciscan order in North and not in doubt.) Central Europe. The Council of Lyon (1245), chaired See also CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS; CHRIS- by Pope Innocent IV, responded to the Mongols’ TIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL CONQUEST; KIEV, SIEGE OF; 1241–42 invasion of Central Europe by dispatching an RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; WESTERN EUROPE AND envoy to deliver a papal bull to the invaders and to col- THE MONGOLS. lect intelligence. Despite his obesity, John was chosen Further reading: Christopher Dawson, ed., The Mon- as envoy, probably because of his familiarity with East- gol Mission (1955; rpt., New York: AMS Press, n.d.); R. A. ern Europe. In Poland Friar Benedict joined the Skelton, Thomas E. Marston, and George O. Painter, The embassy, probably interpreting for John’s Slavic inter- Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation (New Haven, Conn.: locutors. On his way John tried to promote an alliance Yale University Press, 1965). between the Polish and Russian lords against the Mon- gols, which involved the Eastern Orthodox Russians Josotu See FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; accepting Catholicism. From Kiev the ambassadors INJANNASHI; KHARACHIN. entered Mongol jurisdiction on February 26, 1246, and crossed the steppe first to the realm of Prince Batu and then to Mongolia, where they arrived on July 22. After Jou-jan See ROURAN. witnessing the great QURILTAI (assembly) that elected GÜYÜG KHAN and receiving Güyüg’s flat rejection of the Juan-juan See ROURAN. papal bull, the envoys returned to the West in Novem- ber. Reaching Europe in June 1247, John delivered Güyüg’s reply and his own report to Pope Innocent at Jüchi See JOCHI. Lyon. Pleased with his execution of the arduous mis- sion, Pope Innocent appointed John in 1248 the arch- Jungar See ZÜNGHARS. bishop of Antivari (modern Bar) in Dalmatia, where he stayed to his death. John’s Latin report, Historia Mongolorum quos nos Jungdu See ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF. Tartaros apellamus (History of the Mongols whom we call Tartars), is a major source on the MONGOL EMPIRE. The Ju Ud See JUU UDA. descriptions of the quriltai that elected Güyüg and the Mongol military are particularly valuable. The genealogy of the Chinggisid ruling family he provided is remarkably Juu Uda (Zuu Ud, Ju Ud, Zhao Wuda) One of the tra- accurate for an outside observer, although superseded ditional six leagues (chigulgan) of Inner Mongolia, the today. His historical section, however, mixes many reli- Juu Uda Mongols are partly farmers and partly herders, able assertions with bizarre accounts of mythical crea- occupying the upper Shara Mören (Xar Moron) valley, tures, which were derived from the Russian clerics with east of the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE. whom he associated throughout his journey. John’s own Under China’s last Qing dynasty Juu Uda contained view of the Mongols was intensely negative. While con- 11 banners, or appanages, from eight “tribes” (AIMAG): ceding many admirable features of their military organi- Aohan, NAIMAN, Baarin (Bairin), Jarud, Aru Khorchin zation, he believed that their victories were more the (Ar Horqin), Ongni’ud, Kheshigten (Hexigten), and result of fraud than true valor. Despite advice from his KHALKHA (later merged with Khüriye/Hure). The neigh- Russian friends, he did not have enough gifts to partici- boring “lay disciples,” or subjects of Khüriye (Hure) pate in the lavish reciprocal gift giving that marked Mon- Monastery, were an autonomous unit. Much of this ter- 280 Juvaini, ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik and Shams-ud-Din Muhammad ritory has subsequently been lost to CHINESE COLONIZA- The Ongni’ud Right and Aohan banners began TION, and the remaining banners are now divided dividing up their fields and employing Chinese immi- between CHIFENG MUNICIPALITY and TONGLIAO MUNICI- grants as tenants in the 18th century, following the PALITY. The present banners of old Juu Uda cover more KHARACHIN banner pattern. The anti-Mongol insurrec- than 85,000 square kilometers (32,800 square miles) tion of the Jindandao (“Golden Pillway”) sect of Chi- and have a population of about 2,798,000 (1990 fig- nese tenants in 1891 began in Aohan and devastated the ures). Of this, 707,000, or 25 percent, are Mongols; the Mongols of the southern Juu Uda, sending farming highest percentage is in Khüriye banner (56 percent Mongols fleeing north. From 1908 state-sponsored Chi- Mongol) and the lowest in Aohan (4 percent Mongol). nese colonization projects established a patchwork of Outside Aohan rural Mongols and Chinese live mostly almost purely Chinese counties among the Mongol ban- in separate districts, and the great majority of Mongols ners of northern Juu Uda. speak Mongolian. In 1933 the Japanese occupying forces designated the Economically, the Mongols of the old Juu Uda ban- remaining Juu Uda banners (excluding Ongni’ud Right ners range from mostly pastoral to mostly farming. In and Aohan) as Khinggan West province, putting the Chi- Baarin Right Banner (Bairin Youqi) 58.1 percent of the nese counties mostly under Mongol administration. After total agricultural sales comes from herding, while in a brief period in 1945–46 under Mongol nationalist gov- Khüriye it is only 3 percent. The total herd in the old Juu ernments, the Chinese Communists took control of Juu Uda banners was about 7.5 million (1990), in which the Uda. They combined Kheshigten, Baarin, and Aru percentage of pigs ranges from negligible to about a quar- Khorchin as Inner Mongolia’s Juu Uda league while ter in Naiman and Khüriye. assigning Jarud, Naiman, and Khüriye to Jirim league. Ongni’ud Left Banner was made a Mongol autonomous HISTORY county in Rehe province. In 1954 Rehe was abolished The Shara Mören valley was the original home of the and Aohan and Ongni’ud attached to Juu Uda league, medieval KITANS. After the establishment of the 13th- along with several counties and Kharachin banner. In century MONGOL EMPIRE, it became the territory of the 1983 Juu Uda was renamed CHIFENG MUNICIPALITY. QONGGIRAD clan. Under the Ming after 1449 it became See also BOLOR ERIKHE; FARMING; INNER MONGOLIA the home of Taining (Ongni’ud) and Fuyu (Üjiyed), AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGOLIANS; MONGOLIAN both Mongol guards for the Ming (see THREE GUARDS). LANGUAGE; NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS. By 1500 the Shara Mören valley’s Mongols had been Further reading: Rong Ma, “Migrant and Ethnic reorganized into the “five OTOGS (camp districts) of Integration in the Process of Socio-Economic Change in South Khalkha” (see SIX TÜMENS). These five otogs—the Inner Mongolia, China: A Village Study,” Nomadic Peoples Qonggirad, Üjiyed, Baarin, Jarud, and Bayud clans— 33 (1993): 173–192; Dee Mack Williams, Beyond Great became the appanage of Alchu-Bolod, the fifth son of Walls: Environment, Identity, and Development on the Chi- the Chinggisid BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?). nese Grasslands of Inner Mongolia (Stanford, Calif.: Stan- Meanwhile, the neighboring Ongni’ud were ruled by ford University Press, 2002). descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s brother Temüge Odchi- gin. In the mid-16th century Daraisun Küdeng Khan (1548–57) moved his CHAKHAR people east to the Shara Juvaini, ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik (1226–1283) and Mören valley, mixing them with the South Khalkha. Shams-ud-Din Muhammad (d. 1284) Both high offi- The fall of Ligdan Khan (1604–34) and the rise of the cials of the Mongols, ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik was one of the Manchu QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) again reshuffled the great historians of the Mongols. appanages, now called BANNERS. Descendants of Alchu- The Juvaini family was one of the ancient landholding Bolod were recognized as rulers over Baarin and Jarud families of Khorasan (northeastern Iran), with ancestral banners. The Naiman, Aohan, and Kheshigten banners estates in the Juvain district (modern Joghatay), northwest were split off from the Chakhar and installed under their of Sabzevar. The Juvaini family had served the Seljuk Chinggisid princes, the Naiman and Aohan under descen- (1037–1157) and Khorazmian (1138–1230/1) dynasties as dants of Dayan Khan’s grandson and successor, Bodi Alag sahib-divan (chiefs of the secretariat). In 1232–33, as the Khan (1519?–47), and the Kheshigten under descendants Mongols were mopping up resistance, Baha’ud-Din of Dayan Khan’s sixth son, Wachirbolod. A body of Muhammad (father of ‘Ala’ud-Din and Shams-ud-Din) was KHORCHINS was settled in the Shara Mören valley under brought before the local Mongol commander. Expecting Manchu protection, becoming the Aru (“North”) death, he was instead appointed by the governor Chin- Khorchin. Finally, in 1665 a body of northern Khalkha Temür to be sahib-divan for the administration in Kho- Mongols, escaping strife in Zasagtu Khan province, sur- rasan. Baha’ud-Din served the Mongols as administrator rendered to the Manchu Qing dynasty and were resettled until his death in Isfahan at age 60 (1253). in the same area. The Qing fixed the banners’ new bound- Against the advice of his father, who preferred a reli- aries in 1636 and organized the Juu Uda league in 1674. gious career for him, ‘Ala’ud-Din entered the service of Juyongguan Pass, battles of 281 the Mongols as a scribe before his 20th year. With his Juyongguan Inscriptions See MONGOLIAN SOURCES father and ARGHUN AQA, the governor of Khorasan, he ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE. visited the Mongol capital of QARA QORUM in 1252–53. There, at the suggestion of his companions, he began his Juyongguan Pass, battles of (Chü-yung-kuan; Ta’rikh-i jahan gusha, or HISTORY OF THE WORLD CON- Chabchiyal) (October 1211 and autumn 1213) The QUEROR, which he abandoned sometime around 1260 Mongol victories against the heavily fortified Juyong- after recording Mongolian history up to 1256. From 1256 guan Pass opened the way to Zhongdu, the Jin capital. to 1259 ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik traveled in the entourage Access to Beijing is blocked to the north and northwest of the Mongol prince HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65). In 1259 by a chain of mountains, which successive Chinese Hüle’ü appointed him the governor of the caliph’s former dynasties have fortified in defense against the northern territories (southern Iraq and Khuzistan), a position he nomads. To protect their capital at Zhongdu (modern held until 1283. In Khorasan in 1256 and in Iraq he Beijing), the Jin garrisoned Juyongguan with the ruling actively promoted irrigation and agriculture. As a Sunni Jurchens and hard-fighting Kitan auxiliaries. Muslim, tensions with Shi‘ite Muslims and Christians in During his first attack on the Jin in 1211, CHINGGIS Iraq marred his governorship, however, and led to the KHAN defeated the Jin field army at Huihebao Fort (mod- voluntary exile of the catholicos (Christian patriarch) ern Huai’an), seized Dexing (modern Zhuolu), and from Baghdad in 1268. ordered JEBE, commander of his heavy cavalry, to seize In 1262, as Hüle’ü tried to improve his civil adminis- the pass. Jebe feigned an assault and then retreated north tration, he appointed Shams-ud-Din Muhammad vizier. up the valley as far as Xuande (modern Xuanhua). When Under Hüle’ü’s son Abagha Khan (1265–82) Shams-ud- the defending general pursued, Jebe turned and scattered Din and ‘Ala’ud-Din continued as vizier and governor of the Jin troops, opening the way to Zhongdu. The Mon- Baghdad, respectively. In 1280 Majd-ul-Mulk, a spurned gols subsequently withdrew. client of the Juvainis, accused the family of massive In 1213 the Mongols were ready to force the Jin to embezzlement, royal pretensions, and treasonous com- surrender, but the Jin by then were more familiar with munications with MAMLUK EGYPT, but the intercession of Mongol tactics. In July–August 1213 Chinggis Khan the queen, Öljei, saved Shams-ud-Din. In 1281 Abagha took Xuande and Dexing again. Between Huailai and Jin- made Majd-ul-Mulk covizier with Shams-ud-Din. ‘Ala’ud- shan (modern Yanqing) he crushed a vast army under Din was arrested, publicly tortured, and fined 3,000,000 the Jin marshal Shuhu Gaoqi, and the remnants fell back gold dinars; he sold his sons to pay the ransom. Released, on their strong fortifications at Juyongguan. Following a he was soon arrested again. When Abagha suddenly died, proposal of JABAR KHOJA, Chinggis Khan had two QONG- the new khan, Sultan Ahmad (1282–84), executed Majd- GIRAD commanders, Ketei and Bocha, guard the pass ul-Mulk and honored Shams-ud-Din. Abagha’s son while Chinggis Khan and Jebe broke through the moun- Arghun, however, believing that Shams-ud-Din had poi- tains at Zijingkou Pass, 75 miles to the southwest. Mean- soned Abagha, accused ‘Ala’ud-Din’s men of embezzle- while, one of the Jin’s Kitan commanders, Elu Bu’r, ment; ‘Ala’ud-Din died of natural causes on March 5, betrayed Juyongguan’s northern mouth to the Mongols. 1283. Soon after Arghun’s partisans overthrew Sultan Racing northeast along the plain, Jebe attacked Juyong- Ahmad, and Shams-ud-Din was beaten to death and guan’s southern mouth, crushing the defenders and beheaded on October 16, 1284. Five years later Arghun meeting Ketei and Bocha in the middle of the pass. From executed his remaining sons. this time on the Mongols controlled access to Zhongdu Further reading: ‘Ala-ad-Din ‘Ata-Malik Juvaini, His- and the North China plain. tory of the World Conqueror, 2 vols., trans. John Andrew See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ZHONGDU, Boyle (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958). SIEGES OF. K kagan See KHAN. their trenches with cowhides as the defenders lowered larger explosive shells on iron chains. In August the besiegers drove off the last relief attempt. That summer it Kaifeng, siege of (K’ai-feng) In this year-long siege, is claimed that plague killed 900,000 (not counting those lasting from April 1232 to May 1233, Mongol armies too poor for burial), and by December the besieged were finally broke the southern capital of the JIN DYNASTY, eating one another. which once had ruled North China. Although the Jin The emperor broke out with an army on February 5, emperor fled, he was run to ground soon after in the and the Mongol final assault had to be delayed until the small town of Caizhou (modern Runan). Jin army was scattered. The emperor, however, escaped to When the Mongols broke into Henan and killed the Guide. On March 5 Marshal Cui Li in Kaifeng rebelled, Jin dynasty’s great commander Wanyan Hada in February killing the defending Jin commanders and seizing the 1232, the Jin lost hope of fielding armies against the Mon- remaining imperial family and consorts to hold for nego- gols. On April 5 the Mongols sent an envoy to the Jin capi- tiations. On May 27 Cui Li finally handed over more than tal of Kaifeng demanding complete surrender. The Jin 500 men of the Wanyan family to the Mongols, who emperor, Wanyan Shouxu (titled Aizong, r. 1224–34), sent butchered them all. The empresses were escorted to the out his brother, Wanyan Eke, as a hostage to the Mongols, Mongol court, and Sübe’etei entered the city. but the Mongols, under the general SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR, sus- Enraged by the heavy Mongol casualties, Sübe’etei pected the Jin’s good faith, and negotiations broke down. asked ÖGEDEI KHAN for permission to slaughter every- Swollen by refugees and soldiers, the city’s population thing alive, but after strenuous objections from his minis- reached 1,470,000 households, but at first morale among ter YELÜ CHUCAI, Sübe’etei was ordered to resettle the the defenders was excellent. The emperor personally vis- population north of the Huang (Yellow) River. Yelü Chu- ited the troops on the gates and threw open palace supplies cai and Chinese generals in Mongol service, such as for medicines and rewards, and political prisoners were ZHANG ROU and YAN SHI, protected the descendants of released to join the struggle. At least 200,000 civilians were Confucius and Jin scholars and officials, but the high- drafted into the army on pain of death, and the students in ways were littered with the corpses of starving refugees. the Hanlin Academy pleaded to be allowed to join the artillery men on the walls. When the Mongols sent the Chinese envoy Tang Qing that summer to discuss surren- K’ai-p’ing See SHANGDU. der again, the defending generals killed him. The Mongol assault used trebuchets, while the Jin Kalaqin See KHARACHIN. catapulted cast-iron exploding shells and in close combat used metal tubes spitting flaming gunpowder (early European scholars mistranslated these weapons as can- Kalka River, Battle of The Battle of Kalka River on nons and rockets). The attackers responded by covering May 31, 1223, was the disastrous first encounter of Rus- 282 Kalmyk Republic 283 sian armies with the Mongols. When the Mongol generals Kalmyks were exiled as a people to Siberia from 1943 to JEBE and SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR rode north through the Der- 1957. The population of Kalmykia in 1989 was 322,579, bend Pass, they crushed the QIPCHAQS (Polovtsi) under of which Kalmyks formed 146,316, or 45 percent. This Gyurgi (George), son of Könchek. The defeated number included 84 percent of the Kalmyks of the old Qipchaqs, led by Köten (Kotian), appealed to Köten’s Soviet Union. Since 1991 the republic’s population has Russian son-in-law Mstislav the Daring (d. 1228) of declined and was estimated at 314,300 in 2001. In the Halych (Galich). The princes of southern Russia (modern Kalmyk language the republic’s official name is Khal’mag Ukraine) met at Kiev, where they assented to the Qipchaq tangghch (Kalmyk Nation). request. Commanded by Mstislav the Old of Kiev (d. 1223) GEOGRAPHY AND DEMOGRAPHY and Mstislav of Chernihiv (Chernigov, d. 1223), the Rus- The Kalmyk Republic covers 76,100 square kilometers sians advanced down the west bank of the Dniepr to ren- (29,380 square miles) along the northwestern shore of dezvous with the Qipchaqs and other Russian contingents. the Caspian Sea. The territory is uniformly dry, low-lying Mongol envoys arrived to dissuade the Russians from steppe. Elevations range from 28 meters (92 feet) below hostilities, but they were killed. On Tuesday, May 23, sea level along the Caspian Sea to 222 meters (728 feet) 1223, the Russian vanguard crossed the Dniepr in boats above sea level in the Yergeni Highland on the republic’s and clashed with Mongol scouts, who fled leaving their western border, which marks the watershed between the livestock behind. Not realizing this was a ruse, the Rus- Black and Caspian Seas. In the south Kalmykia borders sians and Qipchaqs seized the livestock and pursued the the Manych-Kuma depression. Kalmykia’s long westward Mongols for eight days to the river Kalka (north of Mari- salient encloses the saline Lake Manych-Gudilo, which upol’), where the Mongols were camped on the other side drains toward the Black Sea. Other bodies of water of the river. include only seasonal streams and shallow saline lakes. Mstislav the Daring, without telling his commanders, Kalmykia’s climate is warmer than that of the MON- ordered young Daniel of Halych (d. 1264) and the Rus- GOLIAN PLATEAU. Temperatures in January average from sian-Qipchaq vanguard over the Kalka, and the Mongols –7° to –12°C (19° to 10°F), while July averages range again fell back in a feigned retreat. When the Mongols from 23° to 26°C (75° to 79°F). Precipitation varies with suddenly turned and showered the enemy with arrows, elevation, reaching 300–400 millimeters (12–16 inches) the vanguard broke and streamed back over the river, annually in the northwest and falling to 170–200 mil- where the Qipchaqs, riding in headlong flight, disorga- limeters (7–8 inches) along the Caspian coast. It falls nized the main force’s unready lines. The other princes mostly in the summer, and winter snow cover is light or fled back to the Dniepr, but Mstislav the Old had set a absent. Sunny days average 280 per year. Vegetation in stockade on a stony hill above the Kalka, where he and Kalmykia is mostly of desert-steppe type, with species his two sons-in-law fought for three days, until they came similar to those of Kazakhstan, although different from out under a safe conduct offer from the Mongols. The those of Mongolia. Sagebrushes (Artemisia lercheana, A. three, however, were crushed to death under boards as pauciflora), feather grasses (Stipa ucrainica, S. lessin- the Mongols feasted on top of them. giana), and fescue (Festuca valesiaca) grow in the wetter In their pursuit to the Dniepr, the Mongols caught north and west, with groves of willow, aspen, and elm and killed Mstislav of Chernihiv and six other princes. near surface water in the Yergeni Highlands. In the repub- Mstislav the Daring, however, crossed the Dniepr and cut lic’s dry “Black Lands” along the Caspian, sagebrush loose the boats to end the pursuit. The Mongols sacked (Artemisia pauciflora, A. astrachanica, A. arenaria) and Novhorod-Sivers’kyy (Novgorod-Severskii) before riding saltworts of the goosefoot family (Atriplex cana, Anabasis back to Mongolia. salsa) dominate, with stands of summer cypress or burn- See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND ing bush (Kochia scoparia) being useful as fodder. Animal THE MONGOL EMPIRE. life is typical of the western Eurasian steppe: ground Further reading: George A. Perfecky, trans., The squirrels, jerboas, mole rats, hamsters, Siberian polecats, Galician-Volynian Chronicle (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, corsac foxes, and wolves. In 1970 saiga antelope num- 1973). bered 200,000 but are now fewer than 18,000. Birds include lark, wheatear, partridge, bustard, tawny eagle (Aquila rapax), and saker falcon (Falco cherrug). Kalmucks See KALMYKS. Rural population densities range from around 1.4 persons per square kilometer (3.6 per square mile) in the Kalmyk Republic The Kalmyk Republic, or Kalmykia, center and southeast to more than 11 persons per square is the homeland of the KALMYKS, a branch of the OIRATS, kilometer (28.5 per square mile) around Lake Manych- or West Mongols living along the Caspian Sea, and a Gudilo. About 3.3 persons per square kilometer (8.6 per component republic of the Russian Federation. Europe’s square mile) inhabit the Yergeni Highlands and the north, only Buddhist and Mongolian-speaking people, the and about 4.7 per square kilometer (12.2 per square Kalmykia The Kalmyk ASSR before the Exile KAZAKHSTAN Vo New Saray (ruins) lga Volgograd R. Volg aR . Elista Akh tub Ye aR . d r g e Caspian Sea bö r n i Dö Saray (ruins) r se s R. Don Le Sal R. Buzava Rostov na Donu (before 1920) H i g h l hud Khos ov Astrakhan Az a n d of S ea Lake Manych-Gudilo Elista To G re Black Lands rg ater Dörböd hu d Gorodovikovsk Kaspiyskiy To rg h u d Caspian Sea Elitsa Capital of a region or RUSSIAN FEDERATION autonomous republic KAZAKHSTAN Independent countries Kuma R. Kyrgyz Peoples and “tribes” (sub-ethnic groups) of the Kalmyks Stavropol’ Boundary of the Kalmyk Republic Nogays within the Russian Federation Boundary of the Russian Federation Nogays 0 100 miles R . ek er T 0 100 km Kalmyk Republic 285 mile) inhabit the Caspian littoral. In 1989 the republic’s Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR). From 1935 to the only significant cities or towns included the capital, 1943 exile and from the 1958 return to 1992, Kalmykia ELISTA (89,682 residents), Kaspiyskiy (15,770 residents), was officially an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and Gorodovikovsk (12,016 residents); together with (ASSR), again within the RSFSR. (The RSFSR was itself “urban-type communities” as small as 3,900 people, they one of the 15 “union republics” forming the Soviet accounted for 46 percent of the population. During the Union.) The difference between these two statuses was post-Soviet transition only Elista has grown relatively and largely symbolic; as a republic the ASSR had a constitu- absolutely, while the population of the minor towns has tion, a (rarely used) flag and seal, and a government that fallen even more rapidly that that of the countryside. By imitated the form and titles of the government in 2001 the urban percentage fell to an estimated 42 per- Moscow. Kalmykia and the other ASSRs lacked the cent, while Elista’s share of the population grew from 28 (entirely theoretical) “right to secede” possessed by the percent in 1989 to about 35 percent. “union republics,” evidence of their lesser importance, When it was first formed as an administrative region, which rankled until the end of the Soviet Union. Kalmykia was more than 75 percent Kalmyk in popula- Autonomy in Kalmykia, as everywhere in the Soviet tion. This had decreased to 48.6 percent in 1939, before Union, was strictly limited by Communist Party supervi- the exile in 1943. The return of the Kalmyks after their sion, the FIVE-YEAR PLAN governing all economic activi- exoneration in 1957 was rather slow, but by 1970 the ties, and the ideological control of all media. Soviet republic was 41.1 percent Kalmyk. Since then the autonomy was thus not a matter of autonomous politico- Kalmyks’ higher birthrate has boosted their percentage of economic decision making but of officially directed mul- the population to 45.4 percent (1989). Traditionally, the ticulturalism. The key planks in this regime involved Kalmyks were divided into Dörböd, Torghud, and preferential policies benefiting Kalmyk cadres (in both Khoshud tribes, each with its own territory. Political elective and appointive positions), special Kalmyk-lan- events in the early 19th century split the DÖRBÖDS in two. guage classes in grade schools, and official subsidies for Before the exile the Lesser Dörböd occupied the Yergeni Kalmyk publications, performing arts, and scholarship. Hills, the Greater Dörböds the area around Lake Manych- While preferential policies rapidly produced a new Gudilo, the KHOSHUDS the land along the lower Volga, Kalmyk Communist leadership in the 1920s, Kalmyk- and the TORGHUDS the central Black Lands territories as language education remained limited. With the return well as the Caspian coast and the Volga north of the from exile, “nationality classes” in Kalmyk language were Khoshuds. briefly revived but in 1963 were canceled. From then on, Kalmykia’s non-Kalmyk population is primarily Rus- although a newspaper, literary magazine, and a small sian and other Slavic peoples (39.3 percent in 1989). number of books were published in Kalmyk, there was no Cossacks are an active presence in Kalmykia and include formal Kalmyk-medium instruction. both Russians and descendants of the Buzava Kalmyk With the breakup of the party-state and the disinte- Cossacks, who were deported from their original territo- gration of communism, Kalmykia, like many other ries on the Don after the end of the Russian civil war. autonomous areas, declared itself sovereign. The Kalmyk Since the establishment of a Moravian colony at Sarepta and Russian languages were given equal official status in the 18th century, there has also been a small German (October 1990), and in 1992 the Kalmyk ASSR was population, 5,586 in 1989. About 26,600 various Muslim renamed the Kalmyk Republic with a new seal and flag. A Caucasus peoples (Dargva, Chechens, Avars, Kumyks) new constitution created a directly elected president and also lived in Kalmykia in 1989; since then their numbers vice president with seven-year terms, a 27-member uni- have been swelled by refugees from the Chechen war. cameral legislature, the People’s (or National) Khural (Assembly), with a four-year term, and a government AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM with 15 ministries and a chairman. Official multicultural In 1920 Kalmykia was created as an autonomous unit. policies were revived, with the restoration of Kalmyk as a The territory was carved out of Astrakhan province west subject in 1991 and Kalmyk-language grade school edu- of the Volga and Stavropol’ province around Lake cation in 1993. Manych-Gudilo, home of the Greater Dörböds. In 1943, Since April 1993 the Kalmyk presidency has been with the exile of the Kalmyks, the republic’s territory was held by the Kalmyk millionaire Kirsan N. Ilümzhinov (b. divided between Stavropol’ and Astrakhan. With the 1962), who has developed a pervasive personality cult. In return of the Kalmyks in 1957, the old territory was 1998 he also assumed the position of chairman of the restored with the exception of two districts along the government. President Ilümzhinov has pursued an ambi- Volga River and a small piece of territory in Dagestan. tious and eccentric economic and social policy while The loss of these territories, which contain the historic securing dissolving opposition parties and controlling the Khoshud Khural (Buddhist temple), is still resented. economy. The murder of Larissa Iudinova, the editor of From 1920 to 1935 and in 1957–58 Kalmykia was an the only opposition newspaper, has remained unsolved. autonomous region (oblast’) within the Russian Soviet Under Ilümzhinov Kalmyks occupy perhaps 90 percent of 286 Kalmyk-Oirat language and scripts official positions, and criticism of his rule is often seen as short tons) in 2002. Fisheries on the Caspian Sea are also criticism of Kalmyk autonomy. He won reelection for a an important industry, in which Kalmyks have partici- seven-year term in October 1995, with 85 percent of the pated since the 18th century. vote (there was no opponent). Due to his alliance with Kalmyk industry is largely based on processing ani- the Russian president Boris Yeltsin’s network, federal sub- mal products: meat, butter, canned food including fish, sidies amounted to 32 percent of the republic’s budget in knitted goods, and leather. A machine-tools plant was 1998. Since 1999, however, President Ilümzhinov has developed in Kaspiyskiy, and small construction indus- strongly resisted the recentralization policies of the new tries were developed in the city centers. Since the 1990s Russian president, Vladimir Putin, while growing internal wool-processing and leather plants have received some opposition forced him into a runoff against another West European investment. Kalmyk candidate in 2002, which Ilümzhinov ultimately By 1971 the new petroleum industry extracted 352,000 won with 57 percent of the vote. metric tons (388,013 short tons) of petroleum and 549 million cubic meters (19,387.8 million cubic feet) of natu- ECONOMY ral gas. Proven and probable reserves are currently esti- The Kalmyk economy is based on livestock and mining, mated at 5.5 billion metric tons (6.1 billion short tons) of principally oil and natural gas. In the 1970s 64 percent of petroleum and 520 billion cubic meters (18,400 billion the 5.3 million hectares (13.1 million acres) of agricul- cubic feet) of natural gas, although major technical over- tural land was given over to pasture, 11 percent to hay haul will be necessary to exploit most of this. mowing, 9 percent fodder crops, and only 8 percent to Kalmyk living standards remain among Russia’s low- grain crops. Agriculture and herding were collectivized in est, with income only 38 percent of Russia’s average (the the 1930s and in the late 1990s 62 percent of rural eco- subsistence level is 10 percent lower than Russia’s aver- nomic enterprises were agricultural cooperatives (essen- age). Unemployment is one of the highest in the nation tially the old collective farms renamed), and 24 percent (13.3 percent in 1996). Infant mortality, however, is 18 were state owned. per 1,000 live births, lower than in Buriatia (20 per The traditional Kalmyk herd included GOATS and fat- 1,000) or Mongolia (58 per 1,000). While the republic’s tailed SHEEP (735,000 in 1916), cattle (259,000 in 1916), population continues to fall due to emigration, it is actu- HORSES, and CAMELS. Soviet development emphasized the ally one of only 10 Russian regions, mostly minority exploitation of fine-haired caracul (Astrakhan) sheep. By areas, where births outnumber deaths. 1941 sheep and goat numbers rose to 1,046,200, while See also DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION. CATTLE numbers dropped to 212,900. Wool production was 3,700 metric tons (4,079 short tons) in 1940. By 1971, after the return of the Kalmyks, sheep and goat numbers Kalmyk-Oirat language and scripts Oirat, or reached 2,462,700 and cattle numbers 352,200; wool Kalmyk, is spoken by people of Oirat Mongolian ancestry production that year was 13,600 metric tons (14,991 in Kalmykia (Russia), Xinjiang (China), and western short tons). In 1991 the herd peaked at 3,150,600 head of Mongolia and Qinghai (China). This speech can be sheep and goats and 357,900 head of cattle. The exces- treated as either a relatively divergent dialect of Mongo- sive numbers of sheep caused widespread desertification, lian or a closely related language. (The term Kalmyk was amplified by the sharper hooves of the caracul sheep. The used first by the Turks and Russians for all OIRATS. Today, area covered by dunes expanded from 2–3 percent of the however, it is generally used only for those Oirats in republic in 1959 to 33 percent in 1985, and fodder crop- Kalmykia on the Volga.) ping was expanded to make up for pasture degradation. Since 1991 these environmental problems and the DISTRIBUTION AND SOCIOLINGUISTICS general Soviet economic crisis slashed sheep and goat Where uninfluenced by modern Mongolian (whether numbers to 830,000 and cattle numbers to 144,800 in KHALKHA or Inner Mongolian), Oirat, or Kalmyk, is usu- 1998. Wool production in 1995 was little more than ally hard for a Mongolian speaker to understand. Only in 3,000 metric tons (3,307 short tons). Horses numbered Kalmykia, however, is Mongolian influence entirely 13,000. In recent years, in response to environmental absent, although it is relatively weak in Xinjiang. In west- destruction, efforts have been made to reintroduce the ern Mongolia and among the UPPER MONGOLS of Qinghai, traditional Kalmyk fat-tailed sheep as well as two- Khalkha and standard Inner Mongolian, respectively, humped camels, which now number 370. have heavily influenced the speech. Sociolinguistically, Grain farming, mostly of winter wheat, was devel- the speech of the KALMYKS must be considered a separate oped in the west in the Yergeni Hills. The total harvest language from Mongolian, while those of western Mon- reached 416,000 metric tons (458,561 short tons) in golia and Qinghai are clearly only dialects. That of Xin- 1971, almost double that of 1940. In 2000 the harvest jiang is in an intermediate stage. had declined to 228,000 metric tons (251,327 short Kalmyks in the KALMYK REPUBLIC number approxi- tons), before increasing to 432,000 metric tons (476,198 mately 146,300 (1989 figures), while Oirats and Oirat- Kalmyk-Oirat language and scripts 287 influenced Mongols in Xinjiang number approximately tai), and the old preverbal negative particle es is still 138,000 (1990 figures), in Qinghai and Gansu approxi- used. In verb conjugations, however, Kalmyk-Oirat, like mately 79,600 (1990 figures), and in western Mongolia Buriat, has developed new personal conjugations from approximately 168,000 (1989 figures). postposed pronouns: yowlaw, “I went” (from yowla, Information on native language use is harder to find. “went” + bi, “I”), irläwdn, “we came” (from irlä, “came” + From 1926 to 1989 the percentage of Kalmyks claiming bidn, “we”). Kalmyk as their native language dropped from 99.3 per- In vocabulary the Oirat dialects show significant cent to 90.0 percent, but the latter figure expresses ide- divergences. Kalmyk has an obvious heavy influence als, not reality. Sociological investigation shows that the from Russian, but also a number of Turkish and even generation born around 1935 to 1955 spoke mostly Caucasian words as well, while Upper Mongolian in “kitchen” Kalmyk, and those born after then often spoke Qinghai has some distinctive Tibetan words. Many of little or no Kalmyk. In 1963 grade school “national common Mongolian words have distinctive Kalmyk-Oirat classes,” taught partly in Kalmyk, were discontinued and forms sometimes shared with Buriat. Mongolian legends were revived only in 1993. The one Kalmyk language of the 17th century described how the Kalmyk-Oirat newspaper, Khal’mag ünn (Kalmyk truth), despite gov- word for fermented mare’s milk, chigän (cf. Mongolian ernment subsidy, publishes irregularly, has a regular Rus- airag; see KOUMISS), was one imposed on the defeated sian-language section, and finds it hard to attract Oirats by MANDUKHAI SECHEN KHATUN (fl. 1475–1501). advertisers. In Qinghai only those Upper Mongols living in SCRIPTS Haixi, or less than 40 percent, actually speak their ethnic Until the 20th century Kalmyk-Oirat was written in language, with the rest speaking Tibetan. In Qinghai, as Kalmykia, Xinjiang, and for some purposes in western in Kalmykia, there have been conscious programs of lan- Mongolia with the CLEAR SCRIPT, a modified version of guage revival since the 1980s. In Xinjiang virtually all the the vertical UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. The 1920s were a Oirat Mongols speak their own language. time of script reform throughout the Soviet Union. In 1925 the Kalmyks adopted a Cyrillic script, while the DISTINCTIVE FEATURES Turkic peoples adopted the Latin script. In 1930 Latiniza- The Persian historian RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH in 1304 tion was made general Soviet policy for the non-Russian already noted the distinctive Oirat dialect. As found peoples, and the Kalmyks adopted a Latin script. With today, Kalmyk-Oirat phonology combines both archaic the encouragement of Russian nationalism under Joseph and progressive features. Archaic features include inter- Stalin, the Cyrillic script was reintroduced to the vocalic labials already lost in Mongolian by the 14th cen- Kalmyks in 1938. With the exile in 1943, Kalmyk lan- tury, for example in kümn, “person” (cf. Mongolian guage spent 13 years underground. Only after the return khün), and öwr, “one’s own” (cf. Mongolian öör). Kalmyk- to Kalmykia in 1957 was a slightly modified Cyrillic Oirat also preserves the forward articulation of the script reintroduced, one still in use today. rounded vowels (Kalmyk uul, “mountain,” is actually The 1925 script pioneered most of the features that pronounced similarly to Mongolian üül, “cloud”) and the were to distinguish Cyrillic Kalmyk from Cyrillic Buriat k before front vowels, as in ken, “who” (cf. standard or Mongolian: elimination of short, noninitial vowels Khalkha khen). and representation of noninitial long vowels by a single In progressive features, Kalmyk-Oirat shares with vowel, replacement of etymological diphthongs by long Khalkha the splitting of the ch and j into ts/ch and z/j front vowels, separate letters for j, ä, and ng, and use of N depending on the following vowel, although Kalmyk- the “half i” ( ˘ ) for the consonant y (see BURIAT LAN- Oirat z is a fricative, unlike the affricate dz of Khalkha. It GUAGE AND SCRIPTS; CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MONGOLIAN). In also forms the accusative in -ig (cf. Mongolian -iig, but 1928 the letters representing ä, ö, ü, j, and ng were Buriat -iiye). Kalmyk-Oirat is particularly progressive in altered, and a new letter was introduced to represent gh. its palatalization of back vowels and has turned all diph- The subsequent 1930 Latin script and the 1938 and thongs into long front vowels. Palatalization is accompa- 1957 Cyrillic scripts represented Kalmyk phonology in nied by a switching of vowel harmony. Thus, mörn, basically the same way, although the Cyrillic scripts var- “horse,” in Kalmyk is a front word, while its Mongolian ied in the letters used to represent the non-Russian cognate mor˘ı is a back. Finally, like the old dialects of the sounds before settling on the present system. Since 1991 western part of the MONGOL EMPIRE and Mogholi, the clear script has again been taught in Kalmyk schools Kalmyk-Oirat flattens noninitial rounded vowels, so that in Russia. dolo’an, “seven,” for example, develops not into doloon See also MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE; MONGOLIC LANGUAGE (Mongolian, Buriat), but rather dolan. FAMILY. In morphology as well Kalmyk-Oirat shows a combi- Further reading: György Kara, Early Kalmyk Primers nation of archaic and progressive features. The ancient and Other Schoolbooks: Samples from Textbooks 1925–1930 comitative case -lugha is preserved as lä (cf. Mongolian (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1997). 288 Kalmyks Kalmyks (Kalmucks) The Kalmyks on the Volga form Oirat and imposed on all the nobility (noyods) and petty the westernmost body of Mongolian peoples and the only officials (zaisangs). Official pressure toward Christian Mongolian or Buddhist people in Europe. The Kalmyks conversion became strong. Only in 1735, when the Rus- originated as a branch of the Oirat, or West Mongols, sian authorities dismissed Tseren-Dondug and enthroned people around the ALTAI RANGE and the Zünghar (Jung- his independent-minded but able nephew Dondug-Ombo gar) basin. The OIRATS dominated Mongolia in the 15th (r. 1735–41), did internal peace return to the Kalmyks. century and were known by the Turks as Qalmaqs. This Under Dondug-Dashi (r. 1741–61), however, more term spread in the form “Kalmyk” to the Russians, who subtle Russian political and socioeconomic pressure used it for all the Oirats, including those settled in the increased. Dondug-Dashi had to revise the 1640 MONGOL- Caspian steppe after 1630. In the late 19th century the OIRAT CODE to deal with the increasingly common cases Oirats in Russia, and they alone, adopted as their self- involving Russians, Cossacks, Nogays, and other out- designation the term Kalmyk (Khalimag or Khal’mg). The siders. Colonization along the Volga deprived the Kalmyk term Kalmyk is thus best restricted to the Volga Oirats. herds of their chief spring pastures. By 1744 10,000 Kalmyk households had lost all their herds, and 6,400 SETTLEMENT were employed in fisheries. As Russian frontiers moved When Astrakhan on the Volga fell to Russian conquest in farther away, the Kalmyks were pressured to commit 1554, the Nogay Turks (see MANGGHUD) occupied the more troops to far-off European campaigns, where there Caspian steppe. In 1608 Oirats of the Khoshud tribe first was little prospect of booty. Catherine the Great raided the Nogays. In 1630 KHOO-ÖRLÖG and his sons of (1762–96) greatly increased the tempo of colonization, the Torghud tribe became the first Oirats to occupy the while instituting reforms to strip Dondug-Dashi’s son Caspian steppe, with about 22,000 households. Later, viceroy Ubashi (r. 1762–71—he was not enthroned as under Khoo-Örlög’s sons Shikür-Daiching (1644–61) and khan) of his remaining real power and independence. Puntsog (1661–69), the Khoshud prince Köndölöng By 1771 viceroy Ubashi and the great Torghud nobles Ubashi (brother of GÜÜSHI KHAN) led 3,000 Khoshud as well as the Khoshud princes descendants from Köndö- households to the Caspian, followed later by his nephew long Ubashi fled east in an effort to reoccupy Züngharia, Ablai and his people. In 1677 the Dörböd Prince Solom- now emptied by the Qing conquest (see FLIGHT OF THE Tseren led 4,000 households of the Dörböd tribe to the KALMYKS). The warm winter kept the Volga from freezing, Caspian. Oirats continued to arrive from the east through and 11,198 households, about one-fourth of the the 1680s. Meanwhile, Torghud camps moved west, Kalmyks, were trapped on the western side, joined by a reaching the Volga around 1648 and crossing it by 1656. small number of households that deserted Ubashi and At first the many new arrivals fought among themselves, turned back. but Puntsog’s son AYUUKI KHAN (1669–1724) welded these disparate elements into a single confederation, IN IMPERIAL RUSSIA about 40,000 to 50,000 households strong. (On political, With the emigration of the core of the Torghud and military, and cultural life in this period, see OIRATS.) Khoshud nobility, the Dörböd princes became the Kalmyks’ de facto spokesmen. Throughout the rest of THE KALMYK KHANATE 1771 the Russian authorities placed garrisons of loyal In 1655 Shikür Daiching first swore an oath of allegiance Kalmyk and Cossack guards among the Dörböd nobles to the czar. These oaths, given in Russian with only a (TAIJI, noyod; see NOYAN), who were suspected of wanting rough translation into Oirat, did not make the Kalmyk to follow the other Kalmyks. On October 19, as Tsebeg rulers subjects, although the demand for hostages, con- Ubashi (d. 1774), the senior Dörböd chief, and the ceded by Shikür Daiching two years later, was seen as remaining Torghud leaders were sent under detention to particularly humiliating. Under Ayuuki Khan the St. Petersburg, Empress Catherine abolished the position Kalmyks received greater respect from the Russians as of Kalmyk khan, or viceroy, making all the taijis sepa- well as a supply of muskets and cannons. When coopera- rately subject to the Astrakhan governor. Catherine tive, the Kalmyks proved extremely effective allies of the implemented her plan to turn the old zarghu (council or czar against nomadic enemies, whether Crimean Tatars, court) into a semilegislative body, with the nobles elect- Nogays, Bashkirs, or rebellious Cossacks. ing zaisangs (officials) from the three tribes and one lama In 1718 Peter the Great (1682–1725) built a series of from the monasteries. forts from the Don to the Volga at Tsaritsyn (modern Vol- In 1786 Catherine’s favorite, P. S. Potemkin, abol- gograd) and established Astrakhan as a new province ished the zarghu and in its place proposed a Kalmyk (guberniia). With the new Russian control of the steppe, quartermaster’s office chaired by a Russian. Subsequently, the governor of Astrakhan tried to impose his candidate 4,880 Dörböds under Prince Ekrem Khapchukov (d. for ruler on the Kalmyks. A compromise allowed Ayuuki’s 1799) fled to the Don, becoming the “Greater” (Iki) Dör- weak son, Tseren-Dondug (r. 1724–35), to be enthroned böds, as opposed to the “Lesser” (Bagha) Dörböds, who at the cost of an oath of allegiance, this time written in remained. The emperors Paul (1796–1801) and Alexan- Kalmyks 289 der I (1801–25) reversed Catherine’s assimilationist poli- cies and revived the zarghu, albeit under the supervision of a Russian pristav (police commissioner). A Lesser Dör- böd prince, Chüchei Tundutov, was made viceroy from 1801 to his death in 1803. The rivalry between the Lesser Dörböds and the Greater Dörböds, who migrated to the steppe around Lake Manych-Gudilo after 1800, proved intractable, however. In 1805 the pristav ordered the Dör- böd households to choose their own lords: 3,302 chose Chüchei’s son Prince Erdeni Tundutov, and only 609 chose Ekrem’s brother, Ghabung-Sharab (d. 1809). Thus, the “Lesser” Dörböds now outnumbered the “Greater” Dörböds. Alexander’s policy of accommodation also extended The Khoshud Khural, a Buddhist temple, was built to com- to the Buzava Kalmyks of the Dörböd tribe, who had set- memorate the Kalmyks who fought against Napoleon in the tled under Baakhan and Baatur taijis near Cherkassk in Russian army. (Lithograph from the 1840s) 1699. In 1806 they were formally included within the Don Cossacks as three units (ulus) and 13 “hundreds” (zun; Russian, sotnia). From 1812 to 1814 three all- gradually reduced from 100 desiatinas (270 acres) in Kalmyk regiments, each about 500 strong, and 2,000 1846 to 10 desiatinas (27 acres) just before World War I. Buzava Kalmyks fought in the Russian army against The Greater Dörböd ulus, which had been assigned to the Napoleon all the way to Paris. One regiment of baptized new Stavropol’ province (guberniia) in 1861, was also Kalmyks from Stavropol’ lost half its men. pushed into farming by heavier land pressure from immi- Russian officials frequently criticized the zarghu for grant farmers and Nogay Turks. keeping few records and deciding cases in the interests of Dondug-Dashi’s laws in the 1740s and the Zinzili the nobility. By 1821 the governor of Astrakhan had decrees of 1822 prescribed punishments for commoners restricted its jurisdiction to civil cases of less than five and petty officials who did not teach their sons the writ- rubles. In 1822, however, the new pristav, A. V. Kakhanov, ten language. Many manjis (young lamas; Mongolian, convened at Zinzili an assembly of Kalmyk noblemen, bandi) studied in the monasteries but then withdrew to lamas, and judges in the zarghu to revise the Mongol- take up family duties before taking higher degrees. Oirat Code. Under Kakhanov’s supervision Erdeni Tun- Among the Buzava a two-year Buddhist parochial school dutov and Serbe-Jab Tümen (1774–1851), a Khoshud was opened in 1838, but by 1890 only four such schools prince and veteran of the Napoleonic wars, drew up a existed. Among the Volga Kalmyks, Russian authorities revised code. Despite opposition from the Russian offi- established in 1847 a system of six-year elementary cials in Astrakhan and the Greater Dörböd ruler, Ochirai schools and a two-year middle school in Astrakhan. The Zanjin Ubashi Khapchukov (d. 1834), the Zinzili decrees inclusion of compulsory Christian education, however, were promulgated by imperial decree in 1828. kept all but wards of the state out of these schools. In the latter half of the 19th century the Kalmyks of Lamas formed a major part of the population, Astrakhan—Lesser Dörböds, KHOSHUDS, and TORGHUDS— among both the Volga and the Buzava Kalmyks. In 1800 remained overwhelmingly nomadic, although pasture the Greater Dörböds, for example, were counted at 7,795 shortages diminished the total head of livestock from 2.5 laymen, 47 zaisangs (commoner officials), and 1,615 million in 1803 to 453,000. Herdless Kalmyks became lamas. Only after 1798 did the Russian authorities per- hired herders for wealthier Kalmyks, grooms for wealthy mit the construction of Buddhist monasteries and tem- Ukrainian or Russian farmers, or worked in the fisheries ples. The Khoshud Khural (monastery; Russian, khurul) or salt industries. Under Alexander III (1881–94) the in Kharabalin district, built to commemorate the Kalmyk government specified the nomadic territories, giving each dead in the war against Napoleon, adapted Russian Kalmyk male 30 desiatinas (81 acres) to encourage culti- architecture for Buddhist purposes. Kalmyk Buddhist vation. Kalmyks generally rented these plots to non- sculpture was crude, but thangka painting was relatively Kalmyk peasants. Armenian merchants who exploited the developed; neither departed from the Indo-Tibetan lack of competition to sell goods at grossly inflated prices canons of religious portraiture. The monastic hierarchy dominated the Kalmyk steppe trade. The nobility, formed among the Buzavas and the Astrakhan Kalmyks was in Russian gymnasia (high schools) and imperial cavalry headed by a bagshi (teacher/master) lama confirmed by regiments, frequently adopted European lifestyles, the Russian authorities. including experimentation with agriculture and improved Despite their complete isolation from Tibet and their stock breeds. The Buzava Kalmyks moved into sedentary kinsfolk to the east from the 1740s onward, the Kalmyks stock breeding and farming as their allotted land was maintained their Buddhist and Oirat literary traditions. The 290 Kalmyks copying, preservation, and instruction in the more accessi- were identical to their Cossack neighbors, an even more ble Buddhist literature and sciences—scriptures, edifying dramatic increase in the number of parochial schools for tales, devotional poems, astrology, and medicine—occupied boys and, for the first time, for girls, occurred: from four most of their attention, as the higher sciences were inac- in 1890 to 37 in 1915 (see NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS). A cessible due to the lack of teachers. Significant works small Kalmyk intelligentsia formed, composed especially include the Dörbön Oyiradiyin tüüke (History of the four of Russian-educated schoolteachers. Discontent focused Oirats), written by the Khoshud nobleman Baatur Ubashi on remaining restrictions on non-Russian education and Tümen from 1801 to 1820 as a continuation and updat- the division of the Kalmyks under Astrakhan, Stavropol’, ing of Ghabang-Sharab’s 1737 History of the Four Oirats, and Don Cossack administration. The election of the and the anonymous Khalimag khaadiyin tuuji (History of princes Tseren David Tundutov of the Lesser Dörböds the Kalmyk khans), covering the time from Khoo-Örlög and S.-D. Tümen of the Khoshud to the Russian Duma in to Ubashi’s flight in 1771. 1906 and 1907 affirmed the continuing influence of the nobility. NATIONAL REVIVAL Connections with the rest of the Mongolian and Bud- The last decades of the 19th century saw the Kalmyks dhist worlds were also revived. Kalmyks made regular begin to aspire toward achievement in the wider Russian pilgrimages to Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) from society. The legal privileges of the nobility were abolished 1880. The surreptitious pilgrimage of Baaza-Bagshi in 1892, eliminating the remaining Astrakhan Kalmyk Menkejuev (monastic name Lubsang-Sharab, 1846–1903) administrative autonomy. The government school system to Tibet in 1891–94 and the visits by the Buriat lama increased by 1914 to 31 schools attended by 679 pupils. AGWANG DORZHIEV revived the scholarly study of Bud- Among the Buzava, whose material culture and economy dhism. The 1916 didactic poem Chiknä khujr (Ornament Kalmyk princess Ölzätä Tundutov (Lesser Dörböd), seated with her elbow on the table, and her entourage, 1892. Her husband was Tseren David Tundutov. (Courtesy estate of G. J. Ramstedt and WSOY) Kalmyks 291 of the ear) by Boowan Badma (1880–1917) showed the and in 1925 Lubsang-Sharab Tepkin (b. 1875), who had vitality of traditional Buddhist literary genres. spent 10 years in Tibet, was elected by the Kalmyk clergy The 1905 revolution saw the first signs of Kalmyk as shajin lama. political activism with the short-lived organization “Banner Collectivization beginning in 1929, and the Stalinist of the Kalmyk Populists” (Khal’mg tangghchin tug), active purges inflicted great hardship on the Kalmyk people, in 1907–08. The removal of restrictions on non-Russian despite the symbolic elevation of the Kalmyk Autonomous education after 1905 promoted the further development of Region to the status of Autonomous Soviet Socialist the new intelligentsia. With the overthrow of the czar in Republic (ASSR) in October 1935. By 1937 the Kalmyks 1917, Kalmyk intellectuals and activists put forward con- were completely sedentarized. From 1928 to 1935 resis- flicting demands either for merger with the Don Cossack tance to collectivization caused the number of livestock host or for an ethnically based autonomy. From November to drop by about half, while the Kalmyk population itself 1917 Kalmyks in Astrakhan began the first Kalmyk weekly, showed basically no increase from 1926 to 1939. Öördiyin zanggi (Oirat news), with a benediction (yöräl; Kalmykia’s percentage of Kalmyks dropped from 75.6 see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL) by Boowan Badma and the folk- percent in 1926 to 48.6 percent in 1939. In 1930 the first lorist Nomto Ochirov (d. 1960) on the masthead. of a series of waves of repression struck Buddhist monas- Only after the Bolshevik seizure of power in teries. Lubsang-Sharab Tepkin was arrested in 1931, and Astrakhan on February 7, 1918, did the Communists find the last monastery was closed down in 1939. Stalin’s any recruits among the Kalmyks. The succeeding civil purges also carried away native Communists such as war destroyed the Buzava Kalmyk community, the great Amur-Sanan. majority of whom fought with the Cossacks for the Despite the progress during the 1920s in building Whites. With the victory of the Red Army early in 1920, schools in the republic, Kalmyk educational rates numerous massacres of Kalmyk refugees occurred, and remained poor. Only 25.9 persons per thousand had about 1,500 went into exile in Europe. The Buzava com- completed secondary education, a rate lower not only munity, 32,283-strong in 1897, was reduced to 10,750 by than the Russians’ (81.4 per thousand), but also the BURI- 1920, and the Kalmyks as a whole dropped from 190,600 ATS’ (46.4). In 1926 only 12.2 percent of the Kalmyks in 1897 to 133,500 in 1926. The Kalmyks remained an were literate, and of them only one-quarter in Kalmyk almost entirely rural population, with only 1.3 percent rather than Russian. Literacy reached 59.2 percent in living in cities. 1939, but the three greater or lesser script changes for Kalmyk from 1928 to 1938 made it likely that most were SOVIET RULE AND EXILE literate in Russian. With the establishment of Soviet rule throughout During WORLD WAR II Kalmyk soldiers formed the Kalmykia, the Kalmyk territory was organized into a Soviet Red Army’s 189th Kalmyk Cavalry Regiment and Kalmyk Autonomous Region (oblast’) on November 4, the 110th Kalmyk Detached Cavalry Division. As Soviet 1920, with its capital in the neighboring city of troops abandoned Kalmykia, bands of Kalmyk deserters Astrakhan. The borders were expanded to include the began seizing control. In late 1942 German troops occu- Greater Dörböd ulus near Lake Manych-Gudilo, and the pied Elista and other parts of Kalmykia. As in many other remnants of the Buzava and other isolated Kalmyk bodies areas of the Soviet Union, they were welcomed by were moved into the Kalmyk region in 1922–25. Given Kalmyk locals, often even Communist Party members, as the paucity of Kalmyk Communists—the first regional liberators from the Soviet regime. Exiles such as Prince conference of the Communist Party opened only in N. Tundutov encouraged support for the Germans. When February 1921—the few pre-1921 Kalmyk Red Army the Germans evacuated Kalmykia in January 1943, more commanders and intellectuals such as Vasilii Alekseevich than 3,000 Kalmyks in the Kalmyk Cavalry Corps fol- Khomutnikov (1890–1945) and Anton Amur-Sanan lowed them, fighting rear-guard actions against the Soviet (1888–1940) were swiftly promoted. The Soviet army Red Army from Kalmykia to Poland. Others worked as also rapidly organized a volunteer international unit manual laborers. About 250 of these displaced Kalmyks under Kharti Badievich Kanukov (1883–1933) to accom- survived the war and joined the surviving prewar exiles pany the Red Army into Mongolia in 1921–25. Not until in France and the United States. 1927, however, were Kalmyks subjected to conscription. In Kalmykia, sporadic attacks on the returned Soviet The traditional CLEAR SCRIPT was replaced in 1925 by authorities continued through the summer of 1943. the Cyrillic script, as some Kalmyk intellectuals had pro- Heeding accusations from the local Russian party cadres posed before the revolution. Schooling was established in that the Kalmyks were hereditarily disloyal to the regime, the Kalmyk language through the fourth year, and pro- the Soviet government on December 27, 1943, abolished grams were initiated for the elimination of the common the Kalmyk ASSR, and in a military operation lasting four diseases tuberculosis and syphilis. In 1927 the Kalmyk days exiled the entire Kalmyk civilian population to region’s capital was moved from Astrakhan to ELISTA Western and Central Siberia, Central Asia, and Sakhalin (Kalmyk, Elstä). A number of monasteries still operated, Island. The many thousands of Kalmyk soldiers in the 292 Kalmyks Red Army were demoted to labor battalions until the end more controversial Buddhist past. Not surprisingly after of the war, when they were demobilized to join their fam- the exile, the Kalmyks had relatively low educational ilies in exile. achievement (29.8 percent with higher or secondary edu- Housing, when they arrived, was often nonexistent cation, compared to 50.8 percent for Russians and 42.7 and food rations not paid, while the climate and work percent for Buriats) and a mediocre representation in were completely unfamiliar. An estimated 16,017 skilled professions (92 of 1,000 Kalmyks, compared to Kalmyks perished directly in the deportation and after- 135 for Russians and 157 for Buriats, 1970 figures). Even math, and the total population decreased from 134,400 in so, modern Kalmyk literature, which had developed on 1939 to 106,000 in 1959. All cultural monuments of the Russian models since the 1920s, achieved maturity in the Kalmyk people, with the sole exception of the Khoshud distinguished poems of David Kugul’tinov (in Kalmyk, Khural, with its Russian patriotic theme, were razed, and Kögltin Dawa, b. 1922), well known in Russia, Mongolia, the Kalmyks were expunged from the Soviet public con- and other countries. sciousness. In the late 1980s pluralism and glasnost’ (openness) During the exile, Kalmyks were restricted to special began in Kalmykia as in other non-Russian areas of the settlements (spetsposelenie). Under the regulations for Soviet Union in protests over environmental policy. Con- perpetual exile formalized in 1948, these special settlers cern about destruction of pasture lands led to public had to register once a month with the security police and demonstrations against the Volga-Chograi canal project, could not travel more than three kilometers from their which was canceled in spring 1989. The transfer of AIDS place of residence without prior permission. Roadblocks to 75 children and 16 adults in a children’s hospital in around the settlements checked for violators. Elista, Russia’s only mass outbreak of AIDS, focused At first special settlers lived in tents as apartments attention on the often dangerously low quality of public were built. Work was limited to manual labor; Kalmyks services. Films and literary works publicly raised the in Siberia worked in fisheries and logging. Schooling was issue of the scars of deportation and exile. Increased con- only slowly provided and in Russian only. Virtually no tact with the outside world also raised national con- Kalmyks received any higher education before the relax- sciousness. In August 1990 Kalmyk delegations from the ation of the special regime in 1953, and few even then. United States and France visited Kalmykia for the first time, and since then contacts with the Kalmyk diaspora REHABILITATION AND REVIVAL have become regular. The visit in August 1991 of the As part of de-Stalinization, the system of special registra- Dalai Lama and the Telo Tulku Rinpoche, an INCARNATE tion was relaxed in 1955. On January 7, 1957 the exile of LAMA found among the American Kalmyks, gave vital the Kalmyks was revoked, and the Kalmyk Autonomous impetus to the revival of Buddhism, which had begun Region was restored within most of its previous frontiers. locally in 1990. The suppressed claims for recognition of The exiles were not allowed to claim lost property, how- the exile period were finally met with Moscow’s decree ever, and temporarily had to be housed in tents and bar- that victims could seek financial compensation and with racks until new housing was built. The next year the construction of a vast monument to the repressed Kalmykia was again made an ASSR. Since their return, the near Elista. Kalmyks have grown to be 45 percent of Kalmykia’s popu- Nationality classes in the Kalmyk language have been lation. During the postexile period the Kalmyks for the restored since 1991, and the clear script is also taught as first time in the 20th century entered a period of relatively a topic. Connections have been restored with the Oirats normal demographic and economic growth, with the pop- of Xinjiang. The Kalmyk Republic treats both Kalmyk ulation of Kalmyks reaching 174,000 in 1989. The Buddhism and Russian Orthodoxy as state religions. The restored Kalmyk population was much more urban than theory of “enlargement of didactic units” for math educa- before the exile, with more than 20 percent living in cities. tion, developed by the Kalmyk professor of pedagogy The Kalmyks are one of Russia’s few minorities that are Purvä M. Erdniev, is officially encouraged as a Kalmyk not distinctively rural in population. By 1970 44.3 percent contribution to educational science. The annual summer of Kalmyks lived in towns of more than 15,000, higher festival, “Jangghariad,” with ARCHERY, javelin-throwing, than the percentage of Kalmyks in the republic as a whole. WRESTLING, and HORSE RACING on a 35-kilometer (21 Despite the rehabilitation, a shamed and frightened mile) course has been revived. silence precluded discussion of the 13-year exile both in Politically, the weakening of central control led the public and, for many, in private as well. Kalmyk identity Kalmyk ASSR on October 18, 1990, to a symbolic decla- focused on events in a Russian patriotic narrative: the ration of sovereignty. With the breakup of the Soviet first oaths of allegiance to the czar in 1659, the Kalmyk Union and the fall of Communist Party rule, Kalmykia participation in Russia’s defense against Napoleon, was proclaimed the KALMYK REPUBLIC, or Khal’mg tang- Pushkin’s verses on the Kalmyks, and Lenin’s Kalmyk ghch (Kalmyk Nation), on February 20, 1992, but gen- grandmother. Interest in Kalmyk culture and folklore uine secession from Russia was never seriously focused particularly on the JANGGHAR epic rather than the contemplated. In 1994 the so-called Steppe Code Kazakhs 293 renounced secession and recognized Kalmykia’s integra- Mongol DARUGHACHI (overseer) there for several years. tion within Russia. After several delays a charismatic Around the same time, a Kashmiri Buddhist master the nonparty Kalmyk millionaire and CHESS enthusiast of Mongols called Otochi (physician) and his brother Namo Buzava background, Kirsan N. Ilümzhinov (Iliumzhinov, arrived at the court of ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41). GÜYÜG Ilyumzhinov, b. 1962), won election as president of the Khan (1246–49) employed Otochi as a court physician, new republic on April 11, 1993. Ilümzhinov’s model of a while MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) made Namo chief of all new corporatist state was at first wildly popular with the Buddhist monks. Kalmyks despite charges in Russian liberal newspapers of By that time the Kashmiris had revolted, and gross corruption and intimidation of the press. Since Möngke appointed Sali of the TATARS to replace the 1999, however, significant opposition has emerged. deceased Huqutur, sending Otochi as envoy and See also CLOTHING AND DRESS; DAMBIJANTSAN; DANCE; darughachi to Kashmir. The Kashmiri king killed Otochi EPICS; JEWELRY; KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS; when he entered Srinagar; Sali invaded again, killing the MUSIC; RELIGION; WEDDINGS; WHITE MONTH; YURTS. king and deporting vast numbers of captives for himself Further reading: Fred Adelman, “Kalmyk Cultural and for HÜLE’Ü (1256–65), the Mongol ruler in Iran. In Renewal” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1960); 1273 the new Kashmiri king Lakshmanadeva consented Sandji Balykov, A Maiden’s Honor: A Tale of Kalmyk His- to dual investiture by the Il-Khan in the Middle East and tory and Society, trans. David Chavchavadze (Blooming- the great khan in East Asia. Kashmiri baqshis, or Bud- ton, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1990); Sandji Balykov, dhist masters, received warm welcomes among the Mon- Stronger than Power: A Collection of Short Stories, trans. gol rulers in Iran and China. While Sali and his David Chavchavadze (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Soci- descendants paid allegiance to Hüle’ü, the QARA’UNAS of ety, 1990); Arash Bormanshinov, “Who Were the Afghanistan, as independent freebooters, were friendly to Buzâva?” Mongolian Studies 10 (1986–87): 59–87; the less orderly CHAGHATAY KHANATE of Central Asia. In Stephen A. Halkovic, Jr., Mongols of the West (Blooming- 1320 a Qara’una Mongol named Dulucha, based in Kan- ton: Indiana University, 1985); Hans S. Kaarsberg, Among dahar, invaded with 60,000 men and demanded tax and the Kalmyks of the Steppe, trans. John R. Krueger (Bloom- tribute. Although the Kashmiri king, Suhadeva ington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1996); Michael Khodark- (1300–20), paid the tax, Dulucha plundered the king- ovsky, Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the dom and enslaved vast numbers of men. The Tibetan Kalmyk Nomads, 1600–1771 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Uni- Rinchana (Rin-chen) invaded the weakened kingdom versity Press, 1992); Aleksandr M. Nekrich, The Punished that same year and, having converted to Islam, began the Peoples, trans. George Saunders (New York: W. W. Nor- Islamization of Kashmir. ton, 1978); Paula Rubel, Kalmyk Mongols: A Study in Con- See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; INDIA AND tinuity and Change (Bloomington: Indiana University, THE MONGOLS. 1967); N. L. Zhukovskaia, “Republic of Kalmykia: A Further reading: Karl Jahn, “A Note on Kashmir and Painful Path of National Renewal,” Russian Social Science the Mongols,” Central Asiatic Journal 2 (1956): 176–180. Review 34 (1993): 80–96. Kazakhs While Muslim and Turkic speaking, the Ka- Kangyur See BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR. zakhs emerged as a people from the breakup of the MON- GOL EMPIRE and have been in constant contact, both warlike and peaceful, with Oirats and Khalkha Mongols. Kanjur See BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR. Today they form Mongolia’s largest non-Mongol minority. ORIGINS Kara Balgassun See ORDU-BALIGH. The Kazakh aristocracy reckons its descent from Toqa- Temür, the 13th son of CHINGGIS KHAN’s son JOCHI (d. Kara Khitay See QARA-KHITAI. 1225?). The descendants of Toqa-Temür seized power over the BLUE HORDE in modern Kazakhstan under Urus Khan (d. 1377) but were driven east by the Uzbeks Kashmir Kashmir was repeatedly ravaged by Mongol (Özbegs) under the rival Shibanid line in the mid-15th armies, but Kashmiri Buddhist monks received a rich century. Urus Khan’s descendants became qazaqs, “free- welcome at the courts of the Mongol khans. While the booters,” around the modern Xinjiang-Kazakhstan bor- sultanate of Delhi ruled northern India (Hindustan to der. (Kazakh is simply the Russian pronunciation of Islamic writers), the vale of Kashmir in the Himalayas, qazaq, a term that also gave rise to the designation Cos- with its capital at Srinagar, was the only major Hindu- sack.) Under Qasim Khan (d. 1523) the Kazakhs rose to Buddhist kingdom in northern India. Sometime after power again and eventually drove both the Uzbeks and 1235 Huqutur, a tümen (10,000) commander based in the rulers of MOGHULISTAN south to the oasis cities of Qonduz (Afghanistan), invaded Kashmir, stationing a Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) and the Tarim Basin. 294 Kazakhs Kazakh tribal and CLAN NAMES show their mixed ori- greater mobility, better weapons, and better Russian-lan- gins. JALAYIR, Qunghrat, Manghit, Dughlat (Dogholad) guage skills than did the XINJIANG MONGOLS, dominated and, of course, Chinggisid Qiyat clan names are of Mon- border trading and smuggling. golian origin (see BORJIGID, MANGGHUD, QONGGIRAD). The By 1862 Kerey Kazakhs of the Middle Zhüz first Nayman, Kerey, Qara-Qitay, Tangut, and Arghin (Arghun) appeared in western Mongolia’s Khowd frontier. The clans are descended from conquered steppe peoples of Qing court granted them provisional recognition there the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU subjugated by the Mongols and in 1882. Legal disputes continued as the Kazakh popu- brought west with the Mongol conquest (see KEREYID, lation advanced at the expense of the indigenous ALTAI NAIMAN, ÖNGGÜD, QARA-KHITAI, and XIA DYNASTY). QAR- URIYANGKHAI. LUQS, QIPCHAQS, and Qanglis were the native Turkish During the 20th century Kazakhs began moving into tribes of the area. Other tribal names are of obscure ori- pastures in Barköl, Gansu, and even Qinghai on the gin. The Kazakh language is a dialect of Common Turk- Tibetan plateau. The Kazakhs generally kept the upper ish and shares with Tatar, Baskir (Bashkurt), and other hand in frequent clashes with the original Oirat Mongo- Turkish languages of the Qipchaq family the change of lian inhabitants. In 1949 the new Chinese Communist initial y- to j- or zh- (thus zheti, “seven,” and zhïl, “year,” administration began fixing separate settlements for the not yeti or yïl). Kazakhs and the Mongol nomads. The Kazakhs’ higher birthrate continues to increase their share of the popula- WARS WITH THE OIRATS tion even in Mongol autonomous units. From their emergence in the 15th century the Kazakhs faced the OIRATS (whom they, like all Turkish peoples, KAZAKHS OF MONGOLIA called KALMYKS) on their eastern frontier. During the 16th In July 1912 a Kerey Kazakh leader, Sükirbay, on behalf century the Kazakhs pushed the Oirats north toward of 400 families requested that the Kazakhs be allowed to southern Siberia, but in the 17th century the Oirats con- stay in newly independent Mongolia. This request was quered Züngharia (Junggar Basin) and the Ili Valley and granted and land set aside for a Kazakh banner in mod- attacked the Kazakhs. Under TSEWANG RABTAN KHUNG- ern BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE. Other Kazakh bands, however, TAIJI (b. 1663, r. 1694–1727) and Galdan-Tseren (r. continued to ignore the border between Mongolia and 1727–45) the Oirats’ Zünghar principality smashed the Xinjiang, now under the Republic of China, roughly Kazakh confederation and drove the Kazakhs north and defined in 1913. Even the recognized Kazakhs had tense west in what was long remembered in Kazakh folklore as relations with the local western Mongols, who accused the “Barefoot Flight” (Aqtaban Shubirindi). By this time them of horse theft and raiding. the Kazakhs were divided into three zhüz (100s, called After Mongolia’s 1921 REVOLUTION the Kazakhs were “hordes” in Russian): the Great (Ulu) Zhüz in eastern organized into two banners. In 1940 Mongolia’s maximum and southeastern Kazakhstan, the Middle (Orta) Zhüz in leader, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG, (r. 1936–52), after visiting central, northern, and southern Kazakhstan, and the KHOWD PROVINCE, created a new province, Bayan-Ölgii, in Lesser (Kishi) Zhüz in western Kazakhstan. predominantly Kazakh areas. The provincial administrative The wars with the Oirats left a strong impression on council consisted of seven members, five Kazakh and two the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and other Islamic peoples of the Altai Uriyangkhai. The new province facilitated Mongolia’s Inner Asian steppes. The Kazakhs had become Muslim in interventions as a Soviet proxy among northern Xinjiang’s the 14th century, and after the Oirats converted to a Kazakhs from 1942 to 1946. Kazakhs also form the major- peculiarly militant form of Tibetan-rite Buddhism around ity in Khowd Sum just north of KHOWD CITY. 1580–1615, their conflict became not just a struggle for In the postwar period the population of Kazakhs in livestock, territory, and honor but also on both sides a Mongolia rose from 36,700 (4.3 percent in 1956 to religious war against unbelievers. In Kazakh and Kyrgyz 120,500 (5.9 percent) in 1989. Kazakh (in the Cyrillic epics the hero’s enemy is always a Kalmyk (i.e., Oirat). script) was used in all grades of general schooling and for some official purposes in Bayan-Ölgii as well. Distin- EXPANSION EAST guished Kazakhs in Mongolia included the Kazakh-lan- As the Manchu QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) destroyed the guage poet B. Aqtan (1897–1976), the Turcologist B. crumbling Zünghar principality in 1752–59, Kazakhs Bazylhan (b. 1932), and the union leader and political migrated westward to occupy Oirat lands. The Ili Valley reformer Q. Zardyhan (b. 1940). Kazakhs were also was settled by the Great Zhüz and the Zünghar (Junggar) recruited for the coal mines of Nalaikh (near ULAAN- Basin by the Kerey, Nayman, and Waq tribes of Middle BAATAR). Compared to the overall population, Kazakhs in Zhüz. The Qing dynasty granted the Kazakhs in Xinjiang 1989 were slightly overrepresented in both white-collar titles as teizhi (from Mongolian TAIJI) and collected trib- and working-class positions; collective herders were only ute from them. As Russia subdued and settled Kazakh- 26.4 percent of the nationality’s population. Mongolia’s stan from 1730 to 1864, more Kazakhs migrated into the Kazakh nomads are famous, however, for their custom of less crowded Xinjiang pastures. The Kazakhs, having FALCONRY with golden eagles. Kereyid 295 In 1991, during the disintegration of the Soviet Kelüren See KHERLEN RIVER. bloc, Bayan-Ölgii’s unemployment rate hit 18.9 percent, and large numbers of Mongolian Kazakhs responded to Kentei See KHENTII PROVINCE. the newly independent Kazakhstan’s call for migration back to the homeland. The population of Bayan-Ölgii dropped from 101,000 in 1991 to 75,700 by 1993. By Kerait See KEREYID. 2001 Kazakhstan figures showed 63,900 Mongolian Kazakhs had crossed the border from Mongolia at least Kereyid (Kerait, Kereit) This khanate in central once, and 5,000 had become Kazakhstan citizens. The Mongolia was a major power in Mongolia during the Mongolian Kazakhs, however, generally did not fit well time of CHINGGIS KHAN. The territory of the Kereyid was into Kazakhstan’s sedentary and Russified lifestyle. centered on the Black Forest of the TUUL RIVER. To the Large numbers eventually returned to Bayan-Ölgii, west lay the NAIMAN, to the north lay the MERKID along whose population had rebounded to 94,600 by 2000. the SELENGE RIVER, and to the east and northeast lay the Grade school education in Bayan-Ölgii continues to be MONGOL TRIBE. To the south it bordered on the GOBI conducted in Kazakh, with most textbooks supplied DESERT, beyond which was the Tangut XIA DYNASTY in from Kazakhstan. Northwest China and the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY in North See also BOROTALA MONGOL AUTONOMOUS PREFEC- China. TURE; HAIXI MONGOL AND TIBETAN AUTONOMOUS PREFEC- TURE; KHOBOGSAIR MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; SUBEI EARLY HISTORY OF THE KEREYID MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; XINJIANG MONGOLS. The Kereyid tribe seems to have originated as a branch of Further reading: Uradyn Erden Bulag, “Dark Quad- the Tatar tribe. Later Chinese editors called those TATARS rangle in Central Asia: Empires, Ethnogenesis, Scholars, nomadizing in the later Kereyid territory Zubu; the origin and Nation-States,” Central Asian Survey 13 (1994): of this term is obscure. In 924 Abaoji, founder of the 459–478. Kitan’s Liao dynasty in North China, defeated the Zubu and made them tributary. The KITANS established many Ked-Buqa (Kitbuqa, Ketbugha) (d. 1260) Commander forts in cities in what was later the heartland of the of the Mongol forces at the Battle of ‘Ain Jalut Kereyid khanate, but the Zubu/Tatars continued to raid A court ba’urchi (steward) of the NAIMAN tribe, Ked-Buqa Kitan territory. was dispatched to conquer Girdkuh and the other From 1189 to 1100 Chinese records speak of a Zubu fortresses of the “Assassins,” or ISMA‘ILIS, in Quhistan chieftain, Mogusi, who united the tribes and attempted to (eastern Iran) in 1252. Ked-Buqa and 5,000 men throw off Kitan power, but whom the Kitans eventually assaulted several fortresses from May 1253 to November defeated, captured, and executed. In 1125, however, the 1254 and put Girdkuh under siege but were unable to Kitans themselves were overthrown by the Jurchen, who achieve decisive success. founded the Jin dynasty, and the Zubu or Kereyid recov- In May 1256, with the arrival of a much larger ered their independence and the territory once occupied force under HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65), Ked-Buqa ravaged the by the Kitans. Isma‘ili city of Tun (between Qayen and Tabas) before “Mogusi” is undoubtedly the same figure known as commanding the left wing of Hüle’ü’s successful the Kereyid’s Marqus-Buyruq Khan in RASHID-UD-DIN’s advance on the Isma‘ili heartland in the Elburz Moun- FAZL-ULLAH’s history, who adds that his wife avenged her- tains (September–November 1256). In Hüle’ü’s cam- self on the Tatar tribesmen who had assisted the Kitan paign against Baghdad (1257–58) he also commanded generals. Marqus’s line thus survived the Kitan attacks, the left, sacking citadels in Luristan and Khuzistan and Marqus’s descendant Qurjaqus-Buyruq Khan, built a before converging on Baghdad. powerful khanate despite wars with the Merkid and the In Hüle’ü’s invasion of Syria, Ked-Buqa served as the Tatars (a term from then on applied solely to tribesmen vanguard, with 10,000 Mongols and 500 Georgian and allied with the Jin in northeast Inner Mongolia). Armenian auxiliaries, taking Damascus’s surrender The language of the Kereyid, as of their Zubu/Tatar (February 14, 1260) and subduing citadels in Lebanon predecessors, is unclear. There are many Turkic names and Jordan. As a Christian, he supported local Christian and titles among the Kereyid (as there are among the interests. Ked-Buqa met the advance of Qutuz, the sultan Mongols proper), but the historical record does not sug- of MAMLUK EGYPT (1259–60), at ‘Ain Jalut (near modern gest a sharp language gap between the Mongols and the Bayshan, September 3, 1260). Refusing to retreat before Kereyid, and most historians have concluded that the Qutuz’s much larger army, Ked-Buqa was captured and Kereyid court was either bilingual or predominantly executed, and Qutuz captured his family in Lebanon. Mongol speaking. Certainly after their conquest the Admiring Ked-Buqa’s defiance, Hüle’ü rewarded his sur- Kereyid were treated as part of the larger Mongol people. viving relatives richly. The Kereyid were wealthier and more advanced in See also ‘AIN JALUT, BATTLE OF. political organization than the Merkid and the Mongols. 296 Kereyid The Kereyid khan’s court was a sumptuous gold palace- (Prince) KHAN. Over the next few years, as Chinggis tent (ORDO) with golden vessels and a special staff. Khan grew in power, Ong Khan’s son Ilqa Senggüm grew Kereyid princesses received dowries of up to 200 ser- increasingly jealous of his influence. When Chinggis vants. The khan also had crack forces of ba’aturs, Khan requested that the families become QUDA, or mar- “heroes,” and a 1,000-man day guard, institutions Ching- riage allies, Ilqa Senggüm fashioned a plan to decoy gis Khan would later imitate. Finally, although many of Chinggis’s Khan’s Mongols and destroy them. Although the Kereyid were still tribally organized, already some of the plan was revealed to Chinggis Khan, the Kereyid and the Kereyid bore as their only clan name albatu, “sub- their allies in the MONGOL TRIBE were victorious at the jects,” which indicates break-down of the clan system. Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands in spring 1203. There is, however, no definite evidence of writing at the Ong Khan’s triumph was only temporary, however, Kereyid court. as his anti-Chinggis Mongol allies caused turmoil that The ruling family of the Kereyid adhered to Chris- summer. In autumn 1203 Chinggis Khan decoyed the tianity of the Syriac-rite Church of the East (known as Kereyid with a bogus message that his brother was Nestorians). Syriac historians record the conversion of a deserting to them. In the ensuing Battle of Jeje’er Kereyid king in 1007, who, having lost his way, was res- Heights, the Kereyid were defeated and conquered. Ong cued by a vision of St. Sergius after agreeing to convert. Khan fled west, abandoned by his men, where he was After inquiring of Christian merchants (probably killed by Naiman frontier guards. Ilqa Senggüm fled UIGHURS), the Kereyid king sent for the bishop of Merv south with his men to the Tangut Xia dynasty but later (Mary) and was baptized. While some have doubted revolted and escaped west to Turkistan, where the chief whether the word “Kereyid” is an interpollation in the of Kucha (Kuqa) city executed him. accounts, Marqus and Qurjaqus were certainly Chris- tians; their names (from “Marcus” and “Cyriacus”) are THE KEREYID IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE sufficient proof of that. Moreover, Kereyid princesses After their defeat the Kereyid became subjects of the formed the main Christian influence on the Mongol Mongols, and Chinggis Khan took over the golden royal family. palace-tent of Ong Khan. At first Ong Khan’s younger The Christian conversion also highlights the impor- brother Ja’a-Gambu supported Chinggis Khan, and his tance of international contacts for the Kereyid. people were preserved from pillaging, but within a year Turkestani merchants were regular guests at the Kereyid he had revolted and took his people to join the Naiman. court. Also regular guests were envoys from the Jin With their defeat in 1204 Ja’a-Gambu’s people were dynasty of North China. Diplomatically, the Kereyid divided. were hostile to their eastern neighbors, the Naiman Chinggis Khan took many of the Kereyid princesses khanate, the Merkid tribe to the north, and the Tatars in for himself and his sons, and through them Kereyid man- the east. Against the Naiman, they allied with the QARA- ners and beliefs, particularly Syriac-rite Christianity, KHITAI Empire in Turkestan and the Tangut XIA DYNASTY entered the Mongol ruling class. SORQAQTANI BEKI, daugh- in northwest China. ter of Ja’a-Gambu and mother of MÖNGKE KHAN, and TOGHUS KHATUN, Ong Khan’s granddaughter and the prin- THE KEREYID AND CHINGGIS KHAN cipal wife of HÜLE’Ü Khan, were only two of the more After the death of Qurjaqus-Buyruq Khan, the Kereyid famous of these Kereyid queens. Kereyid men also played khanate declined. Qurjaqus-Buyruq had given his sons, a role in the empire, mostly as scribes and civil officials. numbering 40 by some accounts, their own appanages. CHINQAI and Bulghai, chief scribes under ÖGEDEI KHAN The result was repeated conflict. The eldest son, Toghril, and Möngke Khan, had Kereyid connections. Under the faced serious opposition after killing several of his broth- Mongols’ YUAN DYNASTY the Kereyid were included within ers, yet with the aid of YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, a Mongol chief- the ranks of the Mongols and thus received preferential tain and the father of Chinggis Khan, Toghril Khan treatment. secured his throne and preserved Kereyid unity and While the Kereyid soon disappeared as a corporate power. The price, however, was deep-seated opposition body in the MONGOL EMPIRE, scattered Kereyid descen- even within his own court. dants are found widely. The Kereyid clan name is found Years after the death of Yisügei Ba’atur, Toghril Khan among the ORDOS and Baarin Mongols of Inner Mongolia sponsored Yisügei’s son Temüjin (later Chinggis Khan) as as well as among the KHALKHA of northern Mongolia. khan of the Mongols. Together the two pursued assaults Under the form “Kerey” it is also found as a major tribe on their traditional enemies: Tatars to the east, Merkid to of the Middle Horde of the Kazakhs. The nobility of the the north, and Naiman to the east. Chinggis Khan also TORGHUDS, a tribe of the OIRATS, traditionally traced their helped Toghril regain the throne after another outbreak ancestry to Ong Khan as well. While this claim is most of fraternal hostility. In one attack on the Tatars in 1196, likely legendary, the very name Torghud means “day- Toghril and Chinggis Khan had joined a Jin dynasty guards,” and the Torghuds may well be descendants of expedition, and the Jin granted Toghril the title ONG the Kereyid imperial guard. keshig 297 Further reading: Erica C. D. Hunter, “The Conver- sion of stewards (cherbi). At night the night guards lay sion of the Kerait to Christianity in A.D. 1007,” Zen- beside the tent of the khan and took turns standing sen- tralasiatische Studien 22 (1989/1991): 142–163; Isenbike try at the door. During the day the elite night guards also Togan, Flexibility and Limitation in Steppe Formations: The supervised the preparation and serving of food and wine Kerait Khanate and Chinggis Khan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, for the khan and the care of the tent carts. Night guards 1998). never left the presence of the khan they were serving and also assisted the “great judges” (yeke JARGHUCHI) in Ke’rqin See KHORCHIN. resolving lawsuits. When nomadizing, the night guards camped around the center, while the ba’aturs held in the front and the day guards and quiver bearers held the right Kerülen See KHERLEN RIVER. and left. The entire keshig was divided into four compa- nies, each of which served three-day shifts under four keshig (kezig, keshik) The keshig (from Turkish kezig, shift commanders. shifts, rotations) was not just the imperial guard of the The keshig guarded the emperor from the dangers of MONGOL EMPIRE and its successor states, but also a forum assassination and poisoning and during war served as the for inculcating Mongol values in the hostages taken from heavily armed great center (ghool) of the army. Comman- tributary chiefs and officials. The earliest analogue of the ders in the keshig were senior to those commanding Mongol keshig, or imperial guard, lies in the ORDO system equivalent units in the outer armies, yet members of the of the Inner Mongolian KITANS. Under the Kitan Liao keshig were also, paradoxically, hostages. The younger dynasty (907–1125) each emperor had a separate ordo, or brothers and sons of the higher commanders served as camp, with a “heart and belly guard” of 10,000 to 20,000 guarantors of the good behavior of their fathers and households assembled from the ruling Kitans as well as brothers. From the beginning Chinggis Khan insisted that Chinese and other peoples. The members of this guard, foreign rulers desiring to submit send sons or younger particularly the non-Kitans, were the emperor’s private brothers to be enrolled as keshigten. After long service slaves, but their proximity to him gave them high status. these hostages often became loyal supporters of the Mon- After the emperor’s death they guarded his mausoleum gol imperial cause. Many Mongol commanders, such as while his successor recruited a new ordo and guard. SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR, CHORMAQAN, and BAIJU, first served in While the Liao system was not followed by the succeed- the keshig before commanding separate armies. ing JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), the 12th-century KEREYID Since the kesig was Chinggis Khan’s personal Khanate on the Mongolian plateau possessed a 1,000- appanage or property (emchü), his sons did not inherit it. man body of day guards (turghaq) and presumably a cor- Instead, the old keshigten continued to serve at the responding number of sentries, or night guards. As the deceased emperor’s palace-tent (ordo) while the new little-known Kereyid institution supplied the immediate emperor recruited a new keshig from among his own predecessor of the Mongol keshig, and the Mongol keshig appanage and/or foreign subjects. ÖGEDEI KHAN closely resembled the Liao ordo system, it is likely the (1229–41), for example, recruited many keshigten from Kereyid guard was modeled on that of the Liao. Korea. In practice, later emperors more often than not Immediately after CHINGGIS KHAN’s conquest of the “recycled” old keshigs. GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48), for exam- Kereyid in 1203, he created a guard (keshig) of 80 sen- ple, took half of Ögedei Khan’s keshig for himself. tries, or night guards (kebte’ül) and 70 day guards The reforms of QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), founder of (turghaq) and a force of 1,000 ba’aturs, or “heroes,” to the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China, restricted the func- serve in battle as a crack vanguard and in peace as day tions of the keshig. A new imperial bodyguard (Chinese, guards. After Chinggis Khan’s coronation in 1206 the shiwei qinjun), at first entirely Han (North Chinese) in keshig expanded to a total of 10,000. The night guards composition but later strengthened with Qipchaq, Osse- grew to 1,000, the quiver bearers to 1,000, and the day tian, and Russian units, replaced the keshig as the guards to 7,000, while the vanguard ba’aturs remained at emperor’s military bulwark. Qubilai did not recruit his 1,000. Captains of 100s and 1,000s were expected to send own full-scale keshig until 1263. However, once orga- two relatives each, together with five to 10 retainers and nized, the keshig handled the imperial board and enter- mounts, to serve as keshigten (members of the keshig). tainments, and its political importance was undiminished. Chinggis Khan also encouraged likely volunteers from Qubilai put three of the four shifts of the keshig under the captains of 10 and ordinary soldiers; they were clan descendants of three of Chinggis’s “four steeds” allowed three retainers. (Boroghul’s Üüshin clan, BO’ORCHU’s Arulad, and MUQALI’s The keshig was merged with the household establish- JALAYIR) and showed great favor to these families. The ment of Chinggis’s ordo, or palace-tent, whose staff the senior grand councillor (chengxiang/chingsang) usually night guards supervised. The day guards, including cooks supervised the fourth shift, nominally the emperor’s per- (ba’urchi), doorkeepers (e’üdenchi), and grooms (aqtachi), sonal shift. Hostages from among Chinese officials served performed their tasks during the day under the supervi- in the keshig, and keshigten were preferred as judges. All 298 Ketbugha four shift heads signed the decrees (JARLIQ) of the qarachi beys of the four clan was necessary for any action, emperor. Unlike the non-Mongol imperial bodyguards, particularly in foreign policy. The head of the leading which in 1323 and 1328–29 overthrew reigning emper- Shirin clan held the title bash-qarachi, “chief of the ors, the Yuan emperors could rely on their personal qarachis,” and at times made and deposed the Chinggisid keshig, but the financial cost was high. Keshigs expanded khans. Thus, the keshig, which in the beginning was the to sometimes 15,000 men, and from 1292 they all personal appanage of the khan, in time came to control received rations and a stipend. In 1329 a one-time gift to the khan as its puppet. the keshig members is estimated to have expended one- After the Yuan emperors fled from China back to ninth of total government revenues. To reduce the cost, Mongolia in 1368, there is no clear information on the in 1331 the keshigs of several deceased emperors were keshig, yet the survival of certain clan and tribal names, reduced to 700–800 men. including the KHORCHIN (“quiver bearers”) and Kheshigten When HÜLE’Ü (1256–65) founded the IL-KHANATE in (from keshigten) of Inner Mongolia and the TORGHUDS Iran, he organized a keshig on the Chinggisid model (from turgha’ud, “day guards”) among the OIRATS, indi- governing the khan’s household, supplying judges, and cates that many keshig units survived as coherent com- serving as the great ghool, or army center. Abagha Khan munities. The Kheshigten, currently a banner of Inner (1265–81) also recruited keshig for his son Arghun, Mongolia, were long associated with the Latter Yuan viceroy in eastern Iran, to stiffen its defense. The Il- (1368–36) emperors’ personal appanage of CHAKHAR and Khans also retained the keshig’s dual role of holding may be descendants of the keshig of Mongolia’s 16th-cen- hostages and enculturing non-Mongols. Hüle’ü, for tury emperors. example, recruited ba’aturs from the nobility of GEORGIA See also ARGHUN AQA; BAYAN; BOLOD CHINGSANG; and Armenia, while Qutlughshah, a high Mongol noble- CHABUI; EL-TEMÜR; HARGHASUN DARQAN; INDIA AND THE man of the MANGGHUD clan, and RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL- MONGOLS; JARLIQ; LIAN XIXIAN; NÖKÖR; ÖCHICHER; QARA’U- ULLAH, a Persian high official who began as a Jewish NAS; QUDA; TA’ACHAR; TAISHI; TUTUGH; YELÜ AHAI AND physician, shared a close relationship as men who had TUHUA. served on the same shift, or keshig. GHAZAN KHAN Further reading: Ch’i-ch’ing Hsiao, Military Estab- (1295–1304) created several new units, mostly of Mon- lishment of Yüan Dynasty (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard gols, for the army center, but they did not eclipse the University Press, 1978); Halil Inalcik, “The Khan and the political or military significance of the keshig. As in the Tribal Aristocracy: The Crimean Khanate under Sahib Yuan, the commanders of the four shifts were chosen Giray I,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 3–4 (1979–80): largely by family. The Suldus, Mangghud, and Jalayir 445–466; Uli Schamiloglu, “The Qaraçi Beys of the Later clans generally had a place, but men of other clans also Golden Horde: Notes on the Organization of the Mongol commanded keshig shifts. The khan appointed one of World Empire,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984): these four, “the commander of the commanders” (Ara- 283–297. bic amir al-umara’) to be his chief Mongol commander. Either this chief commander or the vizier held the khan’s vermilion seal, while three keshig commanders, Ketbugha See KED-BUQA. or ulus emirs (commanders of the realm), added their black seals to all edicts. khaan See KHAN. In the CHAGHATAY KHANATE and the two wings of the GOLDEN HORDE (each of which had its own keshig), the power of these four ulus emirs (also called in Turkish khadag (khadak, khata, hadag) The khadag is a cere- qarachi beys, commoner, i.e., non-Chinggisid, comman- monial silk scarf that accompanies all gifts to a respected ders) and their “commander of commanders” (beglerbegi person on ritual occasions in Mongolia. Derived from in Turkish) exceeded even that under the Il-Khans. By Tibetan kha-bdags, “square weavings,” the khadag in the 14th century the ulus emirs in these khanates monop- 19th-century Lhasa was a square piece of silk sent with or olized the titles of sultan’s deputy and vizier and con- without a small gift before visits as a kind of calling card. trolled the khan’s vermilion seal. The khans even lost the Today among the Mongols, the khadag is a long, narrow ability to choose their own shift commanders. Thus, bolt of coarse silk, usually light blue or white. In bless- while the Chaghatay khan Kebeg (1318–26) recruited a ings (see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL) the khadag is called the personal keshig (known later as Kebeg’s injü, or personal “best of goods” and its length compared to an endless appanage), by 1360 the emirs of the Arulad, Jalayir, life. When gifts are presented, they are placed on a Qa’uchin, and Barulas clans monopolized the Chaghatayid khadag draped over both hands (gifts in Mongolia are keshig command. Similarly, after the Golden Horde broke always given with both hands). Khadags can also be pre- up, four tribes, clearly descendants of the keshig, occu- sented to elders during greetings, such as in the WHITE pied the military core of each of its small 15th-century MONTH (lunar new year). successor states. In CRIMEA the collective approval of the See also RELIGION. Khalkha 299 Khafungga (Hafeng’a, Ha-feng-a) (1908–1970) Leader When the Cultural Revolution inspired an attack on of the 1945 eastern Inner Mongolian nationalist movement Ulanfu’s policy, Khafungga’s past made him an obvious Khafungga (Chinese name Teng Xuwen) was the eldest of target, and he was returned to Ulaanhot to be tormented seven children of Rinchinjamsu (Teng Haishan), com- and humiliated in struggle sessions until his death in mander of the banner militia in KHORCHIN Left-Flank 1970. He is still widely admired in the eastern Inner Middle banner (Horqin Zuoyi Zhongqi). In 1930 Kha- Mongolian countryside. fungga attended MERSE’s Northeast Mongolian Banners’ See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER Normal School in Shenyang, where his poems and MONGOLIANS; JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; “NEW speeches attracted admiration. Khafungga was fluent in INNER MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY” CASE. Chinese and Japanese as well as Mongolian and was Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “The East known for his intelligence and gentleness. Mongolian Revolution and Chinese Communism,” Mon- In summer 1931 the Comintern agent Temürbagana golian Studies 15 (1992): 7–83. (1901–69) inspired Rinchinjamsu to organize an antiwar- lord army and secretly recruited Khafungga and his sis- Khalkha (Halh, Qalqa) The Khalkha Mongols are the ter’s new husband, Asgan (Li Youtong, 1908–48), into the major subethnic group (yastan) of the independent State Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (IMPRP). of Mongolia, or Outer Mongols. They number 1,610,400, After their army was taken over by pro-Japanese Mon- or 78.8 percent, of Mongolia’s population (1989 figures). gols, all three became officials in Japanese-occupied Khalkha dialect is the standard language of Mongolia. Manchukuo while covertly spreading pro-Soviet, pan- The native Khalkha are virtually the sole ethnic group in Mongolist ideas. From 1941 Khafungga served as Mongolia’s vast rural interior; only in the border areas are Manchukuo’s cultural attaché in Tokyo, where he helped other ethnic groups significant. While Chinese and Rus- sponsor an association of Mongol students. Reassigned to sians have been a large part of Mongolia’s urban popula- Wang-un Süme (modern Ulaankhot/Ulanhot) in eastern tion, the Khalkha are also the only Mongolian subethnic Inner Mongolia in summer 1945, Khafungga began mak- group with a long urban tradition. ing serious anti-Japanese plans. With the Soviet declaration of war on Japan, Kha- ORIGINS fungga launched a coup d’état in Wang-un Süme (Ulan- The origins of the modern Khalkha can be traced to the hot) on August 11, 1945, and proclaimed the revived second half of the 15th century, when they were one of IMPRP’s aim of a revolutionary pan-Mongolian republic. the SIX TÜMENS (or six great confederations) making up From then until spring 1946 Khafungga was the most the Mongols reunited under BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN popular leader and chief organizer of the East Mongolian (r. 1480?–1517?). Divided into two groups, the Southern nationalist movement, assisted by Asgan and Temürba- (Öbör) Khalkha became the ancestors of the Baarin gana. Instructed in an audience with Mongolia’s MARSHAL (Bairin) and Jarud BANNERS (appanages) of eastern Inner CHOIBALSANG to cease pan-Mongolist agitation and coop- Mongolia; only the Northern (Aru) Khalkha are the erate with the Chinese Communists, Khafungga and ancestors of today’s Khalkha. Temürbagana put themselves under ULANFU’s Chinese Dayan Khan assigned the Northern Khalkha to his Communist–controlled front organization in April 1946. youngest son, Geresenje Jalair Khung-Taiji (1513?–48). Khafungga joined the Chinese Communist Party and Geresenje divided the Khalkhas’ 14 chief clans among his from then until 1954 served as Ulanfu’s deputy in the seven sons, forming the Northern Khalkha into seven Inner Mongolian government. He was, however, excluded OTOGs (camp districts). By the early 18th century a Mon- from Inner Mongolia’s top party leadership. Meanwhile, golian chronicle listed 1,154 descendants of Geresenje, Asgan commanded Inner Mongolia’s army until his death who were divided into a right (west) flank, led by descen- of encephalitis on January 31, 1948. dants of Ashikhai Darkhan Khung-Taiji (b. 1530), Gere- After the Communist victory in 1949, a new Inner senje’s eldest son, and a left (east) flank, led by Mongolian government was chosen in 1954. Khafungga descendants of Noonukhu Üizeng (b. 1534), his third son. was demoted to be only one of seven deputy chairmen, From 1567 until the early 17th century the Khalkhas assigned to education. Khafungga chaired governmental warred incessantly on the OIRATS to their west, reaching committees on eliminating illiteracy (January 1953 on), the Irtysh valley in their raids. Noonukhu’s son ABATAI introducing the Cyrillic script (July 1955 on), and sci- KHAN (1554–88) and Ashikhai’s grandsons Laikhur Khan ence (March 1958 on). The rejection of Cyrillicization (b. 1564) and Sholoi Ubashi Khung-Taiji (1567–1623?) by China’s premier Zhou Enlai in March 1958 damaged led these campaigns. Laikhur and Abatai were acclaimed Khafungga’s political standing (see CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MON- as khans, and their descendants bore the hereditary titles GOLIAN). In 1964 he was transferred from the Inner of Zasagtu (Ruling) and Tüshiyetü (Supporting) khans, Mongolian government to the People’s Political Consul- respectively. tative Congress in Beijing, a sinecure for obsolescent In 1581 Abatai Khan invited a lama from HÖHHOT to officials. the Khalkha and converted to Buddhism (see SECOND 300 Khalkha CONVERSION). In 1585 he built the great monastery in 1701. At the time of the Dolonnuur Assembly, Khalkha ERDENI ZUU. In 1639 the left-flank Khalkha nobility rec- was reorganized into 34 BANNERS (appanages), each ognized the son of the Tüshiyetü Khan Gömbö-Dorji (fl. headed by a zasag. The Qing government recognized the 1639–55), the grandson of Abatai Khan, as an INCARNATE Bogda as the symbolic head of all Khalkha and recog- LAMA, the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. After this first nized the three khans, the Tüshiyetü Khan, the Setsen Bogda (Holy One), known as Zanabazar (1635–1723), Khan, and the Zasagtu Khan, as the titular heads of three returned from study in Tibet in 1651, he became the AIMAGs (provinces). supreme authority among the Khalkha. In 1725 the Qing court separated the princes of a The left-flank princes were relatively unified. All junior line of Tüshiyetü Khan as a fourth aimag. This devout worshipers of the Bogda, they belonged to either new aimag’s titular head, equal in rank with the three the Tüshiyetü Khan’s family or that of Sholoi khans, was the Sain Noyan (Good Nobleman). The num- Makhasamadi Setsen Khan (1577–1652), descendant of ber of banners was increased to 53. From 1724 to 1741 Geresenje’s fourth son. The right flank, however, had four the Qing created a formal military and civil structure for branches of Geresenje’s family and lacked a single charis- the four provinces of Khalkha. Militarily they were matic authority. Even among Ashikhai’s descendants, the headed by “assistant generals” (tusalagchi jangjun), and in descendants of Sholoi Ubashi Khung-Taiji, ruling the civilian affairs the banners were grouped in LEAGUES (chu- KHOTOGHOID Khalkha, rarely obeyed their cousins, the ulgan), headed by captains general. Since the assistant Zasagtu Khans. generals and captains general were rotated among the banner heads, the khans lost any real power over their AS AN INDEPENDENT POWER provinces. In 1765 the number of Khalkha banners was In 1655 the Khalkhas made peace with the rising QING finally fixed at 86. DYNASTY, which had conquered Inner Mongolia in As the nobility were divided, the JIBZUNDAMBA 1634–36. The Qing granted the title of ZASAG (or jasag, KHUTUGTU’s institutional authority increased. The Khalkhas ruler) to eight Khalkha chiefs, who agreed to present a all saw themselves as special shabi, or “disciples,” of the symbolic annual tribute of one white camel and eight Bogda. The Bogda’s personal estate, the GREAT SHABI, (or white horses (the so-called tribute of nine whites) in lay disciples), became, in effect, a fifth province exempt return for gifts and trade relations. In 1682 11 zasags from normal taxation and military requisition. His great received trade rights, including the Bogda. monastery, located on the TUUL RIVER from 1779 on, In 1640 the Khalkha Mongols had made peace with became Khüriye, now modern Mongolia’s capital, ULAAN- the Oirats, each side renouncing attacks and committing BAATAR. After CHINGGÜNJAB’S REBELLION in 1756–57, dur- themselves to punish violators of the peace. Eventually, ing which the SECOND JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU died, the disputes within the right-flank Khalkhas broke up this Qianlong emperor (1735–96) ordered the next Bogda to concord, however. In 1662 after the Khotoghoid ruler be found in Tibet. From then on all the Bogdas were murdered the Zasagtu Khan, the Khalkha left-flank Tibetan in origin. While the nobility resented this, the nobles, led by the Tüshiyetü Khan Chakhundorji devotion of ordinary Khalkhas did not diminish. (Gömbö-Dorji’s son, r. 1655–99), intervened, incidentally The Khalkhas exemplified many trends of Mongolian seizing many of the Zasagtu Khan’s subjects. life under the late Qing. Socially and culturally, Bud- Over the next 15 years the Zasagtu Khans unsuccess- dhism and the Buddhist arts reached great heights, the fully attempted to recover their lost subjects peacefully, petty Chinggisid nobility, or TAIJI, multiplied in numbers, allying with the Oirats and the Dalai Lama to press their the titled aristocracy increased their power and wealth, case against Chakhundorji and his brother the Bogda. and clan structure broke down. Economically, imported Chakhundorji refused all compromise, however, and in Chinese goods virtually wiped out rural farming and 1687 attacked the Zasagtu Khan. Finally, the Oirats under handicrafts industries, turning the Khalkha into specialist GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN (1678–97) of the Zünghar tribe livestock producers, while moneylending and interna- invaded Khalkha in 1688, pillaging and burning temples. tional trade concentrated wealth among a declining pop- Chakhundorji, the Bogda, scores of thousands of left- ulation. One unique feature of Khalkha society in flank Khalkhas, and even many right-flank Khalkhas fled contrast to the other Mongols was the existence of a gen- to Inner Mongolia, appealing to the Qing for protection. uine Mongolian urban culture in Khüriye, not just of After considerable hesitation, the Qing emperor Kangxi lamas but also of teamsters, butchers, carpenters, and (1662–1722) accepted the Khalkha request for protec- other proletarians making a living around the city’s tion. On May 30, 1691, the Khalkhas officially submitted monasteries and the Chinatown. to the emperor at the great DOLONNUUR ASSEMBLY. THE KHALKHAS IN INDEPENDENT MONGOLIA KHALKHA MONGOLS UNDER THE QING With the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence Qing armies defeated the ZÜNGHARS in 1690 and 1696. and the suppression of Inner Mongolian’s independence Galdan died in 1697, and the Bogda returned to Khalkha movement, Khalkha became the center of the only inde- Khalkhin Gol 301 pendent Mongolian state. While the Jibzundamba dynasty at the DOLONNUUR ASSEMBLY (1691), yet the Qing Khutugtu and the Khalkha aristocracy ruled the new code for the Inner Mongolian BANNERS was not applicable. theocratic regime, influence was also shared with Inner The Khalkha jirum was thus enacted by the Tüshiyetü Mongolian and Buriat advisers and the mostly Khalkha Khan, Dorji-Erdeni-Akhai (r. 1702–11), and the ERDENI class of urbanized officials and employees. Tensions with SHANGDZODBA, or estate manager of the Jibzundamba the western Mongols, led by the DÖRBÖD, led to signifi- Khutugtu, with the other dignitaries of Khalkha’s cant discontent, a trend that continued after 1921. Tüshiyetü Khan AIMAG. From 1736 on the Setsen Khan The administrative reorganization of 1931 abolished and from 1745–46 the Zasagtu Khan nobility participated the traditional four Khalkha provinces while diluting the in revisions, thus acknowledging its authority. subethnic homogeneity of the western (Oirat) Mongo- As originally enacted, the law had seven articles and lian, DARKHAD, and DARIGANGA districts. The GREAT 194 sections. From 1718 to 1770 17 amendments were PURGE of 1937–40 hit BURIATS, INNER MONGOLIANS, and made to the code. The seven original articles cover supply Chinese disproportionately hard, helping “nativize” Mon- of provisions for the “Gegeen” (the Jibzundamba golia’s intelligentsia and working class. The adoption of a Khutugtu), government messengers and nobility; premedi- Cyrillic script based on the Khalkha dialect and the tated murder; theft; marriage engagements, bridewealth, development of education and mass media brought cen- and dowries; fugitives and intruders; the prerogatives of tral Khalkha’s linguistic and cultural standards to the the Gegeen; limitations on killing animals; death, bodily most distant borders. harm, or loss caused by noblemen’s “jokes”; lies; assaults; In the postwar period the percentage of Khalkha in lost cattle or other things; injuries from mad dogs, mad Mongolia’s population increased from 75.6 percent in 1956 people, or trip-wired crossbows; public drunkenness; to 77.5 percent in 1979 due to the overwhelming tendency desecrating graves; wolves; disputes over wells and camp- of those with mixed origin to identify as Khalkha. Thus, sites; Chinese and Russian merchants; military prepared- the Khalkhas remain very much the sociological norm in ness; hospitality; witnesses in criminal cases; and Mongolian society, to which other ethnic groups conform. relations of parents and children. The amendments usu- While the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION brought freedom ally added details to previously covered material but for ethnic groups to organize as well as interest in Mongols sometimes introduced new topics, such as rules on trade, beyond the frontier, the new democratic constitution limitations on alcohol consumption, and rules for HORSE strengthened majoritanianism, while economic liberaliza- RACING. tion has only enhanced Ulaanbaatar’s dominant role in cul- The Khalkha jirum codified the preeminent role of ture and society. Both these developments indicate that the the Gegeen and evidenced the effort to enforce Buddhist Khalkhas’ demographic and sociological dominance in norms, as reflected in the limitations on hunting, funer- Mongolia will only grow. ary sacrifices, liquor consumption, and cutting trees See also CLOTHING AND DRESS; EPICS; FAMILY; FOLK around the Gegeen’s camp. The basic penalty was the POETRY AND TALES; JEWELRY; LITERATURE; MUSIC; MONGO- livestock fine, most often counted in multiples of nine, LIAN LANGUAGE; NAADAM; RELIGION; THEOCRATIC PERIOD; but enslavement (or conversely deprivation of subjects) WEDDINGS; YURT. and confiscation of all property were also common penal- Further reading: Fang Chao-ying, “Tsereng.” In Emi- ties. Flogging, various forms of confinement, and hob- nent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period (1644–1912), ed. by bling were rather less common. The death penalty was Arthur W. Hummel (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government applied only to assaults on monasteries and to certain Printing Office, 1943); Junko Miyawaki, “The Qalqa Mon- forms of robbery. gols and the Oyirads in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal From 1728 the Qing’s Mongolian code (see LIFAN of Asian History 18 (1984): 136–173; Hidehiro Okada, YUAN ZELI) began to applied to Khalkha Mongolia, “Outer Mongolia in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen- although at first only as interpreted by Mongolian judges. turies,” Ajia Afurika Gengo Bunka Kenkyu 5 (1972): After 1789 the Khalkha jirum no longer applied except to 69–85; Herbert Harold Vreeland III, Mongol Community the Great Shabi, or personal subjects of the Jibzundamba and Kinship Structure (New Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press, Khutugtu. Even there, however, serious cases always and 1957). even minor cases sometimes were adjudicated according to the Qing codes. During this period the Ulaan khatsartu (Red covers), a body of precedents decided according to Khalkha jirum (modern, Khalkh juram) This law the Khalkha jirum, was compiled. code, first enacted in 1709, applied to the GREAT SHABI, Further reading: Valentin A. Riasanovsky, Fundamen- the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU’s personal estate, until the tal Principles of Mongol Law (1934; rpt., Bloomington: 20th century. Indiana University, 1965). The Khalkha jirum, or “Khalkha Regulations,” were enacted first in 1709. The MONGOL-OIRAT CODE of 1640 was nullified by the Khalkhas’ surrender to the Qing Khalkhin Gol See KHALKHYN GOL, BATTLE OF. 302 Khalkhyn Gol, Battle of Khalkhyn Gol, Battle of (Khalkhin Gol, Nomonhan) second century B.C.E. to the sixth century C.E. moved east At the Battle of Khalkhyn Gol (May–September 1939), a from Inner Mongolia to Europe. From 550 on the Turkish heavily armored Soviet force crushed a Japanese force on empires all titled their supreme ruler qaghan. The Mon- disputed territory in Mongolia’s Tamsagbulag salient. golic KITANS were the only Inner Asian people to abandon In January 1935 began the first of a series of border this title in their own language, replacing it with the Chi- incidents between Japanese and Inner Mongolian troops nese huangdi, or emperor, in 916. and those of the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. In From the earliest Turkish sources, the word khan is 1936–37 Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed a military found in two forms with an uncertain etymological rela- alliance, and 30,000 Soviet troops entered Mongolia. The tionship: qan and qaghan. They are related to qatun or frontier between Inner Mongolia (then Japanese occu- KHATUN, “queen, empress.” In Old Turkish in the Runic pied) and the Mongolian People’s Republic had never and Uighur scripts, qaghan is used as a title, while qan is been demarcated, and wide disputes remained. The Battle more abstract, meaning “sovereign, monarch,” yet as the of Khalkhyn Gol (called Nom-un Khan or Nomonhan by -gh- in qaghan weakened, the two converged in pronunci- the Japanese) centered on the Khalkha (Halh) River’s ation, so that by the 11th century the lexicographer Mah- right (eastern) bank, claimed by both sides. mud al-Kashghari registered only khan. As Islamic titles In May, after clashes between border guards, 2,000 were adopted, the title khan in the Turco-Iranian Middle Japanese troops attacked 1,000 Mongolian and Soviet East came to mean not a sovereign (who in the Turco-Ira- troops dug in on the right bank but were pushed back. nian Islamic world bore the title sultan or shah) but a Late in June both Soviet and Japanese air forces bombed high-ranking provincial governor. In South Asia it has air bases deep in the other’s territory. On July 2 the degenerated to a mere honorific title. 15,000-man-strong 23rd Division under Lieutenant Gen- It appears that 12th-century Mongolian followed eral Komatsubara Michitaro (1886–1940) and the Inner later Turkish usage in using only qan, for example, in the Mongolian Khinggan Division assaulted Soviet forces on title gür-qan, “universal khan.” Chinggis himself (r. the right bank and at Mount Bayan Tsagaan (Bain- 1206–27) bore the title qan, as is demonstrated by coins Tsagan) in undoubted Mongolian territory. The Bayan and the few surviving documents from his life. His son Tsagaan offensive was destroyed, and by July 25 the ÖGEDEI KHAN, however, revived the title qa’an, the equiva- Japanese advance was halted, while several officers of the lent of the old Turkish qaghan. This title, which became Khinggan Division deserted to the enemy. On August 20 Ögedei’s posthumous reign name, was seen as having the Soviet commander Georgii K. Zhukov (1896–1964) greater dignity than qan, and from then on CHINGGIS counterattacked with four Red Army rifle divisions and KHAN’s title was retroactively written in Mongolian as five mechanized brigades. The three Mongolian cavalry Chinggis Qa’an. During the subsequent decades qan divisions under his command on the right and left flanks became a title used for the subordinate khan, such as took heavy casualties. By August 31 the Japanese, com- those of the IL-KHANATE and the GOLDEN HORDE, while pletely outclassed in artillery and armor despite reinforce- qa’an was reserved for the emperor ruling in the east. ment with three new divisions, had been crushed. Total Qan, as in Old Turkish, also retained the abstract meaning Japanese casualties were almost 20,000 out of 60,000 to of “sovereign, monarch.” 70,000 soldiers. The Soviet troops stopped at Mongolia’s In later Mongolian usage qan as a title disappeared, claimed frontier, and a cease-fire was signed on Septem- leaving qa’an (now pronounced khaan) as the only title ber 16. After the Soviet victory the Japanese avoided for any monarch and qan (now pronounced khan) as the future border incidents, and a Soviet-Japanese nonaggres- abstract term for sovereign or monarch, especially in the sion treaty was signed in May 1941. plural khad. From around 1550 to 1634 the distinction See also JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; SOVIET between the supreme khan, or emperor of the Mongols, UNION AND MONGOLIA; WORLD WAR II. and a minor one was marked by giving the former a Further reading: Alvin D. Coox, Nomonhan: Japan dynastic title, such as Dai Yuwan (or Dayun) Khaan, against Russia, 1939 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University “Emperor of the Great Yuan (of the Mongols),” or Daim- Press, 1985). ing Khaan, “Emperor of the Great Ming (of China),” and the latter the title simply of khaan. While the dynastic khaans were so by heredity, other khaans had, as it were, Khamnigan See EWENKIS. only a lifetime khanship, which their descendants had to reinforce each generation either through military achieve- khan (qan, khan; qaghan, qa’an, kagan, khaan) This ments or through blessings from the Dalai Lama. monarchic title, ubiquitous among the Mongolic and Tur- The title khan is also used by the Manchus of the kic peoples, occurs in various forms, meaning “king,” Manchu-Tungusic language family. When the Manchu “emperor,” or “sovereign.” The earliest steppe peoples QING DYNASTY conquered the Mongol Northern Yuan, the known to use the title khan were the XIANBI and their Qing emperor distinguished himself from the remaining descendants, the ROURAN and the Avars, who from the Mongol khans not only by his dynastic title as emperor of Kharachin 303 the Great Qing (Daiching Khaan), but also by a special Khandadorji succeeded as prince of Daiching Zasag ban- title, Bogda Khaan, “Holy Khan.” (This title was also ner (modern northern Bulgan) in 1892. From 1897 he adopted by the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU when he became was consultant to Tüshiyetü Khan AIMAG’s assistant gen- the last theocratic monarch of newly independent Mon- eral and from 1900 to 1911 assistant general himself. He golia in 1911.) Even so, the Qing in their official docu- joined the Khalkha princes’ 1899 remonstrance to the ments also revived the term qan/khan for a subordinate Qing court against granting gold MINING concessions to ruler. Thus, the three (later four) khans of Khalkha were foreigners. In 1904 he invited the Thirteenth Dalai Lama always written khan, not khaan, further emphasizing their to his seat at Wang-un Khüriye (modern Bulgan) and subordination to the Holy Khaan of the Great Qing. In sent his son to escort the Dalai Lama to Beijing. There the pronunciation, however, there was no difference between Qing authorities, suspicious of Mongolian-Tibetan ties, the two; khan as a title was actually pronounced khaan. accused the boy of a crime and executed him. From 1910 In modern times khaan in Mongolian is used for Khangdadorji served as an official in the new army-train- emperors (e.g., that of Japan), while the borrowed Chi- ing and colonization offices in Khüriye. In July 1911 nese title wang is used for kings such as those of Spain Khangdadorji organized the secret meeting that planned and Jordan. The term khan is no longer used in political the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence, terminology. joined the secret delegation to get Russian aid, and on his See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY. return was appointed to the Provisional Administrative Further reading: Igor de Rachewiltz, “Qan, Qa’an, Office for Khüriye Affairs. In December he became for- and the Seal of Güyüg,” in Documenta Barbarorum, ed. eign minister of the newly independent Mongolia. In Jan- Klaus Sagaster and Michael Weiers (Wiesbaden: Otto uary and February 1913 he negotiated in St. Petersburg a Harrassowitz, 1983), 273–281. loan of 2 million gold rubles for 20 years as well as mili- tary assistance. Later the prime minister Namnangsürüng Khanbaligh See DAIDU. (1878–1919) eclipsed his role in foreign affairs. He died on February 26, 1915. See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Khanddorj, Mijiddorjiin See KHANGDADORJI, PRINCE. Khangai Range The main body of the Khangai Range Khar Balgas See ORDU-BALIGH. runs northwest to southeast through west-central Mongo- lia, with the ridges at an average height of 3,000 meters (9,800 feet) above sea level. In Mongolian khangai means Kharachin (Harqin, Harchin, Qaracin, Kalaqin) Once mountainous forest steppe, which the northern Khangai the leaders in Inner Mongolia’s secular education and exemplifies. The southern slopes facing the Gobi, however, reform movement, the Kharachin are now almost com- are drier and scored by seasonal rivers. Branch ranges pletely Chinese speaking. Traditionally the Kharachin were north of the main range, such as the Bulnai and Tarwa- part of Josotu league (chuugulgan), containing three gatai, run east–west or northeast. The highest peak in the Kharachin banners as well as two Tümed banners (not to Khangai and the only one with perpetual snow is Otgon be confused with the Höhhot Tümed to the west). Most of Tenger (4,021 meters; 13,192 feet). The Khangai’s high Josotu’s former territory is now included in Liaoning ridges receive about 400–500 millimeters (16–20 inches) province in Manchuria. Inner Mongolia’s current Kharachin of precipitation annually and are the source of many of banner is the former Kharachin Right Banner. Its 1990 pop- Mongolia’s major rivers. Rivers flowing northeast (includ- ulation was 357,000, of which one-third were Mongol. ing the ORKHON RIVER, and the Tamir, Khünüi, Chuluut, Manchus, descendants of servants brought by imperial and Ider Rivers) join the SELENGE RIVER and eventually princesses married to Kharachin princes, form more than 7 drain into the Arctic. Those flowing south (including the percent of the population. Liaoning’s Kharachin Left-Flank Zawkhan, Baidrag, Tüi, and Ongi) drain either into the (Harqin Zuoyi) Mongol Autonomous county (former GREAT LAKES BASIN or disappear in the GOBI DESERT. Kharachin Left Banner) had a population of 372,393 in See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; 1982, of which 43,928 (11.8 percent) were Mongol. Liv- BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE; CLIMATE; ENVIRONMENTAL PRO- ing interspersed among Chinese in farming villages, the TECTION; FAUNA; FLORA; HORSES; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU; Kharachin are everywhere in the minority. Mongolian- NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE; SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE; language abilities declined rapidly after 1910, and today ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. Kharachin learn Mongolian only as a second language for reasons of ethnic pride. Reregistration of people with Khangdadorji, Prince (Mijiddorjiin Khanddorj; mixed Mongol-Chinese ancestry as Mongols expanded Khangda Dorji) (1870–1915) The leading planner of the Kharachin banner’s ethnic Mongol percentage from 24.6 1911 Restoration and the first foreign minister in theocratic percent in 1982 (82,439 persons) to more than 33 per- Mongolia cent in 1990. 304 Kharachin Left-Flank Mongol Autonomous County The Kharachin have a purely agricultural lifestyle, “lady” without distinction. The term khatun first although the rugged terrain allows only 17 percent of appeared as qasun among the XIANBI, a people in Inner Kharachin banner’s 3,155 square kilometers (1,218 Mongolia, from the second century B.C.E. to the fourth square miles) and 22 percent of Kharachin Left Flank’s century C.E. It appears to be etymologically related to the 2,238 square kilometers (864 square miles) to be culti- titles qaghan/qan, “KHAN, sovereign,” which appear along- vated. The principal crops are millet, corn, and sorghum side it. It is found subsequently among virtually all the supplemented by cotton and tobacco in Kharachin Left- Turkic and Mongolic peoples. In contemporary Turkish Flank. Pigs accounted for 44 percent of Kharachin ban- hatun means simply “lady” or “wife, woman.” During the ner’s 291,000 livestock (1984) and 61 percent of MONGOL EMPIRE qatun (later pronounced khatun and writ- Kharachin Left-Flank’s 269,000 head in 1983. ten khatan today) was reserved for the wife of the In 1389 the MING DYNASTY established the Döyin, or sovereign or emperor, while princesses (whether daugh- Uriyangkhan Guard (see THREE GUARDS), in northeastern ters of khans or wives of princes) were called beki. (For Inner Mongolia. The Uriyangkhan rulers were reckoned reasons that are obscure, this term is the same as that for descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s companion Jelme of the shaman or chief.) Under the Qing dynasty (1636–1912) Uriyangkhan. After 1448 the guard was resettled nearer the title khatun was extended to wives of all the Ching- to the Ming border in later Josotu league territory. Mean- gisid nobility (TAIJI), no matter how poor. This usage con- while, the Kharachin, descendants of the MONGOL tinued until the 20th century. EMPIRE’s Qipchaq guards (see QIPCHAQS), formed part of See also ALAQAI BEKI; ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; BÖRTE the Yüngshiyebü Tümen (see SIX TÜMENS), inhabiting pre- ÜJIN; CHABUI; Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN; INJE; MANDUKHAI SECHEN sent-day Chakhar territory. Around 1600 Kharachin KHATUN; OGHUL-QAIMISH; ORDO; SORQAQTANI BEKI; TÖRE- migrating east merged with the Uriyangkhan Mongols. GENE. Submitting to the Manchu QING DYNASTY in 1626, this mixed people was organized into three Kharachin BAN- Khentii province (Hentiy, Chentej, Kentei) One of NERS (appanages) in Josotu league, each ruled by a ruler the original provinces created in Mongolia’s 1931 admin- of the old Uriyangkhan lineage. istrative reorganization, Khentii province lies in Mongo- From the 18th century Kharachin bannermen began lia’s northeast. It has a long frontier with Russia’s Chita dividing up their fields and employing Chinese immi- district. All of Khentii’s territory was included within grants as tenants. Prince Güngsangnorbu (1871–1931) of KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Setsen Khan Kharachin Right expanded modern education among the province. After 1920 Buriat Mongols settled heavily along Mongols, first in his banner and after 1912 in Beijing. the province’s northern frontier. Khentii’s 80,300 square While Kharachins dominated the Republic of China’s kilometers (31,000 square miles) occupy the wooded Mongol bureaucracy and the early Mongol nationalist mountains of the KHENTII RANGE in the northwest and the intelligentsia, their banner lands were excluded from the steppe land to the east and south. The famous ONON Japanese-supported autonomous Khinggan provinces in RIVER and KHERLEN RIVER cross this province, which con- 1933–45. After 1945 the Chinese Communists set up tains what is considered to be the site of Deli’ün Boldaq, new Kharachin banner governments, likewise kept out- CHINGGIS KHAN’s birthplace, as well as the famous moun- side Inner Mongolia. In 1955 Kharachin Right Banner tain Burqan Qaldun. The population has risen from was transferred to Inner Mongolia as Kharachin banner, 34,800 in 1956 to 71,400 in 2000. The 1,471,400 head of and Kharachin Center banner was abolished. Kharachin livestock include relatively high numbers of CATTLE Left Banner, left in Liaoning, was converted to an (218,000 head) and HORSES (192,800 head). From 1960 autonomous county in October 1957. to 1990 Khentii was a leading agricultural area, although See also FARMING; FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS at present arable agriculture is only a shadow of its for- COUNTY; INJANNASHI; INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS mer importance. Khentii contains most of Mongolia’s REGION; INNER MONGOLIANS; MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE; NEW fluorspar mines at Berkh, Khajuu-Ulaan, and Bor-Öndör, SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS. as well as tin mines at Modot. Khentii’s capital, Further reading: Sun, E-tu Zen, “Results of Culture Öndörkhaan, has a population of 15,500 (2002). Contact in Two Mongol-Chinese Communities,” South- See also AWARGA; BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER western Journal of Anthropology 8 (1952): 182–210. MONGOLIA; CHOINOM, RENTSENII; LHÜMBE CASE; TSERINDORJI. Kharachin Left-Flank Mongol Autonomous County See KHARACHIN. Khentii Range (Hentiy, Chentij, Kentei) The Khentii Range runs southwest to northeast from northeast Mon- khatun (qatun, khatan) The term khatun is used in golia into the Chita Region of Russia. The mountains are Mongolian for the wife of any sovereign or noble; it thus smooth and rounded, with steeper slopes to the north- combines the meanings of “empress,” “queen,” and west. High peaks include Asralt Khairkhan (2,800 Khobogsair Mongol Autonomous County 305 meters, or 9,186 feet, above sea level) and Khiidiin population) and have a mixed agropastoral economy. (On Saridag (2,675 meters, 8,776 feet) northeast of ULAAN- the Khorchin banners, see KHORCHIN.) BAATAR and Burun Shibertuy (2,519 meters, 8,264 feet) in Ulaankhot, formerly Wang-un Süme (Prince’s Tem- southern Chita. None is permanently snow covered. The ple), formed around a Buddhist monastery in Khorchin Khentii Range is one of Mongolia’s wettest regions, with Right-Flank Front banner (Horqin Youyi Qianqi). Under more than 500 millimeters (20 inches) of precipitation the Japanese occupation (1931–45) Wang-un Süme annually. The range divides the Arctic, Pacific, and Gobi became the center of the autonomous Mongol Khinggan inland drainage basins. Rivers flowing west into the provinces, and a temple of Chinggis Khan was built there SELENGE RIVER and thence to the Arctic include the TUUL (see CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY). From 1945 to 1949 RIVER and the Yöröö (Yeröö) and Chikoy Rivers; those Wang-un Süme became the center of Mongol nationalist flowing east into the Amur and the Pacific include the and Chinese Communist activity. The Inner Mongolian ONON RIVER, the KHERLEN RIVER, and the Ingoda River. Autonomous Government was proclaimed in 1947. The The Khentii Range contains the famous peak of Burqan town was renamed Ulaankhot in 1948. In 1949 Inner Qaldun (Burkhan Khaldun), which was CHINGGIS KHAN’s Mongolia’s government seat was moved to Zhangjiakou. heartland, usually identified with modern Khentii Khan In 1990 Ulaankhot had a population of 229,100, of Mountain (2,362 meters, 7,749 feet) between the head- whom 52,300 were Mongol. waters of the Kherlen and the Onon. See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; See also AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA; ANIMAL HUS- INNER MONGOLIANS; JALAYIR. BANDRY AND NOMADISM; CENTRAL PROVINCE; CLIMATE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FAUNA; FLORA; KHENTII Khitan See KITANS. PROVINCE; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU; SELENGE PROVINCE. Kh¯o Örlökh See KHOO-ÖRLÖG Kherlen River (Herlen, Kelüren, Kerülen) The Kherlen River rises from the KHENTII RANGE in north- eastern Mongolia and flows east into Hulun (Khölön or Khobogsair Mongol Autonomous County (Hobok- Dalai) Lake in northeastern Inner Mongolia. Hulun sar) A Mongol autonomous county in northern Xin- Lake in turn drains into the Ergüne (Argun’) and then jiang, China’s Uighur autonomous region, Khobogsair the Amur River and finally into the Pacific. The Kherlen county occupies the valley of the Hobok (medieval River is 1,254 kilometers (779 miles) long but shallow Qobaq) River as it flows from the Sair Mountains on the and nowhere navigable. Industrial and residential Kazakhstan frontier southeast into the utterly barren uses—the river flows past Baganuur coal mine and Gurbartünggüt Desert. The Mongol inhabitants are OIRATS, or western Mongols, related to Russia’s KALMYKS. Öndörkhaan, Choibalsang, and Altan Emeel towns— have taxed water resources and degraded water quality. The county covers more than 30,000 square kilome- Originally pronounced “Kelüren,” the -l- and -r- under- ters (11,500 square miles) of steppe and desert. Adminis- went metathesis, forming Kerülen, which formed, tratively, it is part of Tarbagatai (Tacheng) district, a according to regular sound changes, the modern subdistrict of the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. The Kherlen. The Kherlen and the ONON RIVER together total population in 1999 was 50,942, of which 16,349 defined the original homeland of the MONGOL TRIBE, and (32.4 percent) were Mongols. Other ethnic groups AWARGA, the main archaeological site associated with include KAZAKHS (28 percent) and recently immigrated CHINGGIS KHAN, is near the Kherlen headwaters. A South Chinese (37 percent). In 1982 the county’s 13,029 Mon- Chinese ambassador in 1236 claimed to have seen gols were 36.8 percent of the population; Chinese immi- Chinggis Khan’s tomb between the Kherlen River and gration and a higher Kazakh birthrate account for the the nearby mountains. decrease in the percentage since then. Khobogsair is still predominantly a pastoral area, with 1,272,700 hectares (3,144,800 acres) of usable pasture. Only 6,680 hectares Khingan Range See GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE. (16,510 acres) are farmed. Under the Qing the Torghud Mongols of Khobogsair Khinggan league (Hinggan) Khinggan league lies in were organized as BANNERS (appanages) in the Ünen- eastern Inner Mongolia. The league covers 59,800 square Süzügtü North Route league. Khobogsair had an esti- kilometers (23,090 square miles) of territory and had a mated 500,000 head of livestock in 1943, but clashes and 1990 population of 1,524,064, of whom 587,929 (39 per- pillage associated with the Kazakh-led Ili Revolution cent) were Mongol. The territory has three Mongol BAN- reduced the county’s herd to 90,000 head in 1949. After NERS (two KHORCHIN and one Jalaid) and one Chinese the Chinese People’s Liberation Army’s occupied Xinjiang county. The capital is Ulaankhot (Mongolian “Red in 1949, Khobogsair was made an autonomous county in Town,” also spelled Ulanhot). The Mongols of Jalaid ban- 1954, at which point Mongols were 58 percent of the ner number 150,100 (40 percent of the banner’s total population. Although the total herd reached 269,244 in 306 Khökhkhot 1957, collectivization in 1958 and antipastoral, anti–pri- in classical antiquity as Chorasmia, were literate and vate-ownership policies kept numbers stagnant until spoke an Iranian dialect. By the ninth century C.E. the 1979. In 1999 Khobogsair had 442,500 head of livestock Khorazmians had converted to Islam and become famous and produced 4,700 metric tons (5,181 short tons) of traders, their merchants linking Eastern Europe with the meat, 5,597 metric tons (6,170 short tons) of DAIRY PROD- Middle East. Turkish tribes were expanding south and UCTS, 588 metric tons (648 short tons) of wool, and west, and the Khorazmians adopted the Turkish language 16.75 metric tons (18.46 short tons) goat hair. by the 12th century. See also FLIGHT OF THE KALMYKS; TORGHUDS; XINJIANG MONGOLS. RISE OF THE DYNASTY In 1138 Atsiz, the first Khorazm-Shah, rebelled against Khökhkhot See HÖHHOT. the Seljük Turks then ruling Iran and western Turkistan. His grandson Sultan Tekish (1172–1200) submitted to QARA-KHITAI suzerainty in the east but expanded his rule Khölön Buir See HULUN BUIR. west to Hamadan and north to the Syr Dar’ya River. Tek- ish’s son Sultan ‘Ala’ud-Din Muhammad (1200–20/21) khöömii See THROAT SINGING. defeated the Ghuri dynasty of Afghanistan and expanded the empire to the shores of the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea. Finally, in 1209 he revolted against the Qara-Khitai Khoo-Örlög (Kh¯o Örlökh, Kho-Urlük) (d. 1644) and seized the great cities of Bukhara and Samarqand. Torghud leader who first led the Oirats to settle on the Volga, Dividing the Qara-Khitai empire in agreement with thereby founding the Kalmyk people Küchülüg, a NAIMAN adventurer from Mongolia, by 1213 Around 1606–08 Khoo-Örlög was the TAISHI, or ruler, of Sultan Muhammad had pushed his frontier east to Otrar about 4,000 Torghud households divided into five uluses on the Syr Dar’ya River. Thinking the eastern frontier nomadizing south of Tara in western Siberia. Around secure, he turned to campaigns in Afghanistan and west- 1615 he moved northwest, occupying the Ishim and Tobol ern Iran. River areas and marrying a sister of a local Siberian Tatar The empire of Khorazm, like many medieval Iranian chief. Meanwhile, the Oirat chief Chöökür of the dynasties, was built on a duality of Turk, the tribal war- Khoshud tribe raided the Turkish-speaking Nogay nomads rior class, and Tajik (or Iranian), the tax-paying peasants (see MANGGHUD) on the Caspian steppe as early as 1608. and city dwellers. The Turkish ruling class of warriors When Chöökür and his uterine brothers, the “Five depended on the Tajik bureaucrats, landholders, mer- Tigers” (see TÖRÖ-BAIKU GÜÜSHI KHAN), began a savage chants, and Islamic clergy for finances and the mainte- feud, Khoo-Örlög moved south and west to avoid nance of social order. While themselves Muslim, the involvement. From 1630 to 1635 Khoo-Örlög and his six Khorazm shahs’ military core was the mostly non-Islamic sons appeared on the steppe between the Aral and the Qangli Turks of present-day Kazakhstan. Sultan Muham- Emba, driving the Nogays toward CRIMEA. By this time mad’s own mother, Terken Khatun, was a Qangli whose Khoo-Örlög and his sons had 22,000 households. word held great weight with her son. In 1640 Khoo-Örlög attended the great assembly of OIRATS and Mongols and made that assembly’s MONGOL- CLASH WITH THE MONGOLS OIRAT CODE law for his TORGHUDS. Shortly afterward the Meanwhile, the Mongols under Chinggis Khan (Genghis, Torghud moved west of the Ural Mountains, annexing 1206–27) conquered Küchülüg and opened relations the remaining Nogays on the Volga. In 1643–44 Khoo- with Sultan Muhammad. Embassies had been exchanged Örlög and his sons crossed the Volga in force, but Khoo- when Sultan Muhammad, campaigning in the Syr Dar’ya Örlög’s 10,000-strong force was shattered, and area, clashed with Mongol troops under Chinggis Khan’s Khoo-Örlög was killed by a body of Caucasus moun- son JOCHI and SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR, who were pursuing Toq- taineers armed with harquebuses and aided by Nogay to’a of the MERKID tribe. Shortly thereafter, the governor cavalry. of Otrar, Inalchuq Qadir Khan, with Sultan Muhammad’s approval, massacred a large Mongol trade mission and Khorazm (Khwarazm, Khwarizm, Khorezm) The confiscated its goods (see OTRAR INCIDENT). Informed of region of Khorazm was the center of the leading empire the Otrar massacre, Chinggis Khan demanded the life of in Iran and Turkestan at the time of CHINGGIS KHAN. The Qadir Khan in exchange, but Qadir was Terken Khatun’s Khorazmian dynasty, founded in 1097–98, reached its kinsman, and the sultan killed these envoys, too. Ching- peak in 1218, just before being crushed by the Mongols. gis then prepared a campaign of extermination against Located on the western bank of the Amu Dar’ya (Oxus) the Khorazm-shahs and their people. River as it flows into the Aral Sea, Khorazm’s chief city Alarming stories spread of the Mongol soldiers’ and capital in the 13th century was Urganch (Urgench, extraordinary hardiness, their great numbers, and their Gurganj, or Ürünggechi). The people of Khorazm, known conquest of the legendary “Altan Khan,” or Jin emperor, Khorazm 307 of North China. Court astrologers reported that any island on the Caspian Sea, where he died in winter offensive move would be inauspicious. Thus, Sultan 1220–21. Jebe and Sübe’etei continued north around the Muhammad took a purely defensive position and dis- Caspian Sea and back to Mongolia. tributed his reputed 400,000 soldiers, which actually Before long, the cities that had surrendered to Jebe considerably outnumbered the Mongols, among the gar- and Sübe’etei killed their darughachis and revolted. As the risons of Otrar, Fanakat, Bukhara, Samarqand, and other autumn weather cooled, Chinggis Khan began the sec- fortresses on the eastern frontier, while he himself retired ond, most brutal, phase of the war. He sent out his van- south of the Amu Dar’ya River. He also ordered his guard under Toquchar to cross into eastern Iran and mother and wives to leave Khorazm for central Iran. northwest Afghanistan and crush those he now took as Thus, Chinggis Khan’s armies found no one contesting incorrigible rebels. Chinggis sent his middle sons, their control of the whole Transoxiana countryside. The CHA’ADAI and Ögedei, to join Jochi, and they destroyed Mongols simply bottled up the Khorazmian troops in the Khorazm’s capital, Urganch (April 1221). He himself walled cities and reduced them one by one. stormed the city of Termiz on the Amu Dar’ya, crossed the river, and annihilated the great city of Balkh, where MONGOL CONQUEST the Mongol darughachi had been killed. Meanwhile, his Reaching Otrar first, the Mongols took it after a five- youngest son, TOLUI, destroyed Merv (Mary) in March month siege. As the seat of the original massacre of Mon- 1221, Nishapur (Neyshabur) in April 1221, and Herat gol merchants that started the war, all its inhabitants, after an eight-month siege. In all six cities the craftsmen civilian and military alike, were massacred along with were deported and all other inhabitants massacred. Inalchuq Qadir Khan. Meanwhile, Chinggis Khan dis- Meanwhile, Sultan Muhammad’s son Jalal-ud-Din, patched his eldest son, Jochi, with an army on the right after several narrow escapes, reached Ghazni in to reduce the cities along the lower Syr Dar’ya and dis- Afghanistan in February 1221. Rallying his father’s com- patched another army on the left to reduce those in the manders, he defeated a force of three tümens of Mongols Ferghana valley. He himself advanced with the bulk of (each nominally numbering 10,000) led by SHIGI QUTUQU the army on Bukhara and Samarqand. When Bukhara at Parwan in the Hindu Kush (see PARWAN, BATTLE OF). surrendered on February 15, 1220, and Samarqand on Soon afterward, however, quarrels broke up Jalal-ud-Din’s March 16, 1220, only the Qangli garrisons in the fortified army, and as Chinggis Khan moved up with his full force, citadels were completely massacred. The cities were, Jalal-ud-Din had to retreat. Finally, in November 1221 he however, plundered, and mass levies of inhabitants were gave battle with his back to the Indus River. The Mongols herded against the walls of unconquered cities as cannon destroyed his army and killed his commanders, and Jalal- fodder. Each city paid tribute and received a DARUGHACHI, ud-Din swam across the Indus River into India. (See or overseer. Yelü Ahai, a Kitan, was appointed “Great INDIA AND THE MONGOLS.) Darughachi” in Bukhara, supervising all of Mawarannahr Unable to cross the river, Chinggis Khan moved (Transoxiana) (see YELÜ AHAI AND TUHUA). upstream to Peshawar, while Ögedei turned back to raze The surrender of Samarqand shook Sultan Muham- Ghazni. The Indian climate and disease enervated the mad, then in Balkh; it had been expected to hold out for Mongol army, and they were weighted down by booty months if not years. His son Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi and captives, 10 or 20 to each soldier. After the army had offered to lead the Khorazmians on a counteroffensive, recovered and the excess captives were massacred, Ching- but Sultan Muhammad rejected this plan. With the news gis Khan moved back up into the Hindu Kush. He and of the surrender of Samarqand, even the Qangli guards- the main Mongol armies stayed in Afghanistan until men of his mother’s clan attempted to assassinate him. spring 1223, when they returned to Mongolia. In this Sultan Muhammad escaped west to Nishapur, all will to third stage of the war, clashes were constant, but resis- fight gone, and spent spring 1220 drowning his despair tance was disorganized and episodic. Mountain fortresses in dissipation. in Afghanistan were painfully besieged and their defend- After conquering Samarqand, Chinggis Khan sum- ers slaughtered. The account of MASTER CHANGCHUN, the mered in uplands near Bukhara and dispatched JEBE and Taoist who visited Chinggis Khan in 1222–23, describes Sübe’etei with three tümens of cavalry (each nominally “bandit” attacks and conflagrations in the suburbs of numbering 10,000) to find and destroy the sultan. Cross- Samarqand and attacks on the pontoon bridge over the ing the Amu Dar’ya in May 1220, they reached Balkh, Amu Dar’ya. Historical sources say very little about this which promptly surrendered. They appointed a darughachi plebeian guerrilla resistance, which must have been and followed the sultan’s trail west. Everywhere, they widespread. spared the cities that surrendered, placing darughachis and moving on, and massacred everyone in towns that THE PURSUIT OF JALAL-UD-DIN resisted. Capturing Terken Khatun and the sultan’s family, Armies were also sent in pursuit of Jalal-ud-Din, who had they almost caught Sultan Muhammad in the Zagros recruited men to his standard among the Turk and Mountains in southwest Iran before he fled north to an Afghan soldiery in India. In 1224 he escaped through 308 Khorchin Baluchistan back to western Iran, where the surviving Central Asian captives dwelling among the Mongols Khorazmian commanders were regrouping. In the suc- in the east (called Sarta’ul, or in modern Mongolian Sar- ceeding years he attempted to create a new empire in tuul) were eventually assimilated into the Mongolian western Iran and Greater Armenia, fighting the rulers of people. In the 16th century the Sartuul formed one of the GEORGIA, Seljük TURKEY, and the many petty fortress- 14 clans of the Khalkha, and the Sartuul clan name is still states in KURDISTAN. When Ögedei Khan succeeded his widespread in Mongolia. It is also found among the father in 1229, he sent CHORMAQAN with three tümens Monggoljin Mongols of FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS (each nominally numbering 10,000) to destroy Jalal-ud- COUNTY in Liaoning. In 1721 many Sartuul were left on Din. In August 1231 they caught up with him, and he the northern side of the newly demarcated Qing-Russian escaped alone, only to be killed by a Kurdish moun- frontier, thus becoming part of the BURIATS in Russia. taineer. His turbulent Khorazmian troops, mostly Qangli See also MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL CONQUEST. Turks, fled south, where many were recruited into local Further reading: W. Barthold, Turkestan down to the armies. Mongol Invasion, rev. ed., trans. T. Minorsky (London: Luzac, 1968); ‘Ala-ad-Din ‘Ata-Malik Juvaini, History of KHORAZM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE the World Conqueror, 2 vols., trans. John Andrew Boyle In the Islamic world the brutal conquest of Khorazm left (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958); an enduring image of the Mongols as inhuman and irre- Minhaj-ud-Dîn Abû-‘Umar-i-‘Usman [Juzjani], Tabakat-i- sistible conquerors. Chinggis Khan attempted to win over Nasirî, 2 vols., trans. Major H. G. Raverty (1881; rpt., defectors as he had done so successfully in North China Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1995). yet gained no significant support among Khorazmian commanders. Thus, no Khorazmian general in the service Khorchin (Horqin, Horchin, Qorcin, Ke’rqin) The of the khans later looked back on the arrival of Chinggis Khorchin Mongols are the most numerous of the Inner Khan as the beginning of a brilliant career, as many Kitan Mongolian subethnic groups. Their territory is in eastern and Chinese commanders did. Perhaps for this reason, Inner Mongolia, east of the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE Mongol accounts of the conquest seem curiously flat, as and along the Taor and Shara Mören (Xar Moron/Liao) if numbed by three years of virtually uninterrupted victo- Rivers. ries and massacres. The Khorchin Mongols traditionally belonged to Chinggis Khan gave Khorazm proper, along with Jirim league (chuulgan), with Gorlos, Dörbed, and Jalaid Otrar and the cities on the Syr Dar’ya, to his oldest son, banners. Khorchin was divided into left (southern) and Jochi, as his appanage, and QONGGIRAD and ÖNGGÜD right (northern) flanks, each with three banners. Today clansmen settled its pastures. Jochi appointed the Öng- CHINESE COLONIZATION and administrative reorganization güd Chin-Temür as its first darughachi. The capital, have left four banners only, together covering a total of Urganch, slowly recovered but remained in the shadow 63,689 square kilometers (24,590 square miles). They are of Bukhara and Samarqand until 1260. After that year inhabited by about 1,500,600 people, of whom 938,800, Bukhara and Samarqand declined due to repeated civil or almost 62 percent, are Mongol (1990 figures). Most war and misrule by the Chaghatay khans, descendants Khorchins in this area speak their own distinct dialect of of Cha’adai, Chinggis’s, second son. Hostilities between Mongolian, but a substantial minority speak only Chi- the CHAGHATAY KHANATE and the Mongol rulers of Iran nese. and China also blocked east–west trade, and Khorazm, Arable agriculture, based mostly on corn, millet, gao- part of the Jochids’ GOLDEN HORDE, replaced the Tran- liang sorghum, and buckwheat, supplies more than two- soxiana cities as the hub of Central Asian international thirds of the Khorchin banners’ total agricultural sales. commerce. The massive export of horses from the Livestock, 2,935,000 in number, include 1,225,000 sheep Caspian steppe to India also passed through Khorazm and goats; most of the rest is divided roughly equally (see INDIA AND THE MONGOLS). When MUHAMMAD ABU- between cattle and pigs (1990 figures). Wild vegetation is ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA visited Urganch in 1333, he either couch grass steppe or dunes with pea bush, willow, found the crowds in the marketplace so dense he could and sagebrush thickets. Khorchins frequently leave their not enter. The governor of Khorazm was one of the overcrowded steppes to become officials, teachers, sol- most important emirs of the Golden Horde, and as the diers, or migrant herders elsewhere in Inner Mongolia. Mongol ruling class had converted to Islam, the Mongol governors enjoyed intimate relations with the city’s civil HISTORY elite. Khorazm shared in the international crisis of the The Khorchin are descended from the semiagricultural late 14th century. After the Golden Horde broke up, the Mongols of the Fuyu (Üjiyed) Guard around modern Qungrats (Qonggirad), a lineage of Mongol descent, Qiqihar, who surrendered to the MING DYNASTY in 1389 ruled Khorazm. Urganch had declined, and the Qungrat (see THREE GUARDS). Ruled by descendants of CHINGGIS dynasty made its capital at Khiva until the Russian con- KHAN’s younger brother Qasar, these Khorchins began quest in the 19th century. allying in 1612 with the rising Manchus. The later Khorchin 309 Farming family in Khorchin, left flank, middle banner, 1988. They are sitting on a kang, or heated living/sleeping platform. Note the moral maxims in Mongolian on the wall. (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) emperors of the Manchu QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) nationalist intelligentsia after 1945, rural class struggle rewarded the Khorchin nobles highly for this early loy- and the civil war of 1946–48 were very bloody and divi- alty. Frequent intermarriage between the Khorchins and sive. Since then the Khorchins and other east Mongols Manchus influenced Khorchin customs and gave them have been a powerful faction within Inner Mongolia’s powerful patrons in court. The great Kangxi emperor Chinese Communist Party apparatus. (1662–1722) was devoted to his Khorchin grandmother After 1946 Khorchin territory was divided into who raised him. Jirim league to the south and KHINGGAN LEAGUE to the In 1891 the anti-Mongol Jindandao (“Golden Pill north. In 1999 Jirim league was renamed TONGLIAO Way”) rebellion among Chinese peasants drove many MUNICIPALITY. thousands of farming Monggoljin Mongols into Khorchin See also DÖRBED MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; lands where they became tenant farmers for the native FARMING; FRONT GORLOS MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; Khorchin (see FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY). INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGO- After 1900 both Chinese education and CHINESE COLO- LIANS; KHAFUNGGA; MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE; NEW SCHOOLS NIZATION spread among the Khorchins. The song of the MOVEMENTS; WEDDINGS. doomed 1929 insurrection led by Gada Meiren Further reading: “Child Birth and Child Training in (1893–1931) against the brutal dispossession of the a Khorchin Mongol Village,” Monumenta Serica 25 Khorchin Mongols for Chinese settlement is still widely (1966): 406–439; “Family and Kinship Structure of the sung. After the Japanese occupation of 1931 the Khorchin Mongols,” Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): Khorchin replaced the KHARACHIN as the most numerous 277–311; “The Lama Temple and Lamaism in Bayin and energetic proponents of secular learning and reform Mang,” Monumenta Serica 29 (1970): 659–684; Pao Kuo- among the Mongols. While the Chinese Communists yi [Ünensechen], “Marriage Customs of a Khorchin Vil- were able to win over most of the Khorchin Mongol lage,” Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964): 29–59. 310 Khorezm Khorezm See KHORAZM. OIRATS and other peoples in northwestern Mongolia who had been subjugated by the KHALKHA prince Sholoi Khoshuds (Khoshuud, Hoshut, Qoshot, Qo´sot) The Ubashi Khung-Taiji (1567–1623?) and his descendants. Khoshuds are a tribe of Oirat Mongols. (Oirat tribes Born the second-ranking Khalkha right-flank (west- were not consanguineal units but political-ethnic units, ern) prince after his cousin Laikhur Khan (b. 1564), composed of many yasu, “bones,” or patrilineages.) The Sholoi Ubashi Khung-Taiji inherited territory in north- Khoshuds’ ruling Galwas “bone,” were the OIRATS’ only west Mongolia. Like Laikhur Khan, he campaigned inces- Chinggisids, claiming ancestry from Chinggis’s brother santly against the Oirats. Subjugated Oirats of the Qasar. The Khoshud were most likely formed from Khotoghoid tribe came to form a large part of his people. diverse THREE GUARDS Mongols deported by the Oirat After 1600 Sholoi expanded his domain to include the ruler ESEN (r. 1438–54) in 1446–47. (The name is writ- Uriangkhai of Tuva and the Kyrgyz of Khakassia. Hearing ten Khoshuud in Cyrillic-script Mongolian, Khoshoud in about Sholoi from the Kyrgyz as the Altyn czar (Golden the Clear Script, and Khoshud in Cyrillic-script Emperor), Russian Cossacks made contact with him in Kalmyk.) 1616. Hoping for firearms and Russian assistance against The Khoshud first appeared in the 1580s and by the the Oirats, Sholoi provisioned and guided the Russian 1620s were the most powerful Oirat tribe, taking the lead envoys to China. As the Russian refused to assist his con- in the SECOND CONVERSION of the Oirats to Buddhism. In tinuing campaigns against the Oirats, however, he broke 1636 TÖRÖ-BAIKHU GÜÜSHI KHAN led many Khoshuds to off relations in 1620. In perhaps 1623 Sholoi launched an occupy Kökenuur; the Khoshuds from the great majority expedition to the Irtysh River, where the united Oirats of the Tibetan plateau’s almost 80,000 UPPER MONGOLS. fighting under the leadership of Baibaghas Khan (d. About 10 years later his brother Köndölöng Ubashi 1630) of the KHOSHUDS killed him. The tale of this defeat migrated to the Volga, joining the KALMYKS. Many is told in the 17th-century Oirat tale Mongghol-un Ubashi Khoshuds remained in the Oirat homeland of Zungharia Khung-taiji-yin tughuji (Tale of the Mongol Ubashi under Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan (fl. 1639–76). Khung-Taiji). (The date of this defeat is given as 1587 in After GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN of the Zönghar tribe the text, but this must be wrong; 1623 is more likely.) His deposed Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan, the Khoshud chief son Ombo-Erdeni (1623?–52, d. 1659) succeeded him. Khoroli deserted to the QING DYNASTY with his people in In 1662 Ombo-Erdeni’s son Lubsang-Rinchin Taiji (r. 1686, receiving ALASHAN as his territory. Alashan’s 1652–67) killed the Zasagtu Khan (Laikhur’s grandson). Khoshud Mongols numbered 36,900 in 1990. The The shocked Khalkha noblemen joined to punish him, Khoshud remained, however, a major tribe of Zünghar driving him north into Tuva. In 1667 the Oirat ruler Sen- principality until its annihilation by the Qing in 1755. In gge captured Lubsang-Rinchin there and plundered his 1771 Volga Khoshuds joined the FLIGHT OF THE KALMYKS people. After GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN’s Oirat invasion of back to Zungharia and were resettled by the Qing around Khalkha in 1688, Lubsang-Rinchin’s nephew Gendün Bosten Lake. They numbered around 12,000 in 1999. Daiching (d. 1697) surrendered first to Russia and then Another small body of Khoshuds, associated with the to Galdan before submitting to the Qing in 1694. The “New” Torghud, was formed into a separate banner in Qing divided the Khotoghoid territory into four BANNERS western Mongolia (Bulgan Sum, Khowd). Today they are (appanages) under Gendün Daiching and his family in officially registered as Torghud. modern northern ZAWKHAN PROVINCE and southwest The Khoshud ulus remains numerous in Kalmykia; KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE. Gendün Daiching’s third-genera- its princes of the Tümen family were influential until tion successor, Chinggünjab (1710–57), led a rebellion in 1917. The Khoshud traditionally occupy the lower Volga 1756–57 and was executed (see CHINGGÜNJAB’S REBEL- region. LION). In 1764 the Qing authorities separated most of the See also BAYANGOL AUTONOMOUS PREFECTURE; KALMYK Khotoghoid princes’ MINGGHAD subjects and made them REPUBLIC; SUBEI MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; ZAYA PAN- an independent banner near KHOWD CITY. The four ban- DITA NAMKHAI-JAMTSU. ners remained, however. Today the Khotoghoid are con- Further reading: Slawoj Szynkiewicz, “Ethnic sidered Khalkha Mongols. Boundaries in Western Mongolia,” Journal of the Anglo- Mongolia Society 10 (1987): 11–16. Khoton See KHOTONG. Khoshuud See KHOSHUDS. Khotong (Khoton, Hoton) The Khotong are a small subethnic group, or yastan, in Uws province. The Mongo- Khotgoid See KHOTOGHOID. lian Khotong actually call themselves “Uighurs” and were deported by the ZÜNGHARS from the Central Asian cities Khotoghoid (Khotgoid, Khotoghoit, Altyn Khans) of Osh and Bukhara and the neighboring Kazakh and This branch of the Khalkha Mongols was formed from Kyrgyz. (“Khotong” is the Mongol designation for Muslim Khowd province 311 oases dwellers and in Inner Mongolia designates the Hui, Khalkha soldiers supplied the garrison by farming. From or Chinese-speaking, Muslims.) As enslaved prisoners of 1754 one and from 1838 two AMBANs (Qing high officials, war, the Khotong followed their lord, the DÖRBÖD prince always ethnically Mongol or Manchu) and a subordinate Tseren Ubashi, when he surrendered to the Qing in 1753 staff administered both the town and the Khowd frontier, and received land near Ulaangom in modern UWS which covered today’s western Mongolia, Russia’s Altay PROVINCE. Republic, and northern Xinjiang. The Khotong delivered yearly 40 sacks of wheat and Khowd was rebuilt a few years after being sacked by sent 11 laborers every summer to the prince’s palace, Turkestani rebels in 1871. By the late 19th century where they also herded and worked flour mills. They Khowd had three centers: the garrison, called Sang-un were, however, free from any public duties. By the turn Khota; the Chinese trading town, or Maimaching; and the of the 20th century the Khotong lived in yurts and spoke Tügeemel Amurjuulagchi, or Yellow Temple. The the Dörböd dialect of Oirat Mongolian. Even so, they Maimaching was the commercial center of western Mon- avoided intermarriage with the Dörböds and maintained golia and was served by nine major Chinese firms and fossilized Central Asian Turkish and Koranic phrases in more than 50 minor ones. A Russian consulate was estab- prayers. The moldas (from molla, Islamic clergyman) lished in 1905. performed religious ceremonies and placed written Mongolian independence forces sacked Khowd on Koranic verses in the YURT where the Mongols placed August 7, 1912, destroying the Qing garrison and looting Buddhas. Mountaintop OBOO sacrifices were practiced, the Chinese shops. Khowd remained the largest town in although the victims were slaughtered in the Islamic western Mongolia, but the separation of UWS PROVINCE fashion. While losing the use of their native Turki, the and BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE from KHOWD PROVINCE dimin- Khotong resisted using written Mongolian and so ished the city’s role. In 1931 the city was renamed Jar- became essentially illiterate. galant, but the old name was restored by 1959. The city After the 1921 REVOLUTION and emancipation the reached 17,500 inhabitants in 1979 and had a small 2,000 or so Khotong, with a reputation for diligence in diesel generator and local industries. In the 1970s and manual labor, rapidly improved their living standards but 1980s Khowd was used again as a place of exile for dissi- still avoid Mongolian written culture. Only 6.6 percent of dents and resident aliens of Chinese and Inner Mongolian the 6,100 Khotong in 1989 were employed in white-col- ancestry. lar positions, by far the lowest of any Mongolian ethnic group. Khowd province (Hovd, Chovd, Kobdo) One of the original 13 provinces created in the 1931 administrative Kho-Urlük See KHO-ÖRLÖG. reorganization, Khowd lies in western Mongolia. The province straddles the ALTAI RANGE, extending northeast Khowd city (Hovd, Kobdo, Qobdu, Jargalant) Khowd into the GREAT LAKES BASIN and southwest into the Trans- was the administrative capital of the western Mongolian Altai GOBI DESERT. Mongolian independence forces seized frontier under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). Situated this area, the core of the Khowd frontier administration on the Buyant River flowing east from the ALTAI RANGE to under the QING DYNASTY, in 1912 (see 1911 RESTORA- the Khar Us Lake, Khowd is dry, with only 127.4 millime- TION). The theocratic regime made the DÖRBÖD BANNERS ters (5.02 inches) average annual precipitation. The river (appanages) in modern UWS PROVINCE separate provinces, has long been used for irrigation, however. The popula- but in 1923 the whole western frontier was again unified tion of 26,000 (2000 figure) is about 85 percent KHALKHA, as Chandamani Uula province, with its capital at Ulaan- descendants of the local garrison and newcomers, but gom in Dörböd territory. In 1931 the former Dörböd ban- includes significant minorities of Chinese, KAZAKHS, ners were again separated from Khowd as Uws province, ÖÖLÖDs, MINGGHADs, ALTAI URIYANGKHAIs, and others. but several districts traditionally part of KHALKHA Mongo- American atlases frequently misidentify Khowd City as lia’s Zasagtu Khan province were added to Khowd Dund-Us. province. In 1940 the Kazakh-dominated western The Oirat ruler GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN established marches were separated from Khowd as Bayan-Ölgii. a farming colony in the Khowd area in 1685. In 1718 the Khowd has a long frontier with Xinjiang in China. Qing authorities settled 1,000 TÜMED Mongols from Höh- The ethnic map of Khowd was drawn by the Qing hot in Inner Mongolia on the Khowd River as an agricul- dynasty after the conquest of the ZÜNGHARS in 1755–57. tural colony. Chinese exiles were also settled there. In Around the garrison city of Khowd, the Qing settled 1731 the site was moved downstream toward Khar Us Höhhot TÜMED from Inner Mongolia, Khalkhas, and Chi- Lake, and a Qing general was stationed there with a garri- nese troops as farmers to feed the garrison; their descen- son of Chinese Green Standard soldiers. After this new dants today are considered Khalkhas. Around the site was flooded out, the garrison was moved to Khowd’s garrison additional Oirat groups were settled with service current site in 1762, and walls were built. Chinese and obligations toward the garrison: ÖÖLÖDs and MINGGHADs 312 Khöwsgöl, Lake to the north, ZAKHACHIN to the south, and ALTAI territory. In the northeast also reside immigrant Buriat URIYANGKHAI to the west. In the southwest independent Mongols. Khöwsgöl’s Tuvans include the DUKHA (called princely banners of TORGHUDS and KHOSHUDS were set- Tsaatan in Mongolian), Mongolia’s only reindeer herders. tled. In the late 19th century KAZAKHS immigrated and Khöwsgöl’s territory of 100,600 square kilometers settled Khowd Sum, on the city’s western outskirts. (62,370 square miles) is marked by high parallel ridges Khowd province’s 76,100 square kilometers (29,380 and deep valleys. The northern ranges are among Mongo- square miles) straddle the Altai Range and border several lia’s wettest, averaging more than 500 millimeters (20 of Mongolia’s highest peaks. North of the Altai Range lies inches) annually and many rivers, such as the EG RIVER, the Great Lakes Basin, with the freshwater Khar Us and the Tes River, and the Shishigt River originate there. Most Khar Lakes and the salt Dörgön Lake. Khowd’s Trans- notable is the deep and clear LAKE KHÖWSGÖL. Khöwsgöl’s Altai Gobi includes part of the Great Gobi Nature Pre- population rose from 58,200 in 1956 to 119,800 in 2000, serve and many rare Gobi animals. The population of making it Mongolia’s most populous province. Khöwsgöl 42,300 in 1956 has grown to 87,800 in 2000. Livestock contains Mongolia’s second-largest herd of 2,269,600 numbering 1,836,300 graze the province’s pastures (2000 head (2000 figures), with especially large numbers of figure). Khowd’s agricultural tradition has continued on a HORSES (229,300 head), CATTLE (416,500 head), and small scale; the province produced 8 percent of Mongo- SHEEP (944,900 head). Khöwsgöl’s capital, Mörön, has a lia’s potato harvest in 2000. The provincial capital of population of 26,800 (2002 figure). Khowd has 26,000 inhabitants (2000 figures). See also BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST; BURIATS OF See also FARMING; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA; JALKHANZA KHUTUGTU DAMDINBAZAR; SHIRENDEW, BAZARYN. Khöwsgöl, Lake (Hövsgöl, Chövsgöl, Khubsugul) Located among the taiga forest and mountains of far Khoyar Yosu See “TWO CUSTOMS.” northern Mongolia, Lake Khöwsgöl is 136 kilometers (85 miles) long but only 36.5 kilometers (22.7 miles) wide at Khubilai See QUBILAI KHAN. its greatest width. Its surface area of 2,620 square kilome- ters (1,012 square miles) is second in Mongolia to LAKE Khubsugul See KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE. UWS, but with a depth of 262 meters (860 feet), Khöws- göl contains 380.7 cubic kilometers (91.3 cubic miles) of water, more than eight times that of Uws. Its exception- khung-taiji See TAIJI. ally clear water is fed by more than 90 rivers and drained by the EG (Egiin Gol) RIVER; the lake’s name may be Turk- Khunnu See XIONGNU. ish in origin, from Kök Su Köl, “Blue Water Lake.” From 1913 on steamships have plied the lake carrying products Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji (1540–1586) Initiator between Khatgal at the lake’s southern end and Khankh of the Second Conversion to Buddhism in southwest Inner at the northern end and thence to nearby Siberia. In 1992 Mongolia the area around Khöwsgöl was made a national park. Ruling the Üüshin and Besüd clans at Yekhe Shiber in See also BAIKAL, LAKE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; today’s Üüshin (Uxin) banner of ORDOS, this Chinggisid KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. nobleman plundered the Torghud on the Irtysh River (1562). In 1566 Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji brought Khöwsgöl province (Hövsgöl, Chövsgöl, Khubsugul) home from another campaign in Kökenuur a lama, One of the original provinces created in Mongolia’s 1931 Wachir Tümei, whom he made his chief adviser. An inti- administrative reorganization, Khöwsgöl is the farthest mate of his cousin ALTAN KHAN, he represented Ordos in north of Mongolia’s provinces and has a long frontier the western Mongols’ 1571 treaty with China. Already with the Buriat and Tuvan Republics in Russia. skillful in Buddhist language, he gave up horsemeat after Khöwsgöl’s northern territory includes the area of the a vision of a wrathful Buddhist deity. In 1574 Khutugtai DARKHAD, who were “lay disciples,” or subjects, of the and his son again plundered the OIRATS in the Altai, and JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU (see GREAT SHABI). Surrounding in 1576–78 he represented Ordos among the western the Darkhad were the Khöwsgöl Nuur Uriyangkhais, Mongols invited by bSod-nams rGya-mtsho (1543–88), mostly TUVANS in origin. Originally part of Tannu the Third Dalai Lama, to Mongolia. The Dalai Lama Uriyangkhai province, the Darkhad and Uriyangkhai declared him the incarnation of an ancient patron of the were reorganized in 1925 as Delger Yekhe Uula province. Buddha and gave him the title Chogchas-un Jirükhen Khöwsgöl’s southern half contains most of its population (Heart of the Assemblages). Laws attributed to him pro- and is made up of territory from KHALKHA Mongolia’s pre- hibited the killing of animals or servants at lords’ funerals revolutionary Sain Noyan and Zasagtu Khan provinces. and the making of an ongghon (spirit figurine) in the That of Zasagtu Khan is part of the KHOTOGHOID Khalkha lords images and sacrificing to them. He also circulated kinship system 313 the CHAGHAN TEÜKE, which presented an idealized pic- with skulls and bones and the town itself reduced to ture of Buddhist government. In 1580, angered over the scarcely 200 houses. He found a Mongol commander of a delay of a higher title and stipend promised by China the 1,000 and several nobles there. No Russian prince made year before, Khutugtai plundered 21 towns along the his seat there, leaving Kiev, unlike other Russian cities, Shaanxi-Gansu frontier. Special rewards from China fol- with no buffer against direct Mongol rule. lowed regularly thereafter. While meeting the Dalai Lama See also MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL CONQUEST; MIL- in 1585, he achieved a powerful meditation state and ITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL vowed to keep peace with his fellow Ordos noblemen. EMPIRE. After his death in 1587, his wife, Sechen Beiji, received Further reading: George A. Perfecky, trans., The frequent awards from China until 1607. Ancestor of Galician-Volynian Chronicle (Munich: 1973). southern Üüshin’s nobility, he was worshipped by them at his grave until the 20th century. kinship system In the MONGOL EMPIRE wealthy Mon- gol men were organized into exogamous, patrilineal Khwarazm See KHORAZM. clans. By the 19th century the patrilineal clans were visi- bly breaking down. While in some areas matrilineal clans Khwarizm See KHORAZM. resulted, among most of the Mongols the stem family had become the main form of family life by the opening of the Kiakhta See KYAKHTA CITY. 20th century. Urban Mongols today live mostly in nuclear families. Kiev, siege of The siege of Kiev, which ended on December 6, 1240, with the sack of the city, was the final CLANS AND MARRIAGE ALLIANCE great blow in the Mongol conquest of Russia. In the empire period the Mongols were famous for their On the eve of the Mongol invasion, Kiev was, despite genealogical knowledge and their use of that knowledge political turmoil, still the mother-city of Russia (includ- to place one another socially. At the time of CHINGGIS ing Ukraine and Belarussia); whichever prince held Kiev KHAN his BORJIGID clan was made up of sublineages became great prince of all Russia. After the Mongols linked by genealogies reaching back 11 generations. Only under CHINGGIS KHAN’s grandson BATU (d. 1255) the dominant members in a Mongolian clan (oboq or destroyed several cities of northern Russia—Ryazan’, omoq, modern owog) generally shared the same “bone” Vladimir, Torzhok, and Kozel’sk—in 1238, the Mongols (yasu), or patrilineage. Many or most of the poorer sub- turned their attention to the steppe. In 1239 they jects and slave members came from other clans or were advanced against southern Russia, taking Pereyaslavl’ and not Mongol at all. Chernihiv (Chernigov) south and north of Kiev. In 1240 Each clan had a “personality” well known to other Batu’s cousin MÖNGKE KHAN (1209–59), inspecting Kiev Mongols. The clans were also distinguished by common from across the Dniepr, sent an envoy summoning Prince worship of their ancestors, by dedication (ongghola-; see Michael of Chernihiv, then holding Kiev, to surrender. ONGGHON) of different-colored livestock, and by different Michael fled to Hungary, and no prince dared take com- cattle brands (tamagha, modern tamga). They were also mand in the city; a commander of a 1,000 (tysiatskii), associated with different wild animals, although a full- Dmitro, marshaled the final resistance. blown totemic system seems absent. The medieval Mongo- After Batu crushed the “Black Caps” (Qipchaq Turk- lian system of kinship terms has features of what ish allies guarding Kiev’s southern approaches), the anthropologists call the Omaha system, after the American entire Mongol army camped outside Kiev under his com- Indian tribe. This system emphasizes the unity of the patri- mand. Batu set up catapults near the southeast “Polish lineage and its difference from one’s mother’s relatives. Gates,” where tree cover extended almost to the walls, Mongolian patrilineages were strictly exogamous, and began several days of bombardment. On the eighth and the alliance relations formed by these relations were day the walls were breached, and hand-to-hand combat equally as important as the clans in structuring society. followed on the walls, where a Mongol arrow wounded As in other exogamous Asian societies, conception was Dmitro. The Mongols held their positions when night seen as a merger of the paternal semen/“bone” (yasu, fell, while Dmitro and the Kievans walled the Church of modern yas) and the maternal blood/“meat” (miqa, mod- the Blessed Virgin for a last stand. The next day, as the ern makh). Patrilineages had a common “bone” and could Mongols assaulted the church, the people crowded into not intermarry, although distantly related clans (tradi- the upper chambers, and the walls collapsed. The popu- tionally at least 11 generations apart) could be and often lation was butchered, although Dmitro was spared for were made “foreign” (qari, modern khari) and so became his bravery. appropriate marriage partners. JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI, who visited the town in The Mongol marriage system among the clan leaders 1246, described the surrounding countryside as littered was sometimes based on what anthropologists call “gener- 314 Kin Tartars alized exchange” (each patrilineage gave its women to one The spread of Buddhism may also have played a factor by patrilineage and received them from another), in which the eliminating the worship of clan spirits (ongghon) and by wife-giving lineage holds higher status than the wife-tak- weakening marriage. Since, however, the Buddhist New ing lineage (hypogamy). This arrangement was still found Bargas and Khori Buriats maintain clan institutions, reli- among the 19th-century BURIATS, where no single lineage gious changes appear to be secondary compared with the held sway. Under the empire and even before, however, the institutionalized Borjigid rule in the banners. dominance of the Borjigid lineage led to marriage alliances See also CLAN NAMES; FAMILY. being formed bilaterally with other lineages. The resulting Further reading: David F. Aberle, Kinship System of system thus resembled the anthropological “restricted the Kalmuk Mongols (Albuquerque: University of New exchange” (two patrilineages exchanging women in suc- Mexico Press, 1953); Roberte Hamayon, “Abuse of the cessive generations), except that the Borjigid maintained Father, Abuse of the Husband: A Comparative Analysis of such restricted exchange with many lineages (see QUDA). Two Buryat Myths of Ethnic Origin.” In Synkretismus in Among the KITANS of Inner Mongolia, the alliance of the den Religionen Zentralasiens, ed. Walther Heissig and ruling Yelü and the allied Shimo clans approximated Hans-Joachim Klimkeit (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, “restricted exchange” even more closely. 1987), 91–107; Herbert Harold Vreeland, III, Mongol Community and Kinship Structure (New Haven: HRAF BREAKDOWN OF CLAN SOCIETY Press, 1957); Slawoj Szynkiewicz, “Kinship Groups in Clan society remained strong among the Mongols Modern Mongolia,” Ethnologia Polona 3 (1977): 31–45. through the 16th century. By the 19th century, however, genealogical knowledge past three or four generations Kin Tartars See JIN DYNASTY. had become rare among the KHALKHA Mongols and the INNER MONGOLIANS. Rules of exogamy were reinterpreted to prohibit marriage with near relatives on either the Kitan language and script The Kitan language, while father’s or the mother’s side. Related men were addressed still only imperfectly known, appears to belong to the as “brother” (akh/düü) and women as “sister” (egch/düü) Mongolic language family. Kitan syntax is clearly Altaic (younger sister), regardless of whether the relation was in type, with adjunct-head and subject-object-verb word on the female or male side. Only the Borjigid TAIJI class order. (On the Kitan people, see KITANS.) Kitan language (the nobility) retained any corporate clan structure and had two scripts, both written, like Chinese, in columns systematic genealogical knowledge. from right to left. Examples of both are extant today. The However, the cultural vocabulary of patrilineal first, “large” script was created in 920 and was basically groupings formed by a territory, cult of a protector deity, logographic (i.e., one character per word). A small num- consecrated animals, local landmarks, distinct cattle ber of Chinese characters were directly adopted into this brands, and exogamy remained. Usually, these now began new Kitan writing, but most were different from Chinese. to be redefined as marking a local SUM, or subbanner dis- It is unclear how, if at all, case endings were expressed. trict, with the cult attached to the OBOO (cairn) and open This large script, which presumably contained thousands to all resident men. MATRILINEAL CLANS arose in the 19th- of characters, is still undeciphered. century Gobi, laying claim to clan territory and worship- After learning the language of Uighur envoys who ping a single Buddhist protector god. arrived in 925, the emperor’s brother Yelü Diela was Among the Buriat Mongols of southern Siberia, how- inspired to create a new Kitan script, which “though ever, patrilineal kinship and clan structures remain fewer in number covered everything.” About 370 charac- remarkably strong even today. Many know their patrilin- ters have been identified of this new “small” script. Some eal ancestors back 12 generations, and virtually everyone are logograms only, but the characters for single-syllable can trace a kinship network of more than 100 people. words are frequently used as syllabograms (i.e., for their Among the Daurs and BARGA Mongols of northeastern phonetic value, not their meaning), thus reducing the Inner Mongolia as well, clans (called khala from the number of logograms necessary and enabling case end- Manchu term) still function. Among the OIRATS of west- ings to be written. When used as syllabograms, the char- ern Mongolia the clan structure is more visible than acters are assembled into box-shaped composite among the Khalkha but less so than among the Buriats or characters. The meaning and/or pronunciation of only Barga and Daurs. about 130 characters is currently known. Several reasons can be proposed for this disintegra- The extant Kitan script sources include epitaphs, tion of clan structure among the Khalkha and Inner Mon- tomb and stupa inscriptions, and short inscriptions on golians. After 1500 the expansion of the Borjigid mirrors, seals, and so on, with datable examples from (Chinggisid) clan replaced the local non-Borjigid clan 1055 to 1150. Kitan books included original poetry and leadership. Manchu administration by BANNERS formalized legal codes, histories, and administrative compendia this Borjigid dominance and further extended state insti- translated from Chinese. Small fragments from Turpan tutions, leaving no role for non-Borjigid clan institutions. (Xinjiang) show Kitan writing on paper. Kitans 315 Of the known Kitan words, most of the basic vocabu- Kitans (Khitan, Old Turkish Qitañ, Chinese Qidan) lary is clearly Mongolian: tau, “five” (cf. Middle Mongo- The Kitan people of eastern Inner Mongolia founded the lian tabu); jau, “hundred” (cf. MM ja’u); taula, “rabbit” Liao dynasty (907–1125) that united Manchuria, Mongo- (cf. MM taulai); mogho, “snake” (cf. MM moghai); deu, lia, and the borderlands of North China. What is known “younger brother” (cf. MM de’ü); ewul, “cloud” (cf. MM of the Kitan language shows it to be an independent e’üle); po, “time” (cf. MM hon, “year”); sair, “month” (cf. branch of the Mongolic family, less influenced by Turkish MM sara); nair, “day” (cf. MM nara, “sun”); uwul, “win- than is modern Mongolian. ter” (cf. MM ebül); sheu-, “dew” (cf. MM si’üderi); m.ng., “silver” (dots indicate uncertain vowels; cf. MM mönggö); ORIGINS AND EXPANSION kuichi, “arriving” (cf. MM kürchü); g.n.-, “to mourn” (cf. According to Chinese histories, the Kitans originated MM ghuni-). However, a number of terms have no cog- from the Yuwen branch of the southern XIANBI. By the nates in any Altaic language; shi-, “nine”; i.r., “name”; ai, sixth century the Kitans dwelled along the Laoha River in “year”; jurgu, “gold”; m.o, “big”; m.n., “divine”; m.u.-, southeastern Inner Mongolia. They were divided into “holy”; chishideben, “filial piety.” The political terminol- eight clans that elected a common chief for a three-year ogy shows numerous Chinese and Turkic terms. term at an assembly (QURILTAI). Around 600 the Dahe Many peculiar Kitan words may, in fact, be old Mon- family chiefs submitted to the Türk Empire and in 628 to golic words that in Middle Mongolian (the language of China’s Tang dynasty (see TÜRK EMPIRES). In 745 the Yao- the MONGOL EMPIRE; see MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE) and its lian clan overthrew the Dahe and declared themselves descendants were replaced by Turkic forms. Thus, the qaghan (KHAN, emperor). They were allied 755 on with Middle Mongolian equivalents of Kitan jurgu, “gold,” and the UIGHUR EMPIRE (744–840) and the autonomous Chi- hasho, “iron,” are derived from the Turkic altun and temür. nese warlords in Hebei. The position of qaghan remained The Kitan word for “blue,” while not fully readable, elective, however, at least formally. With the fall of the appears to be totally different from the Turkish-Middle Uighur Empire, many UIGHURS fled to the Kitans. The Mongolian köke, “blue,” and to share the same -’an end- Uighur Shimo (later sinicized to Xiao) clan later became ing of native Mongolian color words. marriage allies with the imperial Yila (later renamed Yelü) Phonologically, Kitan was considerably more progres- clan (see QUDA). sive than was Middle Mongolian in the loss of certain Under Qinde (reign title Hendejin Qaghan, 901–07) short vowels, softening of the intervocalic -b-, palataliza- of the Yaolian, the Kitan began to expand. With Hendejin tion of vowels, and transformation of vocal harmony Qaghan’s death, Abaoji, chief of the Yila clan and success- from a primarily front-back distinction to a high-low dis- ful veteran of many campaigns, was elected qaghan in tinction. Even so, it retains the initial p-, which in Middle 907. Abaoji, who knew Chinese, built his power not only Mongolian had became h- or simply disappeared. on military prowess but on his family’s iron and salt After the fall of the Kitans’ Liao dynasty in 1125, the works, which he expanded with captive labor. Kitans under the succeeding Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Encouraged by his Chinese settlers, Abaoji refused to both officials and common people, maintained their lan- submit to reelection when his three-year period as qaghan guage. The Kitan language and script were also used in was over. Executing recalcitrant chiefs and subduing the QARA-KHITAI (“Black Kitan”) dynasty (1131–1213) in rebellions of his ambitious brothers, in 916 he pro- Turkestan. The Jurchens introduced their own script in claimed himself huangdi (Chinese for emperor), and the 1120 on the model of the Kitan large script, reforming it title “khan” disappeared from Kitan life. In 918 he built a in 1145 on the model of the Kitan small script. The new capital, Shangjing, on the Inner Mongolian steppe Kitan small script was widely used under the Jin, and (near modern Lindong). In 947 his second son and suc- translations from Chinese were frequently made from cessor, Deguang (posthumous reign name Taizong, earlier Kitan translations. In 1191, however, the Jin 927–47), flush with ambitions to conquer North China, banned the further use of Kitan. Kitan was still spoken changed the dynastic name from the ethnically limited widely by the time of the Mongol conquest (1211–15). Kitan (Chinese, Qidan) to the supraethnic Liao. In their The Kitan language was no longer used officially under own language, however, the dynasty was called the Daur the Mongols, however, and appears to have rapidly Gurun (Daur Dynasty), a term that was inherited by their declined in favor of Mongolian and, to a lesser degree, provincial descendants, the modern Daurs. Chinese. Under Hendejin and Abaoji the Kitans had conquered See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; MONGOLIC LAN- the closely related Qai (Chinese, Xi) tribes living to their GUAGE FAMILY. south in the mountainous lands between modern Inner Further reading: György Kara, “Kitan and Jurchen,” Mongolia and Liaoning. From 927 on the Qai lived under in The World’s Writing System, ed. Peter Daniels and their own prince and paid tribute, but around 997 the Qai William Bright (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), were integrated into the Liao system, and in 1006 the Qai 230–238; Fengzhu Liu, “Seventy Years of Kitan Small prince’s residence was made the city of Zhongjing, “Cen- Script Studies,” Studia Orientalia 87 (1999): 159–170. tral Capital.” 316 Kitans While early Kitan contacts with sedentary peoples silk and 100,000 taels of silver, but otherwise the two were through deported captives, Abaoji eventually con- dynasties treated each other as equals and maintained quered Parhae (Bohai, 698–926), a Confucian realm cen- the status quo. tered around modern Yanji in eastern Manchuria, in 926. Despite repeated invasions, the Liao were unable to Abaoji’s second son deported the Parhae ruling class to a control either Korea’s Kory˘o dynasty (918–1392) or the new capital, Dongjing (“Eastern Capital,” modern XIA DYNASTY (1038–1227). Both agreed, however, to pay Liaoyang), but Parhae remained semiautonomous until a tribute to the Liao, from 1120 for Korea and from 1153 failed revolt in 1029. for the Xia. From 905 on the Kitan were generally allied with the Shanxi-based Shatuo (or ÖNGGÜD) Turkish regimes. KITAN RULE IN MONGOLIA In 937 Deguang extorted from weak Shatuo rulers 16 From the fall of the Uighurs in 840, central Mongolia had prefectures, including Yanjing (modern Beijing), which remained anarchic. Abaoji advanced toward Mongolia became the Kitans’ Nanjing (“Southern Capital”). Nev- with his conquest of the “Black-Cart” SHIWEI (probably ertheless, a Kitan invasion of North China in 947 ended, around modern SHILIIN GOL) in 907, famed for their carts despite the sack of Kaifeng, in a fiasco. In 979 the new and metalworking. From 912 Abaoji attacked the ethnic Chinese SONG DYNASTY (960–1279) conquered Wugu/Yuguli (probably Uighur remnants) in southeast- the Liao’s last Shatuo client state in Shanxi and then ern Mongolia and HULUN BUIR, and from 916 he attacked invaded the Liao. The invasion was defeated, but the the diverse tribes of southwestern Inner Mongolia. A struggle continued until 1004, when a Liao counter- massive expedition in 924 completed the conquest. attack bogged down at Shanyuan (near modern Puyang) Despite frequent rebellions, the Kitans maintained their on the Huang (Yellow) River. In the subsequent treaty hold on both Inner Mongolia and eastern and central the Song paid annual reparations of 200,000 bolts of Mongolia throughout the dynasty. Kitan with his horse, from a tomb painting, 11th century. The man’s figure is 153 centimeters high. (Courtesy Inner Mongolia Museum, Höhhot) Kitans 317 Mongolia and central and northeastern Inner Mongo- the empire. Abaoji’s ordo totaled 15,000 households. lia came under the Kitans’ northern administration, Although after 950 new ordos were generally “recycled” which administered primarily the Kitan people them- from old ordo personnel, the total ordo population selves. Thus, administration of the tribes of the KHERLEN reached perhaps 80,000 households and could supply RIVER valley, the Wugu, and the closely associated Eight 50,000–60,000 mounted soldiers. The other military Dilie (Töles?) followed those institutions used among the forces of the empire were the Kitan and Qai tribesmen Kitans. Tribes were administered by a Kitan senggüm (perhaps 90,000 households), the Chinese (about (xiangwen, from Chinese xianggong, lord chancellor), 480,000 households), and Parhae (about 90,000 house- assisted by a lingqu (lingwen, from Chinese linggong, lord holds) militiamen. Despite its large number of sedentary director) and staff. The more distant TATARS (renamed soldiers, the Kitan army proved ineffective at siege war- Zubu by later editors) of central Mongolia, ancestors of fare. the later KEREYID Khanate, were ruled either by an ong In the three generations after Abaoji, the Kitan royal (prince, from Chinese wang) or by a taishi (Chinese family moved away from the Inner Asian tradition of lat- grand preceptor) and paid irregular tribute. In 1093 a eral succession to the primogeniture required by Chinese Tatar chief, “Mogusi” (i.e., Marquz, r. 1089–1100), tradition, with the first noncontroversial succession tak- launched a massive rebellion against Liao rule, which was ing place in 969. Abaoji’s empress, Chunqin (Empress suppressed only in 1102. With the pacification of these Dowager Yingtian), refused to sacrifice herself on Abaoji’s rebellions, the Wugu and Dilie tribes and many Tatar grave, as Kitan tradition demanded, and became the first refugees were deported closer to Liao lands. of several powerful Xiao empress dowagers. Ruizhi The main Kitan garrisons in Mongolia were at (Empress Dowager Chengtian, d. 1009), for example, Hedong (Züünkherem ruins in Mörön Sum, Khentii) on ably organized the counterattack against the Song. the Kherlen in Dilie territory and at Zhenzhou (Chintol- Local administration in nontribal areas took place goi ruins in Dashinchilen Sum, Bulgan) in Tatar territory. through routes attached to the five capitals, each of Both areas had walled citadels with small garrisons that which was governed by a regent of the imperial clan. In fed themselves on herds and farming. Kitan-period walls, 947 the central administration at Shangjing was divided coins, and inscriptions have also been found in Sükhe- into northern and southern regions (not to be confused baatur and Middle Gobi provinces. with the dual Yila-Xiao division still in effect within the northern region). The southern region ruled the Chinese IMPERIAL INSTITUTIONS and Parhae subjects. Officials of the southern region wore The Kitan ancestor legend involved a man riding a white Chinese dress, while those of the north wore Kitan dress. horse who met and married a woman in a cart drawn by a After 1055 all wore Chinese dress for important func- gray ox. This focus on an exogamous couple paralleled tions, although the lower-ranked northern officials still the dual organization of the Kitan ruling class, which was wore Kitan dress at other times. At first the legal system formed by the Yila, or Yelü, clan and the Shimo (sinicized was also dual, with customary Kitan law for the north- as Xiao) clan. All the emperors were Yila and all the con- erners and Tang law for the southerners. After 983, with sorts were Xiao; all imperial princesses married Xiao the translation of the Tang code into Kitan, Chinese legal men. The Kitans throughout their dynasty had two grand influence increased, a policy formalized by the unified councilors: a Yila one in the south and a Xiao one in the law code of 1036. The Kitans implemented a Confucian north. exam system for ethnic Chinese, but it never gave access The Liao administered the northern part of their to high office. realm through a kind of semibureaucratic, semitribal structure, ranked according to genealogical and ethnic KITAN LIFESTYLE AND CULTURE UNDER distance from the emperor: 1) the Yila clan itself, admin- THE LIAO istered in households according to their distance from the Hunting and pastoralism remained the principal Kitan imperial line; 2) the Xiao clan and the Yaolian clans; 3) lifestyle through the dynasty’s end. The emperor and his the 34 inner tribes, including Kitans, Qai, Jurchens, court moved among four seasonal nabo (camps) dis- Turks, Tanguts in Inner Mongolia, and Hejen/Nanai peo- tributed between the lower Laoha, the GREATER KHINGGAN ples on the Sungari; and 4) the 10 outer tribes, in eastern RANGE, and the Nanni (Nen) River. In 1086 the Liao’s Mongolia, Jilin, and the Korean frontier. Each had its total horse herd reached 1 million, and shortage of pasture tribal chiefs and also a specified complement of officials, caused hardship. In 1188 the herd composition in the area not necessarily drawn from the tribe in question. was as follows: 32 percent horses, 59 percent sheep and The Kitan development of the ORDO institution weak- goats, 9 percent oxen; that under the Liao was probably ened the power of the outer clans. Each emperor created similar. Pigs were virtually unknown among the Kitans an ordo, which combined the traditional palace-tent of although common among the Qai. Ceramic “cockscomb the ruler (ordo in the strict sense), with a “heart and belly pots” that imitate leather satchels illustrate the popularity guard” recruited from prisoners of war and the people of of pastoral fashions, even among urbanized Kitans. 318 Kitans since been looted, murals depicting historical scenes have survived. Originally, the Kitans, like the Shiwei, exposed dead bodies in trees for three years until the flesh rotted and then buried the bones. Under the Liao the Kitans prac- ticed both cremation and direct burial, from contrasting Buddhist and Chinese influences. Both funerary urns for cremated remains and tombs for burial have been found in the shape of a YURT. While many later burials show strong Song influence, funerary masks show the persis- tence of earlier, possibly XIONGNU (Hun), burial customs. THE FALL OF THE LIAO AND THE KITANS UNDER JURCHEN AND MONGOL RULE The last two Liao emperors displayed the passivity and suspicion born of seclusion. From 1065 the imperial favorite, Yila Yixin (d. 1083), dominated the court, hav- ing the empress executed and the heir apparent first dis- graced and then murdered. In 1114, when a tributary Jurchen chief, Wanyan (Onging) Aguda (b. 1068, posthumous reign name Jin Taizu 1115–23), defeated a Liao army and declared himself emperor of the JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), no adequate response was forth- coming. By 1118 a Parhae rebellion gave Aguda the entire east. In 1120 Aguda sacked Shangjing and dese- Kitan pottery cockscomb pot, 24.5 centimeters high (Cour- crated the Liao tombs and by 1122 had taken all the tesy Inner Mongolia Museum, Höhhot) other capitals. Meanwhile the emperor wandered west- ern Inner Mongolia with a few fugitive loyalists; he was finally captured in 1125. Yila Dashi, one of the remain- ing Liao partisans, fled in 1124 to Mongolia, eventually Kitan language was used throughout the dynasty, and founding the QARA-KHITAI (“Black Kitan”) dynasty under Abaoji two new scripts were created to write Kitan. (1131–1213) in Turkestan. Kitan cultural activity included poetry, painting, and Bud- The succeeding Jin dynasty was deeply suspicious of dhism (entirely in the Chinese tradition), but there was the Kitans yet could not avoid employing them. The little interest in CONFUCIANISM. Twice the court fed all the Kitan officials, particularly members of the Yelü and Xiao realm’s monks: 50,000 of them in 942 and 360,000 in (Shimo) families, were far more literate than were the 1078. Kitans regularly sent at least one son to a Jurchen. Kitan writings were not only the basis for the monastery. Even so, traditional Kitan rituals continued, new Jurchen script but were also the intermediary in including monthly worship of the sun and annual wor- translating Chinese works. The Kitans and Qai were also ship of the dynastic progenitors at the sacred Muye indispensable to the Jin cavalry. Common Kitans and Qai Mountain near the Laoha-Shara Mören (Xar Moron) con- were employed in “herds” (qunmu) under the supervision fluence. Shamans were an honored part of society. Kitan of Jurchen commissioners of herds. In this capacity they coronations included unique rituals such as the supplied most of the dynasty’s horses. Widespread Kitan “rebirthing ceremony,” in which the emperor was sym- rebellions in 1159–64, sparked by total mobilization bolically reborn as a baby, and the “firewood investiture,” orders for war with the Song, were met with the execu- in which a dragon-embroidered rug was burned to tion of all surviving members of the Liao imperial family. announce the emperor’s accession. These rebellions, in which five out of the nine “herds” Archeologists have identified 200 Kitan settlements deserted to the rebels, devastated the Jurchen imperial within Inner Mongolia. The capital, Shangjing, had a stud farm, which did not recover for 20 years. perimeter of seven miles and walls of pounded earth The rise of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) that even today are 6–10 meters (20–33 feet) high and offered the Kitans a new opportunity for revenge. Ching- 12–15 (40–50 feet) wide at the base. Within the city gis Khan himself acknowledged that Kitan discontent open space was kept for yurts. The city was divided into with Jurchen rule was a vital factor in his success. Kitan two halves, a northern one for the Kitans and the impe- soldiers became an important part of North China’s TAM- rial family and a southern one for the Chinese and MACHI garrison under Chinggis’s viceroy MUQALI. Except Parhae. Although the Kitan imperial tombs have long for the 1212 rebellion of Yelü Liuge in Manchuria, the Korea and the Mongol Empire 319 Kitans had no ambition to set up their own state, instead Kökeqota See HÖHHOT. encouraging Chinggis Khan to set up more formal insti- tutions of rule in North China. Ironically, some Kitan Kongrat See QONGGIRAD. advisers, such as YELÜ CHUCAI, acquired notoriety as par- tisans of the institutions of the Jin dynasty, which they had served. Korea and the Mongol Empire After decades of Under QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) and his successors desultory invasions, Korea became an important Mongol the role of the Kitans declined. While Chinggis Khan had client state in 1260. At the time of the Mongol conquest, treated the Kitans differently from the Jurchen, under the Korea was ruled by the Kory˘o dynasty (918–1392). Occu- YUAN DYNASTY ethnic class system they were included not pying all the peninsula south of roughly the 40th parallel, among the privileged Mongol or SEMUREN categories, but the dynasty paid tribute to the JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) among the North Chinese, along with the Jurchen, Kore- while closely imitating the forms and ranks of a Chinese ans, and Han (ethnic Chinese). With the growing literacy dynasty. In 1170 the military caste had overthrown civil of the Mongol aristocracy, Kitans were no longer needed rule, and from 1196 the military Ch’oe family maintained as intermediaries. control over the king. The Ch’oe family overawed the With the fall of the Yuan dynasty in China in 1368, armed Buddhist monks and built up its own armed ret- the Kitans disappeared as an ethnic group, assimilated by inue that replaced the traditional military. Policy making the Mongols and the Chinese. The Yelü surname appears and civil appointments occurred in the Ch’oe household among Inner Mongolia’s Monggoljin (Fuxin) and JUU UDA only. areas, both near the ancestral Kitan lands. The Daurs In 1216 a massive body of Kitan freebooters, pressed have also preserved both the old dynastic name and cer- by the Mongols, crossed into Korea from Manchuria. In tain features of the Kitan language and may be, in part, January 1219 a Mongol detachment appeared, demanding descendants of northern provincial Kitans. an alliance with the Koreans against these KITANS. The See also DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. Koreans submitted, and the Kitans were hunted down. In Further reading: Sechin Jagchid, “Kitan Struggles 1224 a Mongol envoy was killed in obscure circum- against Jurchen Oppression—Nomadism versus Siniciza- stances, and Korea stopped paying tribute. In September tion,” in Essays in Mongolian Studies (Provo, Utah: David 1231 ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) dispatched Sartaq to sub- M. Kennedy Center for International Studies, Brigham due Korea and avenge the dead envoy. After the Mongols Young University, 1988), 34–50; Adam Kessler, Empires ravaged the peninsula, Korea agreed to accept Mongol beyond the Great Wall: The Heritage of Genghis Khan (Los overseers (DARUGHACHI). When Sartaq withdrew for the Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, summer, however, Ch’oe U (r. 1219–49) ordered all the 1993); Denis Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze, “The darughachis murdered and moved the court from Liao,” in Cambridge History of China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes Kaegy˘ong (modern Kae˘ong) to Kanghwa Island, safe and Border States, 907–1368, ed. Herbert Franke and from the Mongols who lacked a navy. Denis Twitchett (Cambridge: Cambridge University A standoff lasted until 1260. Willing to send tribute, Press, 1994), 43–153; Karl Wittfogel and Feng Chia- however massive, the Ch’oe regime adamantly opposed sheng, History of Chinese Society: Liao (Philadelphia: accepting any darughachis, sending a royal hostage, or American Philosophical Society, 1949). relocating the capital to Kaegy˘ong. The Mongols, in response, sent Sartaq back in 1232, until he was slain by a Buddhist monk-soldier’s arrow, and later dispatched Tang- Kitbuqa See KED-BUQA. gud (1235–36), Ebügen (Amukan, 1247–48), Prince Yekü (1253–54), and Jalayirdai (1254–55). The government did Kiyad See BORJIGID. not resist the Mongols but gathered the peasantry into the mountain fortresses and islands to wait out the raids. In 1241 the Koreans sent as hostage a distant collateral mem- Kjachta See KYAKHTA CITY. ber of the royal family, Wang Sun (1224–83). By the 1250s, however, this stalemate began to be unsupportable: 206,800 captives had been taken in Jalayirdai’s 1254 razzia Kobdo See KHOWD PROVINCE. alone. Famine and despair forced peasants to surrender to the Mongols, who began fortifying Uiju ˘ (near modern Köden See KÖTEN. Sin˘uiju) and established a chiliarchy office at Ssangs˘ong (modern Yo˘ nghu˘ ng) with local Korean officials. Ordering defectors to build ships, the Mongols began attacking the Kökechü See TEB TENGGERI. coastal islands from 1255 on. In the Liaodong Peninsula the Mongols formed Korean defectors into a colony of Kökenuur See UPPER MONGOLS. eventually 5,000 households, first under the defecting 320 Körgüz official Hong Pogw˘on (1206–58) and then under Wang 15th and 16th centuries the post imperial Mongols fre- Sun, enfeoffed as prince of Shenyang in 1266. quently raided Korea and took many slave women from In 1258 the Ch’oe clan retainer Kim Injun (a.k.a. there. By the 16th century these interactions had turned Kim Chun) overthrew the Ch’oe family, ostensibly in the into a Mongol legend of CHINGGIS KHAN’s three-year dal- name of restoring the king. The new regime sent the liance with his Korean queen Qulan (historically a MERKID). crown prince Wang Ch˘on (posthumous reign name Korea also became a Mongol military base. Several W˘onjong, 1260–74) to the Mongol court as a hostage and myriarchy commands (none with anything near the full promised to return to Kaegy˘ong. After his father’s death complement of 10,000 soldiers) were established in in 1259 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) sent back the now Korea. The Koreans had to join the campaigns against strongly pro-Mongol crown prince to take over the gov- Japan, supplying 770 fully manned ships and 5,000 sol- ernment. In June 1260 W˘onjong was officially enthroned diers in 1274 and 900 ships and 10,000 soldiers in 1281. at Kanghwa. Qubilai released some prisoners and recalled Korean shipwrights also largely built the Yuan navy that the troops, but Kim Injun repeatedly delayed the govern- conquered the Song, while the prince of Shenyang led his ment’s return from Kanghwa. In 1269 Im Y˘on overthrew Koreans against NAYAN’S REBELLION in 1287. After 1273 Kim Injun and briefly deposed W˘onjong. In response the the Yuan also took over the royal stud farm on Cheju Mongols supported a rebellion of Korean officials in the Island. Prince Ch’ungny˘ol eventually recovered formal northwest and set up a directly administered Dongning control over the northwestern Dongning prefecture (Tongny˘ong) prefecture at modern Pyongyang. In 1270, (1290) and Cheju (1294), but the myriarchy commands as the Mongols mobilized for another invasion, the Three there remained autonomous. Patrols (samby˘olch’o), the military government’s army, The rebels that rose up against the Yuan dynasty after overthrew the Im family, and the officials finally moved 1351 twice even attacked Korea (1359 and 1361). King back to Kaegy˘ong. The Three Patrols themselves feared Kongmin (r. 1351–74) abolished the Zhengdong Branch reprisals, however, and revolted, fleeing first to Chin Secretariat, executed the relatives of Empress Ki, and Island and then to Cheju Island. Not until 1273 did a began the recovery of Ssangs˘ong. In 1368 he enthusiasti- mostly Korean force land on Cheju and defeat them. cally recognized the new MING DYNASTY in China. After After 1270 Korea became a fully integrated client king- Kongmin’s murder in 1374 the military leader Yi In-im dom of the YUAN DYNASTY. Wang Sim (posthumous title turned violently against the Ming and supported the Prince Ch’ungny˘ol, 1274–1308), who succeeded W˘onjong Yuan, which still held Manchuria until 1387. Yi In-im in 1274, had received Qubilai’s daughter Qutlugh-Kelmish was overthrown in 1388, and Yi S˘ong-gye, founder of the as a wife, and his reign began a wholesale Mongolization of new Chos˘on (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910), cut off relations the Korean court that continued to the middle of the 14th with the fugitive Mongol court. century. Official protocol was demoted to that of a subordi- See also EAST ASIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; nate principality, and Korean rulers made lengthy stays at JAPAN AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MANCHURIA AND THE the Mongol Yuan court, both before and after their corona- MONGOL EMPIRE. tion. In 1280 Qubilai reorganized Korea as the Zhengdong Further reading: W. E. Henthorn, Korea: The Mongol (Ch˘ongdong) Branch Secretariat. Intended at first for the Invasions (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1963). purpose of organizing an expedition against Japan, this sec- retariat continued to the end of the dynasty. The Korean prince served as grand councillor (chengxiang or Körgüz (Görgüz) (d. 1242/3) Uighur scribe who reorga- chingsang), but the secretariat’s managers (pingzhang) were nized the Mongol administration of eastern Iran appointed by the Yuan. In 1300 Manager Körgüz proposed Born in Barligh of Uighuristan (near modern Qitai), abolishing Korea’s court ritual and official hierarchy as Körgüz was orphaned at an early age. After studying the inappropriate for a mere province, but his initiative was UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, he borrowed the price of a eventually rejected. In 1313 Prince Ch’ungny˘ol’s son W˘on horse and rode to the ORDO (palace-tent) of JOCHI (d. (posthumous title Prince Ch’ungs˘on) abdicated his title as 1225), CHINGGIS KHAN’s eldest son. Beginning as a herds- king of Korea and received instead a Yuan court appoint- man, he rose to become the page of a Mongol chief and ment as prince of Shenyang, thus starting a rival branch of finally the chief scribe and tutor of Jochi’s children. Jochi the royal line in Liaoning. assigned Körgüz to the retinue of Chin-Temür, then serv- The later Mongol emperors, particularly Qubilai, had ing as DARUGHACHI (overseer) first in KHORAZM and then a great admiration for Korean culture, considering it in in Khorasan (northeastern Iran). Around 1234 Chin- many ways superior to that of China. In 1275 the Mongol Temür sent Körgüz to ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), where his court began requisitions of Korean seamstresses and con- glib tongue pleased the emperor. Chin-Temür died in cubines for the court. In 1341 one such concubine, 1235/6, and the khan made Körgüz governor in Iran. His Madame Ki, became the empress of the last Yuan effective administration caused jealousy among other emperor, Toghan-Temür (posthumous title Shundi, officials, who demanded Chin-Temür’s son Edgü-Temür 1333–70) and the mother of his successor. During the be appointed in his place. A long lawsuit followed at the koumiss 321 court in QARA-QORUM, which was finally resolved in due northwest China’s southern Gansu province. Köten Körgüz’s favor. In 1239 he returned to Khorasan. He won over the local ÖNGGÜD strongman Wang Shixian, a rebuilt the city of Tus and began extending civilian die-hard holdout for the former JIN DYNASTY, and administration westward to the lands under CHORMAQAN. advanced south into Sichuan, sacking Chengdu in Raised with a Christian name (Körgüz is “George”), he November 1236. On his return in 1239, Köten received became a Buddhist but finally converted to Islam. Later, his appanage in the area of Liangzhou (modern Wuwei) in a quarrel, he spoke disrespectfully of the recently in the former XIA DYNASTY, or Tangut territory of north- deceased CHA’ADAI, Chinggis Khan’s second son. For this west China. The Xia rulers had been familiar with central lèse-majesté, the empress-regent TÖREGENE ordered him Tibet and its lamas, and in 1240 Köten dispatched a arrested and executed by stuffing his mouth with stones. Tangut, Dor-ta DARQAN (freeman), with an army to subju- See also PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. gate central Tibet and secure a lama-preceptor. Once there, he smashed two monasteries before receiving news of an appropriate lama, Sa-skya Pandita (1182–1251). In Köse Da˘gı, Battle of (Köse Dagh) On June 26, 1243, 1244 Köten sent an escort to Sa-skya (modern Sa’gya) to the Mongols decisively defeated the Turkish army at Köse bring him to his court. Meanwhile, Ögedei had died, and Da˘gı, opening Anatolia to Mongol rule. While the sul- Töregene began persecuting Ögedei’s former officials. The tanate of Rum in Seljük TURKEY was cautiously friendly to high officials CHINQAI and Mahmud Yalavach (see MAH- the Mongols from their arrival in the Caucasus in 1231, MUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG) sought refuge with from 1240 on the Mongols began probing its frontier. Köten, who protected them in pursuance of his own Realizing a full-scale invasion was imminent, Kay-Khus- ambition to succeed his father. At the QURILTAI of 1246, rau tried to build up a strong army, hiring mercenaries however, the other princes considered Köten too sickly from Aleppo, the Greeks, the Crusader knights, and Iraq’s and elected his elder brother GÜYÜG instead. Returning to Shi‘ite Arab tribes. Other regional powers, the Ayyubid Liangzhou in 1247, Köten found Sa-skya Pandita waiting governors of Mayyafariqin (near modern Silvan) and for him. Köten took instruction from Sa-skya Pandita, Homs and Baron Constantine of LESSER ARMENIA, who sent letters urging the monasteries in Tibet to sub- promised assistance but without any real intention of mit to the Mongols. Köten’s illness grew worse after the fighting. Kay-Khusrau’s own Turkish army was strength- quriltai. Some accounts say he died soon after, while oth- ened by knights from GEORGIA, a princess from which ers indicate he lived until 1253. country he had married. The core of the Mongol army, commanded by BAIJU, was three tümens (10,000s) of TAM- MACHI troops, some purely Mongol and others UIGHUR koumiss (airag, qumyz) Koumiss is fermented mare’s and Turkestani with Mongol officers. Unlike the Turkish milk, the national drink of Mongolia from ancient times army, however, they had been fighting together for more to the present. The name koumiss comes from the Turkish than a decade and had strong group cohesion. The Mon- name qumiz (qimiz in Kazakh) for the same drink. In the gols also made use of cavalry from Georgia and Greater MONGOL EMPIRE the drink was called esüg in Mongolian; Armenia. Troop sizes are hard to estimate, but Kay-Khus- today it is called airag among the Khalkha but chigee in rau’s army certainly outnumbered the Mongols. Inner Mongolia, chigän among the KALMYKS and OIRATS, The two armies met by Köse Da˘gı Mountain, about and segee among the BURIATS. 80 kilometers (50 miles) northwest of Sivas, and Kay- Mares are milked at least four times daily in Mongo- Khusrau gave battle before all the promised contingents lia from late May–early June to late July–early August. had arrived. After a day of hard fighting in which the Several mares are tied to a line fixed into the ground with Georgian knights on both sides pushed back their oppo- pickets and milked with their foals nearby to get the milk nents, the diverse units of the Turkish army suddenly dis- flowing. Traditionally, men do the milking, and all the integrated, forcing the sultan to flee with his wife and equipment is kept on the men’s, or right, side of the YURT. children to Ankara. Baiju, wary of a feigned retreat, With the opening of the mare-milking season and the waited a day before allowing his men to plunder the tying up of the first foals, herders offer aspersions of the camp. Due to the delay, he was not able to capture Kay- first fruits of mare’s milk to the 99 gods (see TENGGERI) Khusrau. The sultan’s Persian vizier, Muhazzab-ud-Din, and anoint their foals, while a speaker offers a blessing agreed to surrender as a vassal, and the Mongols with- (yörööl; see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL). When the mares are drew, but Rum would trouble the Mongols until 1261. released, wealthy horse herders may organize games See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. (NAADAM). This ceremony was called julag in ORDOS, where it was traditionally held on a large scale on the Köten (Köden, Go-dan) (fl. 1235–1247) The first Mon- 15th of the fifth lunar moon. gol prince to patronize Tibetan Buddhism Once the milk is collected, some culture is put in the The second son of ÖGEDEI KHAN (r. 1229–41) by his prin- milk and it is churned in a vast sack, or sometimes today cipal wife, TÖREGENE, Köten was ordered in 1235 to sub- in a wooden butter churn. In all, 90 pounds of mare’s 322 Kubla milk should be churned about 4,500 times as it froths Polatsk and Dmitrii of Bryansk, proposed immediate and foams until the butter is skimmed off and the fer- advance. Crossing the Oka and the Don, the Muscovites mentation is brought to the desired level. To get the faced a roughly equal number of TATARS across a 11-kilo- proper fermentation, the vessel used must be clean and meter (7-mile) front at Kulikovo Pole (“Snipe’s Field,” the temperature closely controlled. halfway between Lipetsk and Tula). Dmitrii placed an The resulting liquid is turbid and white and has a low ambush in a forest by the Don under his cousin Prince alcohol content, rather less than that of beer. As described Vladimir Andreevich of Serpukhov. Battle began in the by the 13th-century traveler WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK, the afternoon, and after an hour the Russians were visibly taste is at first sour like vinegar, but with an aftertaste like weakening, with Dmitrii stunned by a blow and out of almonds. The fat content of koumiss is about 1.5–2.3 per- combat. Late in the afternoon, however, Vladimir’s fresh cent; the protein content is about 1.8–2.2 percent; and it troops charged out of ambush, putting Mamaq and his is high in vitamins A, B12, B2, B1, and C, with small guard to flight. The exhausted Russians made a short amounts of vitamin E. It was traditionally taken for pursuit and captured Mamaq’s camp and baggage train. chronic lung diseases, coughs, stomach complaints, Jogaila retreated hastily, and Oleg of Ryazan’ fled to scurvy (naturally enough with its high vitamin C con- Lithuania. tent), dropsy, gout, and in recent years has been used as Sofony of Ryazan’s Zadonshchina (Beyond the Don) treatment for hardening of the arteries, heart disease, high was only the first of many works to celebrate the victory, cholesterol, high blood pressure, and tuberculosis. and Dmitrii was given the title Donskoi (“of the Don”). Koumiss has a natural tendency to sour quickly and No reliable estimates of the size of the armies or their separate into a clear liquid and turbid white lees. While casualties exist, but losses on both sides were extremely this tendency is not desired today, in the 13th and 14th heavy. Ironically, the heavy Russian losses left Moscow centuries, the clear liquid was separated and allowed to too weak to resist when TOQTAMISH invaded in 1382. ferment further. The resulting alcoholic drink, called Nevertheless, this battle, in which Mamaq sought the qara-qumiz (black, i.e., clear, koumiss) in Turkish, was a assistance of mercenary infantry and was defeated by the delicacy for the khans and nobles. It is also used today in mostly on-foot Russians, showed the passing of the domi- shamanist ceremonies. nance of Tatar cavalry in the western steppe. Today koumiss is also made from cow’s milk and See also GOLDEN HORDE; MILITARY OF THE MONGOL camel’s milk by a similar process. In Inner Mongolia the EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. standard Khalkha Mongolian name airag usually refers to Further reading: Serge A. Zenkovsky, ed., The Niko- fermented cow’s milk, and only chigee means fermented nian Chronicle, Vol. 3; From the Year 1241 to 1381 (Prince- mare’s milk. Fermented mare’s milk is, however, still ton, N.J.: The Kingston Press, 1986): 264–302. everywhere preferred. See also DAIRY PRODUCTS; FOOD AND DRINK. Kuo Tao-fu See MERSE. Further reading: Henry Serruys, Kumiss Ceremonies and Horse Races: Three Mongolian Texts (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1974). Kurdistan Although HÜLE’Ü crushed the local Turkish and Kurdish dynasties in 1358–62, communal strife con- Kubla See QUBILAI KHAN. tinued under Mongol rule. Kurdistan was famed for its inaccessible fortresses and the turbulent Kurdish and Turkmen tribes who sup- Kublai See QUBILAI KHAN. plied troops for armies all over the Middle East and plun- dered even pilgrims going to Mecca. Nevertheless, Kulikovo Pole, Battle of Dmitrii Donskoi’s pyrrhic Kurdish and Turkmen dynasties often came to power in victory over the Golden Horde armies on September 8, the neighboring lowland cities. Early in the 12th century 1380, was hailed as the end of the Tatar Yoke, despite the the Turkmen dynasty of the Artuqids conquered the Russians’ later defeats. In 1380 Emir Mamaq (Mamay) of upper Tigris River valley, around Diyarbakır city in mod- the Qiyat (Kiyad) clan controlled the steppe from the ern southeast Turkey, while separate branches of the Volga to the Dnieper. Facing repeated insubordination Turkish Zangid family ruled Mosul on the middle Tigris from Moscow’s Grand Prince Dmitrii (1362–89), Mamaq and Aleppo in Syria. Later, Irbil in the east came under hired Genoese, Circassians, and Ossetian (Alan) merce- the Kurdish Begteginid family, while the Kurdish Ayyubid naries and allied with Prince Oleg of Ryazan’ and Grand dynasty, founded by the famous Salah-ad-Din (Saladin, Prince Jogaila (Jagiello) of Lithuania to punish Dmitri. As 1171–93), conquered Egypt and Syria. Seeking new Mamaq’s troops reached the upper Don, Dmitrii advanced recruits, the Ayyubids expanded back into Kurdistan, with the troops of Moscow and its allied cities to weakening the Zangids and Artuqids. Kolomna. Since Jogaila’s formidable army was late for the The arrival in 1225 of Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi’s rendezvous, two of Dmitrii’s allied princes, Andrew of Khorazmian troops, in flight from the Mongols, threw Kyakhta city 323 Kurdistan into still greater turbulence. When the Mongol and tyranny. When GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) made commander CHORMAQAN drove out the Khorazmians in Islam the state religion, Mosul passed under Muslim gov- 1231, Mosul and Irbil recoiled into the orbit of the ernors, but Irbil, garrisoned by Assyrian soldiers, ‘ABBASID CALIPHATE in Baghdad. In 1232 the last Begte- remained under a Muslim-Christian condominium until ginid bequeathed Irbil to Baghdad, and in Mosul the 1310, when relations finally broke down. With the khan’s freedman and vizier Badr-ad-Din Lu’lu’ (1233–61) acquiescence, the local Kurds and Arabs massacred the received the caliph’s blessing to depose the last Zangid Assyrian Christian population. With the breakup of the ruler, becoming Baghdad’s intimate ally. From 1238 to Il-Khanate in 1335, Kurdistan passed into the sphere of 1255 the Mongols under Chormaqan and his successor, the Mongol JALAYIR dynasty under Hasan Buzurg, and the BAIJU, raided Kurdistan repeatedly. Mosul submitted in Artuqids again were caught in wars between Mongol and 1244, sending envoys to the Mongol assemblies Türkmen tribal dynasties. (QURILTAI) that elected GÜYÜG Khan (1248) and MÖNGKE See also CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ISLAM KHAN (1251). The Ayyubid ruler of Mayyafariqin (near IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL Silvan), Malik Kamil, and his cousin in Aleppo, Malik CONQUEST. Nasir Yusuf, also sent envoys to Möngke Khan, who imposed overseers (DARUGHACHI) and a census on the kuriltai See QURILTAI. Diyarbakır area. When Hüle’ü (1256–65), founder of the Mongol IL- KHANATE, destroyed the caliphate and invaded Syria, this Kyakhta city (Kiakhta, Kjachta, Hiagt) This double apparent submission disintegrated. Outraged by the city on the border of Mongolia and Siberia was a center attack on the caliphate, Malik Kamil crucified his Mongol first of Russo-Chinese trade and then Russo-Mongolian darughachi and tried to persuade Malik Nasir Yusuf of trade until the building of the TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAILWAY. Aleppo to join the defense of Baghdad. During the SIEGE Kyakhta today is a small town of 18,307 persons (1989) in OF BAGHDAD (January–February 1258), Hüle’ü dispatched the SELENGE RIVER valley along the main highway between his son Yoshmut to invest Mayyafariqin. The Mongols ULAANBAATAR and ULAN-UDE. Industries include shoemak- starved the defenders out after two years and executed ing, lumber, and food processing. Buriat Mongols consti- Malik Kamil. Invading Syria, the Mongols overthrew tute about one out of five residents. Monuments include Malik Nasir Yusuf in 1259–60 before being driven back the old Kyakhta merchants’ guesthouse, the V. A. by the new Mamluk rulers of Egypt. During the Egyptian Obruchaev Local Museum (dating to 1850), and several counteroffensive the Artuqid ruler in Mardin, Malik Sa‘id, fine churches. Altanbulag on the Mongolian side of the also rebelled. His son Muzaffar-ad-Din, however, surren- frontier is a small SUM center with fewer than 5,000 people. dered the city, and Hüle’ü made him governor of Mardin. Kyakhta (Mongolian, Khiagt, Buriat, Khyaagta) is After initial hesitation the aged Badr-ad-Din Lu’lu’ in named for the Kyakhta stream alongside of which grows Mosul had accepted a Mongol darughachi, sent his son, couch grass (khiag/khyaag). Originally Kyakhta was Malik Salih, with troops to the siege of Baghdad and the made up of three towns: the trading site of Kyakhta invasion of Syria, and personally attended Hüle’ü’s court, proper on the Russian side, the Russian administrative thus rising high in Hüle’ü’s esteem. After Badr-ad-Din town of Troitskosavsk next to Kyakhta, and Maimaching died in 1261, however, his other sons fled to MAMLUK (from Chinese maimaicheng, trading town, but often EGYPT, while Malik Salih in Mosul massacred the Chris- called Khiagt in Mongolian) on the Mongolian side. Rus- tian residents and rebelled. The city fell in summer 1262, sian Kyakhta and Troitskosavsk were amalgamated in and the Mongols butchered all but the craftsmen. Orga- 1935 as Kyakhta. nized resistance in Kurdistan thus ceased. While bands of Kurdistan’s dissident tribes, Türkmen, Kurdish, and Arab HISTORY Bedouin, periodically defected to Egypt, the Artuqids In 1727 the Kyakhta treaty fixed the Russo-Qing dynasty proved loyal and in 1297 received Diyarbakır (Amid) and frontier and established Kyakhta as the official site of in 1303 the Mosul area as well. Russo-Chinese border trade. The small Kyakhta fort was The region of Irbil and Mosul was the center of the built on June 14, 1728, and Troitskosavsk village grew up Assyrian (Nestorian) Christians. Soon after Baghdad’s fall, outside it, while Chinese merchants built Maimaching an Assyrian official seized Irbil from Kurdish freebooters south of the border. In 1862 the population of Kyakhta- in Mongol employ. Under Hüle’ü the Mongols honored Troitskosavsk together reached 5,430, and in 1850–60 the Christians, even making the local bishop governor of the average annual trade turnover at the border station Jazirah (Cizre) from 1262 to 1267. Up to 1295 Mosul and reached more than 30 million rubles. Troitskosavsk was a Irbil usually had Christian governors, but faced with center of the Russian and Buriat Cossack hosts along the periodic communal rioting, court intrigue, and rivals ever Siberian-Mongolian frontier and had a surprisingly active willing to promise higher taxes, the Mosul governors, intellectual life, nourished by Russian political exiles. whatever their religion, became notorious for corruption Maimaching was a small Chinese trading town with two 324 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty Chinese-style temples. It was administered by a Manchu lia” as an autonomous area under Chinese suzerainty. By zarguchi (judge; see CHINESE TRADE AND MONEYLENDING). summer 1914 the complete failure of the Mongolian gov- With the establishment of the Russo-Chinese railway ernment’s attempts to secure wider international recogni- link through Manchuria in 1900, Russo-Chinese trade tion forced it finally to join the Russo-Sino-Mongolian through Kyakhta dried up. Even so, Troitskosavsk Trilateral Conference, which opened at the border town remained a center of Russo-Mongolian trade and of edu- of Kyakhta on September 8, 1914 (August 26, old style). cation for Mongolians and BURIATS, many of whom played The interior minister Da Lama Dashijab headed the Mon- a role in Mongolia’s 1921 REVOLUTION. Troitskosavsk saw golian delegation. China had appointed the governor of the Mongolian People’s Party’s first conference in March Heilongjiang, Bi Guifang (b. 1865), and the diplomat 1921 and was GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR’s base for the Mon- Chen Lu (1878–1939), while Russia’s delegation was golian partisans’ attack on Chinese-occupied Maimach- headed by the autocratic Aleksandr Iakovlevich Miller, ing. Burned down in the battle, Maimaching was rebuilt the diplomatic agent in Khüriye. as Altanbulag and flourished as a center of Soviet-Mongo- Throughout the conference Miller held the upper lian trade, with a leather-goods factory and a distillery hand, repeatedly threatening to close the conference if owned by an African-American woman. In 1931 Altanbu- the Chinese and Mongolians did not agree to his lag became the capital of SELENGE PROVINCE (then called demands. Dashijab was recalled from the Mongolian dele- Gazartariyalang). gation under Russian and Chinese pressure because of his In 1937 the railway from Ulan-Ude reached the small refusal to compromise on independence. The final treaty, settlement of Naushki, west of Kyakhta. In 1949 the line signed on June 7, 1915, canceled the cherished symbols was completed via Sükhebaatur town in Mongolia to of Mongolia’s sovereignty, although the Mongolians did Ulaanbaatar. Sükhebaatur town replaced Altanbulag as not have to recognize explicitly those of the Republic of Selenge’s provincial capital, and although Kyakhta-Altan- China. Autonomous Outer Mongolia retained DARIGANGA bulag remained the automotive border-crossing spot, the but lost not only Inner Mongolia but also HULUN BUIR, city never regained its former importance. In 2003 Altan- which was to be a separate “Special Region” under Chi- bulag was made a free zone to encourage trade. nese suzerainty. (A separate Russo-Chinese treaty on November 6 regulated its status). Economically, Russia Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty The Kyakhta Trilateral had its rights to build telegraph and railroad lines in Treaty of 1915 among Russia, China, and Outer Mongolia Mongolia confirmed, along with the right of duty-free replaced the internationally unrecognized independence trade. Chinese traders, however, had to pay a 5 percent of Mongolia from 1911 with a recognized status as a state transit duty at the Mongolian frontier. The one significant under Chinese suzerainty whose autonomy from China concession to China was the permission to station a high was guaranteed by special Russian rights. commissioner in Khüriye and deputy high commission- Although Russian support had been an essential pre- ers in KYAKHTA CITY, ULIASTAI, and KHOWD CITY, each with condition of the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian inde- a 50-man consular guard. pendence, the Russians desired a formal treaty Although unhappy with the treaty, both China and recognizing their privileges there. Rebuffed by China, Mongolia signed. The Chinese had in 1914 rejected very Russia first negotiated an agreement with Mongolia on similar terms from the British at the Simla Convention on October 21, 1912, in which Russia undertook to assist the status of Tibet, but under pressure from Japan they “Mongolia” in guarding its “autonomy.” The precise now needed Russian amity. Ironically, the Mongolian boundaries of “Mongolia” and the nature of its “auton- anger at Russia’s diplomatic pressure allowed China’s first omy” were left unspecified. After Mongolian troops, with high commissioner, Chen Lu, to lay much of the ground- Russian assistance, occupied substantial areas of Inner work for the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY in 1919. Mongolia (see SINO-MONGOLIAN WAR), the Chinese agreed See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. to a joint Russo-Chinese declaration of November 5, 1913 (October 23, old style) that defined “Outer Mongo- Kypchaks See QIPCHAQS. lamas and monasticism From 1600 to 1940 lamas and monasteries formed a major part of Mongolian soci- L ber of monastery residents, which reached about 25 per- cent of the male population in 1925. ety, influencing not just religion but also culture, econ- A meaningful number of monasteries and temples is omy, society, and politics. likewise difficult to ascertain, since they ranged so widely in membership. A 1930 survey found 1,243 temples in NUMBER OF LAMAS AND MONASTERIES Inner Mongolia, and researchers have counted 941 in The name lama (Tibetan, bla-ma), or “high one,” is a Mongolia proper (Outer Mongolia), but the vast majority translation of the Sanskrit guru, while ordinary monks are were only empty assembly halls except during great khu- khuwarag. While “lama” was thus properly a title for high rals (assemblies). One count found about 170 significant monks, in popular Mongolian usage, the term lama is monasteries in Mongolia proper in 1820. used whenever the clerical state is contrasted to the lay. Nunneries did not exist in Mongolia, and marriage In KHALKHA in 1918 census figures show that was virtually universal among women of sound mind and 105,577 men, or 44.6 percent, of the male population body. Pious old widows or the occasional unmarried were registered as lamas. In one Khalkha banner lamas women often took the ubasanja vows and received an reached as much as 71 percent of men, yet of these it was abishig, or consecration, equivalent to the ubashi vow for estimated only a third, or 15 percent, actually lived in men, abstaining from killing, sexual immorality, stealing, monasteries. The rest had been educated in monasteries lying, and drinking. After that they could advance to the and so bore the status of lamas yet returned to the steppe grade of chibagantsa (modern chawgants), shave their in their late teens to settle down with wives and children. heads, and wear a brown-colored robe. They did not, In Mergen Wang banner (modern East Gobi) only 118 however, live in communities. Such women had a hard lamas out of 2,384 men holding the status actually lived life and were often seen as ill omened, especially for small in monasteries. babies and children. Numbers of lamas elsewhere appear to have been smaller. Fragmentary statistics from other Mongol lands EDUCATION AND DAILY LIFE show lamas, whether in monasteries or on the steppe, Virtually all Mongolian lamas were dedicated to the call- ranging from 17 percent (ÜJÜMÜCHIN, 1945) to 20 percent ing by their parents as children. The rare lamas who took (New BARGA in 1945 and the KALMYKS in 1800) of the vows as adults were called shine lamas (new lamas) and male population. A Japanese survey in KHORCHIN found 6 had a reputation as trouble-making vagabonds. The ini- percent living in monasteries. In general, it appears tial vow of ubashi was originally intended for laymen but unlikely that actual monastery residents before 1921 any- in Mongolia was usually immediately followed by initia- where much exceeded 20 percent of the male population. tion as bandi (Sanskrit, vandya), or novice. This initiation Ironically, efforts in the 1920s to strip married lamas of took place around age four or five at home, and it was their privileges may have caused an increase in the num- not until the initiant was seven to 10 years of age that he 325 326 lamas and monasticism actually entered a monastery, although he wore a robe left shoulder and under the right arm. The toga’s color and shaved his head. was brown for a bandi, red for a getsül, and yellow for a Once in the monastery, a monk’s life consisted of gelong. The higher lamas going to assemblies wore a three stages. As a bandi, from seven or 10 to 15 or 17 sleeveless yellow cape, or jangchi, over their toga. Wear- years of age, the monk memorized the daily liturgy and ing of trousers under the skirt (as laymen and -women performed the liturgies he had mastered at the khurals. did) was seen as a serious fault. Most bandis paid for their keep by acting as a servant, On the street or going to the assemblies, lamas wore and many lama-tutors beat them severely. Most bandis left either a high hat tilted forward with a fringe in back or a the monastery in their late teens and took up a house- pointed cap with a soft turned-up brim around the back. holder’s life; only a minority went on to the getsül degree. Street hats often followed a form said to have been Once ordained as a getsül (Tibetan, dge-tshul), usually designed by the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, Zanabazar, from ages 15 to 30, the students became real monks and with a cloth vajra (powerbolt) on top and a higher front had no stated duties other than participation in the daily brim. Other required accessories included a chabri, or services. They had only a meager income from their par- pocket flask, for holy water and a rosary of 108 beads. ticipation in the common services but much free time to go on pilgrimages to other monasteries. Studious getsüls SPECIALIZED ROLES could become gelongs (Tibetan, dge-slong, equivalent to Intellectual activities in the monasteries were mostly car- Sanskrit, bhikshu), or fully qualified monks. Gelongs were ried on in the tsanid (Tibetan, mtshan-nyid) faculties, and widely sought by the laity to perform services at homes even there only by a small minority. Such faculties were and public functions and so had better incomes and less found only in the larger monasteries (see GANDAN- free time than getsüls. TEGCHINLING MONASTERY). The topics included general A lama’s regular income came from the alms given by philosophy and logic, the sutras, monastic discipline, the laity for the religious services performed either medicine, astrology, and the tantra, which was seen as the together in the temple or, more lucratively, in patrons’ most difficult. The tsanid pupils who had completed their own YURTS. Alms given during regular services were studies received the gebshi (Tibetan, dge-bshes) degree divided among participants in equal shares. Better-off before taking competitive examinations leading to the lamas also owned their share of family herds, which were gabju (Tibetan, dka’-bcu) degree. The most advanced cared for either by the family or by hired herders. In only tsanid courses were in Tibet, however, and those who a few imperially supported temples did the lamas receive made pilgrimages to study there could receive more salaries, and that very irregularly. respected degrees: rabjamba (Tibetan, rab-byams-pa) for The status of married bandis living outside the tsanid studies in Tibet, doramba (mdo-rams-pa) for study monasteries was ambiguous. The Kalmyk ruler Dondug- at Bla-brang monastery (modern Xiahe), agramba Dashi (r. 1741–61) ordered that lamas who refused to (sngags-rams-pa) for Tantric studies in Tibet, or finally leave their wives must not be allowed to participate in the lharamba (lha-rams-pa) for defending one’s degree in assemblies, or perform services for individual persons Lhasa’s most prestigious debates. and must be used in secular duties. This law was not, Some monks engaged in periodic meditation however, enforced. In Khalkha the secular authorities retreats, setting up their yurts at some remote place and were very uncomfortable with any limits on boys enter- performing meditation for 30 or 49 days. A much smaller ing the monasteries but certainly could not afford to number of dayanchis (from Sanskrit dhyana, meditation) allow almost half the male population to be exempt from devoted themselves to permanent contemplation in spe- secular duties. Thus, a compromise was made: House- cial hermitages. They held no services and had only a holder lamas continued to be in some sense lamas and skeleton hierarchy to support the full-time dayanchis. participated in the great assemblies but paid taxes and Gürtümbe lamas were media for possession by deities. performed postroad and other duties. Such lamas foretold the future as oracles, and were exempt from normal rules of monastic discipline (see DRESS CHOIJUNG LAMA TEMPLE). Codes of monastic discipline required lamas to wear their distinctive dress at all times. Traditional distinctions of ORGANIZATION OF MONASTERIES rank and ceremony were also made. For monks of the Mongolian temples and monasteries began either as a dGe-lugs-pa, or “Yellow Hat” order, which meant the vast temple (süme) to house an image, a hermitage (kheid) for majority of Mongolian lamas, the color scheme was based the meditation of a holy lama, or as a true monastery on the superiority of yellow, the order’s distinctive color, (zuu/juu in southwest Inner Mongolia, khüriye in over the red of other Tibetan lamas. The basic lama’s Khalkha and eastern Inner Mongolia, and datsang in dress consisted of a calf-length skirt, or bangzal, belted Buriatia). Since many temples and hermitages grew and with a cloth sash, a sleeveless waistcoat opening in the many monasteries declined, however, the names often front (tsamtsa), and a “toga” (orkhimji) wrapped over the did not fit their actual status. lamas and monasticism 327 Regardless of the actual name, monasteries all had lama) and a demchi (steward) to supervise each officially roughly the same hierarchy. A shiregeetü, or “enthroned” registered monastery, but these lamas usually acted as lama, presided over all khurals. In larger monasteries a mere assistants for either the proctors (gebkhüis) in the separate tsorji (Tibetan, chos-rje) handled daily adminis- religious administration or the treasurer on the business tration, and in the largest monasteries a third official, the side. khambo (Tibetan, mkhan-po) lama, or abbot, exercised general supervision. A precentor, or umdzad (Tibetan, INFLUENCE OF MONASTICISM dbu-mdzad), led the reading of the services, and several The influence of monasticism resulted in a widespread proctors, or gebkhüi or gesgüi (Tibetan, dge-bskos) “Tibetanization” of Mongolian culture (see TIBETAN CUL- enforced discipline. TURE IN MONGOLIA). Economically, the monasteries The greatest monasteries, often with a resident included the largest enterprises in Mongolia and may INCARNATE LAMA, were supported by “lay disciples,” or have contributed to the concentration of wealth. At the ecclesiastical serfs (shabi, plural shabinar; see GREAT same time, however, the system of almsgiving and the SHABI), who were, on average, the wealthiest Mongolian leasing of monastic herds could possibly have redis- commoners. Taxes from the shabi and patrons’ gifts gave tributed wealth from well-to-do benefactors to lamas many monasteries large treasuries, or jisa (modern jas), and poorer herders. The lamas had an ambivalent rela- while the BANNERS (appanages) handled all building and tion with Chinese firms, dependent on many of their upkeep in banner-supported monasteries. A treasurer services yet also resenting their silent challenge to the (nirba, Tibetan, gnyer-pa) and secretary (donir, Tibetan, primacy of Buddhist values in Mongolia (see CHINESE mgrom-gnyer) managed all monastery property. The Qing TRADE AND MONEYLENDING). The withdrawal of the authorities required the appointment of a da lama (head shabinar from state duties, while beneficial for them, Badgar Juu Monastery (Chinese, Wudang Zhao) in Inner Mongolia’s Baotou municipality, 1985. This dGe-lugs-pa (“Yellow Hat”) monastery was originally founded in Ordos. It was moved to its present location, and the first buildings begun in 1749. It was granted official recognition by the Qing court in 1756 and at its height housed 1,200 monks. (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) 328 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” increased the burden on the state commoners (see called the new lamas the “Green Hat” order (Mongolian SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD). security services had uniforms trimmed in green). A large part of the lamas’ influence on Mongolian Since 1990, with establishment of religious freedom, society ironically came from householding lamas who left the limitations on private services and religious education the monasteries in their late teens and married. Their have been revoked. A new religious school has been opened instruction in Tibetan letters contributed to the in the old GESER temple east of Gandan-Tegchinling where widespread use of Tibetan script for writing Mongolian boys in clerical habit learn the services and receive a gen- (see TIBETAN LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT). Since bandis who left eral education. Kushok Bakula Rinpoche (b. 1926), a the monasteries could not formally marry their wives or Ladakhi incarnate lama serving as the Indian ambassador to give bridewealth, their children bore their mothers’ CLAN Mongolia, has also funded a large new monastic school NAMES. Thus, monastic education helped disintegrate the campus in ULAANBAATAR, Betüb-Danjai-Choinkhorling. Mongolian clan system already weakened by one-clan One innovation in the new monasticism is the orga- BORJIGID rule and accelerated the emergence of MATRILIN- nization of formal nunneries. The Fourteenth Dalai EAL CLANS in the Gobi. Lama, who has taken a deep personal interest in Mongo- The usual charges linking monasticism to economic lian Buddhism, has also pushed the Mongolians to decline and population decrease do not fully accord with reestablish a celibate monastic order. Meanwhile, a lay available evidence. Since the actual monastic population Buddhist group, led by the Mongolian academician and was around 10 percent of working population, it is literary historian D. Tserensodnom, has advocated using unlikely that it was a crippling drain on the rural labor a Mongolian rather than Tibetan liturgy. The future of force, especially as common monks often worked as car- these proposals remains to be seen. penters, dyers, tailors, and so on. In any case, the anecdo- See also DANSHUG; DIDACTIC POETRY; DUGUILANG; EDU- tal evidence all points to a rural labor surplus, not a CATION, TRADITIONAL; HÖHHOT; JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU; shortage. Figures from the latter half of the 19th century JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU; MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL; consistently show herd size decreasing more rapidly than SHANGDZODBA; TSAM. the population, indicating that problems in animal hus- Further reading: Arash Bormanshinov, Lamas of the bandry were driving population decline, not the other Kalmyk People: The Don Cossack Lamas (Bloomington, Ind.: way around (see ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM). Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1991); Robert Thus, while the monasteries may indeed have limited James Miller, Monasteries and Culture Change in Inner Mon- population growth, it seems likely that the check on pop- golia (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1959); Pao Kuo-yi ulation growth exemplified in widespread monasticism [Ünensechen], “The Lama Temple and Lamaism in Bayin was an adaption to economic decline and not its cause. Mang,” Monumenta Serica 29 (1970): 659–684; Aleksei M. Pozdneyev, Religion and Ritual in Society: Lamaist Buddhism MODERN MONASTICISM in Late 19th-Century Mongolia, trans. Alo and Linda Raun After the great persecutions (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Society, 1978). AGAINST), the monastic life reestablished at Gandan- Tegchinling Monastery in Mongolia in 1944 was funded differently from that in the past. Following a proposal first “Lament of Toghan-Temür” Spoken in the persona made by TSYBEN ZHAMTSARANOVICH ZHAMTSARANO in 1905 of the last Yuan emperor, the versified “Lament of and officially implemented by AGWANG DORZHIEV as head Toghan-Temür” (r. 1333–70) bewails the loss of DAIDU of the Russian Buddhist community from 1927, private and SHANGDU, the two Yuan-era (1271–1368) capitals of property among the lamas was prohibited. All lamas lived the Mongols in China. Two early forms of the poem on stipends from the monastery administration, which appear in Lubsang-Danzin’s ALTAN TOBCHI (Golden sum- itself was funded solely by contributions from believers. mary, c. 1655) and another in SAGHANG SECHEN’s ERDENI- Lamas were also forbidden from performing ceremonies YIN TOBCHI (Precious summary, 1662). Chroniclers of the outside the monastery. Since the number of lamas was so 18th century often rewrote the Altan tobchi version. Since small, however, the stipends proved adequate. Similar poli- the Altan tobchi and the Erdeni-yin tobchi share a number cies were followed in the few monasteries left under the of lines without their authors having consulted the other, hard-line communion in Buriatia and Inner Mongolia. the poem must date back still earlier. In the first-person Monks lived as married men, and the area around poem in the Altan tobchi, Toghan-Temür describes the Gandan-Tegchinling was a lama’s town with lamas and beauty of Daidu and Shangdu and expresses his loneli- their families living in yurt-courtyards. Children were no ness at their loss (“like a new calf left behind on his longer allowed to enter monastic life until they were 18. land”). The second poem in the Altan tobchi, written in The incarnate lama institution was abolished and leader- the third person, adds a more explicit dynastic context, ship in the monastery invested in a khamba lama, or emphasizing how the state and city won by the divine abbot. Informants for the security organs were so com- CHINGGIS KHAN and the bodhisattva QUBILAI KHAN had mon that the famous writer BYAMBYN RINCHEN jokingly been lost to the Chinese. Mentioning the “precious jade leftist period 329 seal” the khan had carried away in his sleeve, the poem same time Khan Uula league under a league captain gen- concludes with a prayer that the khan’s lineage might last eral. While in Inner Mongolia the league captain general for 10,000 generations and that the Buddhist religion left simply used his banner staff, in Khalkha both the assistant behind in Daidu might flourish again in a later genera- general and the captain general had an office (jisiya, mod- tion. This popular poem expressed the Mongols’ regret at ern jasaa) with a small staff. From 1755 to 1823 the DÖR- the passing of imperial splendor and the continuing hope BÖD banners of western Mongolia, the TORGHUD and for continuity with the lineage of Chinggis Khan. KHOSHUD banners of Xinjiang, and the UPPER MONGOLS’ See also LITERATURE; 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES. banners were successively organized into leagues. Further reading: Hidehiro Okada, “An Analysis of After 1921 Mongolia’s revolutionary government the Lament of Toghon Temür,” Zentralasiatische Studien 1 replaced league with the aimag. Completely new aimags (1967): 55–78. were created in 1931. After 1947 the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region was divided into units called aimag laws See ALTAN KHAN, CODE OF; 1924 CONSTITUTION; (province) in Mongolian but meng (league) in Chinese. 1940 CONSTITUTION; 1960 CONSTITUTION; 1992 CONSTITU- Their internal administrative structure bore no resem- TION; JARGHUCHI; JASAQ; KHALKHA JIRUM; LIFAN YUAN ZELI; blance to the old leagues, however. From 1983 to 2001 JUU UDA, Jirim, and Yekhe Juu (ORDOS) leagues were suc- MONGOL-OIRAT CODE; QUTUQU, SHIGI. cessively transformed into municipalities, a measure intended to stimulate economic growth but opposed by lCang-skya See JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU. nationalist-minded INNER MONGOLIANS. leagues The Mongolian leagues under the QING Left Hand, Princes of the See BLUE HORDE. DYNASTY (1636–1912) were a midlevel administrative organ that transmitted appeals and orders between the banners and the central government. leftist period The leftist phase in Mongolia (1929–32) In 1674 the Qing dynasty court ordered annual was a time of radical experimentation and enthusiasm assemblies of the 49 BANNERS’ rulers, noblemen, and staff, that brought economic disaster and finally civil war. in the presence of an imperial commissioner to review The leftist turn in Mongolia was directly related to their military preparedness. Inner Mongolia’s six leagues Joseph Stalin’s collectivization movement in the Soviet (chuulgan, Chinese, meng) received their names from the Union as well as to the increasingly tense international six meeting places assigned for each of these assemblies. climate in northeast Asia. At the SEVENTH CONGRESS OF Most of the leagues corresponded roughly to the previous THE MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY (October tümens (see SIX TÜMENS). 23–December 11, 1928), Moscow’s Communist Interna- By 1751 the leagues met triennially in the presence tional (Comintern) installed a new Mongolian leadership of an official of the LIFAN YUAN (Court of Dependencies). composed mostly of uneducated rural officials and The Lifan Yuan appointed for each a league captain gen- recently graduated students. These inexperienced and eral (chuulgan-u daruga) and deputy captain general (ded dogmatic young officials were, in fact, led by Comintern chuulgan-u daruga). Once appointed, the captain general advisers. Despite warning signs, the Eighth Congress of normally served for life and was succeeded by his deputy, the People’s Revolutionary Party (February 21–April 2, although he could be dismissed for misconduct. The cap- 1930) only accelerated the leftward turn. tain general had to hold the rank of duke (güng) or above The leftist movement strongly influenced culture. and in practice was always a banner ruler (ZASAG). Once Speeches and propaganda plays constantly attacked appointed, he received ex officio the rank and salary of a “cruel feudalists, shrewd lamas, greedy Chinese traders, prince, which made the post very attractive to lower- and foreign capitalists and generals.” In January–Febru- ranking zasags. The captain general’s primary role was 1) ary 1929 a new “Writers’ Circle” formed to write stories to serve as a place of appeals from the banner courts, 2) for the revolution. The group encouraged Mongolian to report to the Lifan Yuan on local conditions, and 3) to writers to turn to realistic prose stories, a new genre in transmit its directives to the banners. Mongolia. A new Latin script was unveiled in February After 1691 the numerous KHALKHA (Outer Mongo- 1930 to replace the traditional UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN lian) banners, despite being divided into 4 AIMAGs SCRIPT, although only in 1932 did a modified Latin script (provinces), had no higher administrative authority. From begin to be used widely. The Mongolian lunar new year 1724 to 1741 the Qing appointed one banner zasag as (Tsagaan sar) was banned as a feudal and religious holi- “assistant general” (tusalagchi jangjun) in each Khalkha day, although celebration continued. Spending on liter- Mongol aimag. In 1728 the league system was established acy, hospitals and public health, and public entertainment concurrently for Khalkha. Thus, by 1741 each Khalkha shot up. aimag was simultaneously a league. Tüshiyetü Khan In the first year the party and government organs were aimag, for example, under an assistant general, was at the purged of “class enemies” and generally unsatisfactory 330 leftist period Adult literacy class during the leftist period. The text in the Uighur-Mongolian script denounces feudal reactionaries. (From XX Zuun Mongolchuud: 2000) members. Party membership dropped from 15,269 in 1928 the Soviet Union an almost complete monopoly on Mon- to 12,012 in 1929, while 238 of the 934 ULAANBAATAR city golian trade. By 1932 total imports reached only half of officials were dismissed. Once the party was purged, how- estimated demand. After the windfall of confiscations, ever, the ambition to draw in the “poor and middle arads newly introduced income taxes could not make up for (commoners or herders)” generated a frantic expansion of the loss of customs revenues, and the 39-million-tögrög the party to 42,000 members in 1932. budget of 1932 had a 12-million-tögrög shortfall. Cover- From 1929 to 1932 9.7 million tögrögs worth of ing the deficit with paper money led to rampant inflation. property was confiscated from 1,022 aristocrats and 114 The leftist policies bred widespread resistance. In high lamas. The entire nobility (TAIJI were about 5 percent Ulaanbaatar and the regime’s other power centers, the of the total population) was disenfranchised. The monas- population expressed its discontent passively. In the teries as an institution and eventually religious belief as a countryside emigration began on a large scale from late whole were attacked. The jisa (modern jas), or monastic 1930; at least 7,542 households, or more than 30,000 herds, were reduced from 3.3 million head in 1929 to persons, emigrated to China. Eventually insurrections 0.39 million head in 1930. The government also imposed threatened the very state’s existence. In March 1930 the a head tax on lamas in lieu of military service. In spring lamas of Ulaangom and Tegüsbuyantu Monasteries in 1930 collectivization began, and by the end of the year Dörböd territory began a DUGUILANG-style resistance, 29.7 percent of the poor and middle-class herders had which was suppressed with hundreds of arrests and been nominally collectivized. The collectives were a com- scores of executions. On April 11, 1932, another far more plete failure, and the number of livestock plummeted serious rebellion broke out in KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE’s from about 24 million in 1930 to 16.2 million in 1932. Rashaant Sum. The rebels, inspired by apocalyptic leg- The leftist policies enforced a state monopoly on for- ends of the hidden Buddhist kingdom of Shambala, eign trade and expelled all non-Soviet foreigners, giving appealed to the Panchen Lama (then in China) and orga- Lesser Armenia 331 nized a formal military command. Garnering widespread the court of his brother HÜLE’Ü (1256–65), the founder support, they conducted ferocious reprisals against gov- of the Mongols’ Middle Eastern Il-Khan dynasty. Due to ernment agents. By May 12 the regular army had to be Armenia’s voluntary surrender, Constable Smbat received called in to crush the rebellion with machine guns, a Mongol wife, and the kingdom was spared a armored cars, and bombers. DARUGHACHI (overseer) and the Mongol census and tax. Late that month Joseph Stalin bypassed the Com- The port of Ayas became the main outlet for European intern and dispatched his personal envoys to report on trade with Tabriz, the IL-KHANATE capital. The Het’umid the situation. Based on their report, which blamed the dynasty eagerly encouraged and participated in Il- rebellion squarely on the leftist policies, on June 10 Stalin Khanid campaigns against MAMLUK EGYPT, partly to wired his men, ordering them to reverse the leftist poli- recover Jerusalem for Christendom but also to fulfill the cies and dismiss any Mongolian official who still traditional Cilician Armenian aim of annexing Antioch embraced them. This they did at the Third Plenum of the (Antakya). The Mongol defeat at ‘Ain Jalut (1260) and party’s Central Committee (June 29–30), inaugurating the subsequent Egyptian reconquest of Syria were thus the NEW TURN POLICY. The rebellion was largely sup- bitter disappointments. pressed by July, with thousands executed, and in Novem- In 1266 Sultan Baybars (1260–77) of Mamluk Egypt ber special economic aid from the Soviet Union was sent advanced into Cilicia. Rejecting Baybars’ offer of alliance, and an amnesty for survivors proclaimed to win back the Het’um sought assistance from the Mongol commander regime’s popular support. in Rum. Before the Mongol army arrived, however, the See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; REVOLUTIONARY Egyptians had defeated the Armenians and ravaged the PERIOD. whole country, burning the capital at Sis. Het’um soon abdicated in favor of his son Levon II (1269–89), who had been held captive in Egypt for two years. Raids from Legdan See LIGDAN KHAN. Egypt and pro-Egyptian Turkmen culminated in Baybars’ second invasion in 1277. Again the Mongol response was Lesser Armenia The kings of Lesser Armenia in Cili- too late, and Abagha Khan’s (1265–82) long-awaited cia made a strategic decision in 1242 to ally with the Mongol counteroffensive of 1281–82, in which Levon Mongols. While they remained true to this alliance for joined, was a miserable failure. Under Arghun Khan decades, the kingdom eventually suffered greatly in the (1284–91) the Il-Khans used Levon as an intermediary to wars with Egypt. reopen an alliance with the Frankish powers. The Il- While not an Armenian homeland, the plain of Cili- Khans’ continued attempts to conquer Egypt ensured that cia was settled by many Armenian noblemen and their Lesser Armenia’s diplomatic and military importance con- dependents. By 1100 the Rubenids in the east and the tinued even after GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) converted Het’umids in the west dominated the region. Deftly han- the Il-Khanate to Islam. dling the outside powers—the Byzantine Empire, the sul- Despite the anti-Christian persecutions early in his tanate of Rum in central TURKEY, the Frankish (Latin reign, Ghazan Khan confirmed the immunities of the Christian) Crusaders in Antioch and Cyprus, and Muslim Christian church in Lesser Armenia and to a limited sultans in Syria—Levon I (1199–1219) of the Rubenid extent in Greater Armenia as well. Even so, Mongol con- family was crowned king of Armenia in 1199 in the new trol was increasing and in 1303, after the defeat of capital of Sis (modern Kozan). French law, dress, and Ghazan’s campaign against Egypt, in which King Het’um names powerfully influenced the Armenian nobility. The II (1289–1307) personally participated, 1,000 Mongol lower classes were mostly Greek and Armenian with troops were stationed in Lesser Armenia. The garrison Turkish nomads and Italian merchants. Levon died with- was soon drawn into the kingdom’s internal struggles. In out a son, and the regent, Baron Constantine (Kons- 1307 the Mongol darughachi Bulargi, with the support of tendin) of the Het’umid family, married his son Het’um I the Armenian nobility hostile to Het’um II’s pro-Roman (1230–69) to Levon’s daughter Zabel, starting the Het’u- policy, put him and other members of the royal family to mid dynasty. death. In 1243 Baron Constantine promised to Sultan Little is known of the final three decades of Mongol Ghiyas-ad-Din Kay-Khusrau of Rum an alliance against rule in Lesser Armenia. The last Il-Khan, Abu-Sa‘id the Mongol commander BAIJU but later reneged. When (1316–35), made peace with Egypt in 1323. While still Ghiyas-ad-Din lost the Battle of Köse Da˘gı, the Het’u- subject to the Mongols, the Armenian authorities began mids submitted to the Mongols. Constable Smbat, Het- to travel directly to Egypt to negotiate payment of trib- ’um I’s older brother, traveled four years to and from an ute in return for temporary cessation of raids. The Kara- audience first with BATU on the Volga and then with man (Laranda) Turkmen to the northwest also became Great Khan GÜYÜG (1246–49) in Mongolia. From Easter- aggressive. After the fall of the Il-Khanate, the Het’umid tide 1252 to September 1256 King Het’um I himself line ceased in 1341, and Egypt conquered Lesser Arme- stayed at the court of MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) and at nia in 1375. 332 Lhümbe Case See also ‘AIN JALUT, BATTLE OF; CHRISTIAN SOURCES ON 1215. He served in the Khorazmian campaign with dis- THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL tinction and was granted a high-born Kitan woman of the EMPIRE; GEORGIA. defeated QARA-KHITAI as a wife. After Chinggis’s death Further reading: Ani Atamian Bournoutian, “Cilician Bül-Qaya served in Yanjing (modern Beijing) as judge Armenia,” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern and inspector general. Chinggis’s daughter-in-law Times, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian (New York: St. Mar- SORQAQTANI BEKI became his patron, and his personal tin’s Press, 1977), 273–292. appanage grew to 30 households and shops, gardens, and fields in Zhongshan (modern Dingxian). In 1231 Bül-Qaya became Yanjing South Route Lhümbe Case The Lhümbe Case of 1933 led to more surveillance commissioner (Lianfangshi). Already enam- than 400 arrests for involvement in a concocted Japanese ored of Confucian civilization, he took the “Lian” of his spy ring. office as surname, becoming Lian Xiaoyi (Filial and Righ- In early July 1933 an internal security agent, Danzin, teous), while his second son, born on January 26 of that in Norowlin Sum, KHENTII PROVINCE, who had been year, he named Lian Xixian. Lian Xixian early assimilated involved with the local cooperative chairman, Tsebegjab, Confucian ethics, pleading as a child with his father to in a love triangle, manufactured a letter implicating Tse- show mercy to an impoverished criminal, but once as an begjab as a key member of a Japanese plot to take over adolescent in his father’s absence personally flogging fam- Mongolia. The accusation dovetailed with the long-held ily servants who showed disrespect to his mother. suspicions of the Soviet authorities about the loyalties of In 1250 Lian Xixian accompanied his father on a the Buriats who had fled the Russian Revolution to settle visit to the Mongolian camp of Sorqaqtani Beki’s son in northeast Mongolia. Qubilai. Qubilai admired the young man and added him Within two weeks Tsebegjab’s case had chain-reacted to his entourage, giving him the nickname “Lian Mengzi” into scores of arrests of “counterrevolutionaries” and from his enthusiasm for the Confucian philosopher Men- “Japanese spies” in Khentii province. Tsebegjab’s coerced cius (Chinese, Mengzi). Compared to Qubilai’s Chinese testimony also led on June 22 to the arrest of more than Confucians, Lian was robust and an excellent marksman, 30 ULAANBAATAR officials, including the disgraced former which won him credit among the prince’s Mongol com- prime minister Jigjedjab (Ts. Jigjidjaw, 1894–1933) and a panions. current top party leader, Lhümbe (J. Lhümbe, 1902–34), From 1254 to 1257 Qubilai appointed Lian Xixian to who had fallen out with Prime Minister GENDÜN. head the newly created Pacification Commission in Gendün’s security chief, Namsarai (D. Namsrai), who had Jingzhao (modern Xi’an), where he concentrated on earlier chaired the commission to sentence antigovern- enforcing existing decrees from ÖGEDEI KHAN’s reign ment rebels, actively guided the investigation. Another (1229–41), limiting interest to an amount equal to the wave of arrests occurred in EASTERN PROVINCE. From the principal and emancipating all Confucian scholars held beginning Soviet instructors, both Russian and Buriat, in slavery. In 1257 MÖNGKE KHAN sent his governor of and their Mongolian pupils used systematic torture and North China, ‘Alam-Dar, and his deputy, Liu Taiping, to coached testimony to expand the list of those implicated. investigate charges of embezzlement and withholding tax Most of those convicted were sentenced at show trials in revenues against the Pacification Commissions. Despite December 1933. Eventually, 60 persons were executed, the two investigators’ inability to document any corrup- 257 were imprisoned, and 126 were deported to the tion, the Pacification Commissions were abolished. Siberian labor camp in Kolyma. Of those imprisoned or During winter 1259–60, after Möngke’s death, Lian executed, 251 were BURIATS; 141 of those arrested were Xixian help gather support for Qubilai’s election as great ordinary officials, 22 were security agents, and 149 were khan. In July 1260 QUBILAI KHAN appointed Lian the paci- herders. Lhümbe himself refused to admit his guilt, even fication commissioner of Shaanxi and Sichuan, provinces after torture in Moscow, and was returned to Mongolia where Qubilai’s rival ARIQ-BÖKE had already appointed and executed on June 30, 1934. Liu Taiping as civil administrator. Lian Xixian and his See also BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA; colleagues executed Liu Taiping, won over several waver- GREAT PURGE; JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; NEW ing generals, and pushed through an all-out mobilization TURN POLICY. of men and materiel to expand the pro-Qubilai army, despite hardship wrought by years of military operations Lian Xixian (Lien Hsi-hsien) (1231–1280) An Uighur and a severe drought. Meanwhile, the Song still menaced raised in China and one of Qubilai’s highest-ranking and Mongol-held Sichuan, and Lian had to battle several pro- most insistent promoters of Confucianism posals to simply abandon the province. The family of Lian Xixian were old officials in the Uighur In March 1262 Lian Xixian was promoted to manager kingdom. Lian’s father, Bül-Qaya (1197–1265, sometimes (pingzhang) in the central Secretariat with supervision erroneously written as Buyruq-Qaya), was enrolled as a over Shaanxi and Sichuan, and in 1263 he returned to the hostage in CHINGGIS KHAN’s KESHIG (imperial guard) in capital. Lian Xixian now tried to push Qubilai toward Lifan Yuan 333 curtailing the hereditary privileges of the conquest class. army of feudal levies from Poland and Moravia, knights In his 1265 inspection tour of Shandong, he concentrated of the Templar, Hospitaller, and Teutonic orders, and an on punishing abuses of power by princely appanage hold- infantry of Silesian miners of Bavarian origin under Duke ers. Nevertheless, his most serious opponent was not the Boleslaw Szepiolka. The Mongols advanced in a narrow old servants of the dynasty but a raising Turkestani fiscal column to minimize their front and encourage Henry to expert, AHMAD FANAKATI. In 1264 Lian’s criticism pro- attack. Once Henry had committed all his cavalry, the voked Qubilai to reverse a major expansion in Ahmad’s Mongols in the rear fanned out and showered the Polish authority; yet, in 1268, as Lian sought to set up a censo- flanks with arrows. Explosive shells fired by Mongol cata- rate, he had to fight Ahmad again. pults further disoriented the Poles, and the Polish army Lian Xixian also promoted Confucian principles by was routed. Henry and Boleslaw Szepiolka were killed. example, mourning his Kitan mother’s death with osten- The Mongols, after skirmishes with Wenceslas’s tatious grief, refusing to perform the Buddhist fasting, Bohemian troops, rode through Moravia to rendezvous which Qubilai, on advice of the Tibetan lama ’Phags-pa, with the troops in Hungary. had enjoined on his court, and adopting a stern and seri- See also CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS; MILITARY ous attitude in all discussions of state business. This prin- OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. cipled refusal to compromise his sense of Confucian duty eventually damaged his relations with his sovereign, and Lien Hsi-hsien See LIAN XIXIAN. after a minor dispute in 1270 Qubilai dismissed him. In 1274 Qubilai once again sought Lian Xixian, Lifan Yuan The Lifan Yuan (literally, Court of Admin- appointing him to investigate abuses of power by Mongol istration of the Dependencies, commonly translated appanage holders in Manchuria. In 1275, at the urgent Court of Colonial Affairs) was the organ of the QING insistence of Ariq-Qaya (1227–87), an Uighur general DYNASTY (1636–1912) charged with administering first garrisoning the area, Qubilai appointed Lian Xixian head the Mongols and later all the empire’s Inner Asian depen- of the branch secretariat at Jiangling (modern Shashi) in dencies. Hubei, recently conquered from the Song. During his The Lifan Yuan was originally created in 1636 as the three years there, he saw the task as one of civilizing the Mongol Department (Manchu, Monggo jurgan, Mongol, Song “barbarians,” inculcating sound Confucian princi- Monggol jurgan). In 1638 it was renamed the Lifan Yuan, ples and Yuan loyalism, and demilitarizing Mongol or in Mongolian the Court of Administration of the administration. Since his dismissal, Lian Xixian had been Autonomous Mongolian States (Gadagadu Monggol törö- in poor health, and in 1277 he was recalled to SHANGDU yi zasakhu yabudal-un yamun), with a mandate to handle for convalescence. Despite, or perhaps because of, his all affairs relating to the autonomous Mongol BANNERS. great support by the Confucian lobby and the heir appar- As the Qing dynasty’s Inner Asian empire expanded, so ent, JINGIM, Qubilai did not appoint him to any influen- did the court’s competence. Until 1861 the court also tial post before his death on December 11, 1280. handled relations with Russia and the dynasty‘s other See also CONFUCIANISM. northern and western neighbors. Further reading: C. C. Hsiao, “Lien Hsi-hsien,” in In Under the emperors Hong Taiji (1627–43), Kangxi the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early (1662–1722), and Yongzheng (1723–35) the Lifan Yuan Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz was of capital importance, frequently headed by princes et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 480–499. of the blood and included in the highest imperial deliber- ations. Later, with the pacification of Inner Asia, its Liegnitz, Battle of (Legnica) At the Battle of Liegnitz importance declined. The senior directors were all (today Legnica) in western Poland, the Mongols deci- Manchus or Mongols (from either the EIGHT BANNERS or sively defeated the armies of Poland and the Teutonic from the nobility of southeast Inner Mongolia), with only Knights on April 9, 1241. a single low-ranking office manager position reserved for As the Mongols invaded Hungary, a separate column a Chinese-martial bannerman. Of the top 68 offices, 43 under Hordu (CHINGGIS KHAN’s senior grandson) and were reserved for Mongols, but the highest offices and “Peta” (perhaps Baidar, CHA’ADAI’s son) attacked Poland. department heads were Manchus. While a detachment pillaged northern Poland, the col- By 1761 the Lifan Yuan was divided into six bureaus umn’s main force drove through southern Poland, (Mongolian, kheltes, Chinese si) handling: 1) Inner Mon- ambushing a Polish army (March 18) and sacking the golia; 2) reception of Inner Mongolian princes; 3) recep- capital of Cracow (Kraków) (March 24). Wrocl/aw (Bres- tion of KHALKHA’s princes and supervision of Mongolian lau) came under siege, but the Mongols broke off when and Tibetan INCARNATE LAMAS; 4) Khalkha, Oirat, and news came that Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, was march- CHAKHAR Mongols, the selection of AMBANs, and Russian ing to the aid of Henry the Pious (r. 1238–41), the Polish relations; 5) administration of justice for Mongols; and 6) duke of Silesia. The Mongol army reunited, and Henry Xinjing. To assist its administrative duties, the Lifan Yuan the Pious marched out from his castle of Liegnitz with an ran schools for Mongolian language both in the UIGHUR- 334 Lifan yuan zeli MONGOLIAN SCRIPT and the CLEAR SCRIPT and in Tibetan. sumptuary legislation; kidnapping and slavery; perjury The records of the Lifan Yuan were invaluable in compil- and judicial procedure; sentencing regulations; pardons ing the numerous monuments of Qing colonial historiog- and amnesties; game laws and nature preserves; assault; raphy and geography still used by researchers today. arson; spreading epizootic diseases; INCARNATE LAMAs; In 1906 the Lifan Yuan was renamed the Lifan Bu, or administration of Tibet; and Russian embassies and com- Ministry of Dependencies. Since Xinjiang had been made mercial missions. a province in 1884, the Republic of China renamed it the In 1811 the Lifan Yuan formalized the process of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Bureau in 1912. Promoted applying the Daqing lüli wherever the Lifan yuan zeli was to a department in 1914 and a commission in 1928, the silent, which reduced the need for a new Mongolian organization still exists in Taiwan. Its attached Mongolian code. Still, revised editions of the Lifan yuan zeli were and Tibetan school was the training ground for two gen- issued in 1843, 1891, and 1908. In practice Mongolian erations of nationalist Inner Mongols and the precursor courts applied both the Lifan yuan zeli and the Daqing of the current Nationalities University in Beijing. lüli rather inconsistently. Qing law was the basis for the Further reading: Chia Ning, “The Lifanyuan and the incomplete legal code of Mongolia’s independent theo- Inner Asian Rituals in the Early Qing (1644–1795),” Late cratic government published in serial form from 1914 on. Imperial China 14 (1993): 60–92. After the 1921 REVOLUTION, however, European and Soviet legal concepts rapidly replaced Qing law. Lifan yuan zeli The Lifan yuan zeli (Laws and regula- Further reading: Mamoru Hagihara, “Mongol Law of tions of the Court of Dependencies) was the final form of Qing Dynasty and Judgement System in Mongolia, the law codes drawn up for Mongolia by the LIFAN YUAN 17–19th Century,” Bulletin of Kobe University of Mercan- under the Manchu Qing dynasty (1636–1912). tile Marine 1 (2000): 195–200; Dorothea Heuschert, The first Qing code for Mongolia was issued in 1643 “Legal Pluralism in the Qing Empire: Manchu Legislation as the Menggu lüli, “Mongolian code” (Mongolian: Mong- for the Mongols,” International History Review 20 (1998): gol-un tsaaza bichig), the earliest extant edition of it is 310–324; Valentin A. Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles that of 1696. As was traditional in Mongolia, punishments of Mongol Law (1934; rpt., Bloomington: Indiana Univer- were still mostly cattle fines and included payments to the sity, 1965); Masao Shimada, “Studies in the Effectivity of victim. The 1696 code, however, introduced from Chinese the Ch’ing Mongol Laws.” in Proceedings of the 35th Per- law several provisions on aggravation or mitigation of manent International Altaistic Conference, ed. Chieh-hsien offenses and specified methods of execution. Ch’en (Taipei: Center for Chinese Studies Materials, Under the Qianlong emperor (1736–96) Chinese 1993), 437–441. legal distinctions of intent were applied consistently, CAT- TLE fines and compensation for the victims disappeared, Ligdan Khan (Ligden; Chinese, Lindan; Tibetan, and compulsory imperial review of capital sentences was Legs-Idan) (b. 1588, r. 1604–1634) The last emperor of introduced. Corporal punishment became pervasive, and the Northern Yuan dynasty, whose rule generated violent penal exile was introduced. The changes culminated in opposition the 1789 Menggu lüli and the final displacement in His father, Mangghus Mergen Taiji, having died early, Lig- KHALKHA Mongolia of the native KHALKHA JIRUM code. dan succeeded his grandfather Buyan Sechen Khan (b. From 1790, if an applicable statute could not be found in 1555, r. 1593–1603) as khan of the Great Yuan with the the Menggu lüli, then the general Qing code, the Daqing reign title Khutugtu. At the time, the great khan’s lüli, would be applied. As a result, Mongolian law began CHAKHAR people occupied the upper Shara Mören (Xar to converge rapidly on the law of China. In 1811 the Moron) valley. Ligdan at first allied with princes of the Lifan Yuan began a complete revision of the 1789 code southern KHALKHA (modern Baarin [Bairin] and Jarud that was issued in 1817 under the title Lifan yuan zeli. bannermen) in raiding China and in 1620 received an The new code was much larger than its predecessors, yet annual subsidy from the Ming of 40,000 taels of silver. By already by 1818 a new edition was needed. It was issued 1614, however, the Jarud and KHORCHIN nobles had in 1826 with 1,554 articles. become QUDA (in-laws) with the rising Manchus to the Like previous codes, the Lifan yuan zeli included east. In 1620, after an exchange of contemptuous letters, both administrative regulations and criminal law. Sub- Ligdan and the Manchu khan Nurhachi (b. 1558, jects covered included the composition of the Lifan Yuan; 1616–26) broke off relations, but his three-day siege of the BANNERS and their rulers’ ranks, prerogatives, and the Khorchin nobleman (NOYAN) Uuba in 1625 was bro- salaries; AMBANs; imperial herds; census regulations; ken by Manchu assistance. farming; public granaries; taxation; imperial audiences in Ligdan aimed at centralizing Mongolian rule. He Beijing; seals; marriages; funerary sacrifices; memorial appointed two officials, at least one of whom was a non- tablets; famine relief; military preparedness; LEAGUES; Chinggisid, to rule the eastern and western tümens (con- postroads (see JAM); border guards; murder and federations) and organized a special court nobility and a manslaughter; robbery; theft; desecration of graves; corps of 300 baaturs (heroes). Ligdan allied with TSOGTU literature 335 TAIJI of the northern Khalkha to revive the old Sa-skya-pa Li Tan immediately moved north to secure Yidu, yet, as order of Qubilai’s time, inviting that order’s Sharba Qubilai’s adviser Yao Shu (1203–80) predicted, he did not Khutugtu to be his priest. Sharba Khutugtu installed in press on to the capital but instead attacked neighboring his capital an image of Mahakala that had supposedly Shandong cities. Qubilai, occupied with ARIQ-BÖKE’s been presented to the famous Sa-skya-pa monk ’Phags-pa opposition in Mongolia, ordered an emergency mobiliza- (1235–80) by QUBILAI KHAN. By making use of earlier tion of loyal Chinese forces in Henan, Hebei, and western translation work, in 1628–29 Ligdan compiled a com- Shandong to converge on the rebels. plete Mongolian translation in manuscript of the bKa’- Meanwhile, Li Tan’s father-in-law Grand Councillor ’gyur, in the colophons of which he proclaimed himself Wang Wentong, the designer of the dynasty’s paper cur- “Chinggis Khan,” “god of gods,” “Indra,” and so on. He rency, was implicated and executed on March 14. Qubi- also built a capital at Chaghan-Khota (near modern Lin- lai’s commanders soon besieged Li Tan’s forces at Ji’nan. dong) and temples at Khüriye (Hure). On August 6 Li Tan tried to drown himself but was cap- By 1627, however, the other tümens were in full tured and executed. While short lived, Li Tan’s Rebellion revolt. Princes ruling the Sünid, ÜJÜMÜCHIN, and Abagha pushed Qubilai to separate military and civilian powers (Abag) revolted and moved northwest. In alliance with in North China. the Three Western Tümens and the south Khalkha, they Further reading: H. L. Chan, “Li T’an,” in In the Ser- attacked Ligdan at Zhaocheng. The allies were defeated, vice of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol- and in 1628–29 Ligdan raided Xuanfu (modern Xuan- Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. hua), Datong, and Yansui (modern Yulin). Hoping he (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 500–519. would check the Manchus, the Ming increased his annual subsidy to 81,000 taels silver. In 1632 Nurhachi’s son literature While developing through close contact Emperor Hong Taiji (1627–43) and his southern Khalkha with other Asian literatures, prerevolutionary Mongolian and Khorchin allies launched a massive expedition literature is pervaded by distinctive themes and poetical against Ligdan, who with his Mahakala image, wives, characters drawn from historical legends and folk poetry. sons, and Chakhar people retreated west into ORDOS. The distinctive range of foreign influences—it is the only Starvation ruled in the Three Western Tümens’ overbur- literature in Asia equally fertilized by both Indo-Tibetan dened pastures. Ligdan made himself yet more unpopular and Chinese influences—also adds to the flavor of pre- by seizing the wife of Erinchin Jinong (b. 1600, r. revolutionary Mongolian literature. Modern Mongolian 1627–56) and taking the EIGHT WHITE YURTS, or shrine of literatures have developed under strong Russian (Mongo- Chinggis Khan, with him to Kökenuur (Qinghai). In lia) and Chinese influence (see INNER MONGOLIANS), but 1634 he died of smallpox at Shara Tala (in modern through their ongoing links to premodern traditions they Tianzhu country, Gansu). In June 1635 his sons and have preserved a distinct character. Little of Mongolian wives surrendered to Hong Taiji’s generals at Toli in literature has yet been adequately translated into English Ordos, and in 1636 the Mahakala image was enshrined in or other European languages. the Manchu capital of Mukden (modern Shenyang). On the literature of other Mongolian groups, see BURI- See also NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY. ATS; KALMYKS; UPPER MONGOLS; XINJIANG MONGOLS. LITERATURE OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE Ligden See LIGDAN KHAN. Mongolian literature begins with perhaps its greatest mon- ument, the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, written around Lindan See LIGDAN KHAN. 1252, only a few decades after the adoption of the UIGHUR- MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. Although other historical works were Li Tan’s Rebellion The rebellion of Li Tan in 1262 written in Mongolian in this period, none has survived against Mongol rule was rapidly suppressed but led to a except in translation, and, judging from the translations, court purge and changes in Mongol administration. none has the literary quality of the Secret History (see MON- The adoptive son of a Chinese bandit general in GOLIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE). A powerful nar- Mongol service, Li Quan (d. 1231), Li Tan won high rative, the work is in prose with poetic passages that often praise in the years 1258–61 from MÖNGKE KHAN incorporate proverbial material. The author eschews (1251–59) and QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) for his cam- abstraction or self-consciously literary mannerisms for a paigns against the Song in northern Jiangsu. Li Tan, how- laconic narration and vivid images from steppe life. The ever, felt unsupported by the khans and in violation of story portrays the betrayal, cruelty, loyalty, and love that Mongol policy fortified his base at Yidu. In February accompanied the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1262 Li arranged the escape of his son, who was a 1206–26) and his family to absolute power among the hostage at Qubilai’s court, and contacted the Song court. Mongols with strikingly subtle characterizations. On February 22 he revolted, handing over frontier From about 1260 to 1350 many foreign literary and cities to the Song and massacring their Mongol garrisons. scholarly works were translated into Mongolian. Much of 336 literature this translation work was done by non-Mongols, particu- Wooden Men were translated in 1686, and translations of larly UIGHURS. Of these works only the many Buddhist later stories in the cycle followed. The Tale of the translations and the Classic of Filial Piety, an elementary Bewitched Corpse was another popular Indian story cycle. Confucian text, became part of the later Mongolian liter- Popular Tibetan works included the biography and Hun- ary tradition. Extant works also include a translation of dred Thousand Songs of Mi-la-ras-pa (Milarepa), trans- the Persian Alexander Romance, and sources mention lated in 1618, and the free Mongolian adaption of the many translations from Chinese histories. Around 1300 GESER epic, which appeared in 1716. Sonom-Gara was the first of many Mongols to translate As in the empire period, historical literature occu- the TREASURY OF APHORISTIC JEWELS, a Tibetan work of pied a large part of early Buddhist writings. The JEWEL didactic aphorisms. The great Buddhist translator TRANSLUCENT SUTRA, written in 1607, is a versified history CHOSGI-ODSIR (fl. 1307–21) is the author of the earliest of ALTAN KHAN, who initiated the Second Conversion. extant Mongolian devotional poetry. (see BUDDHISM IN Later 17th-century chronicles gather together the histori- THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CONFUCIANISM). cal material on Chinggis Khan and his successors; of these, the ERDENI-YIN TOBCHI has the highest literary and LEGENDS AND POEMS OF THE historical quality. Hagiographies are an important genre: CHINGGIS KHAN CULT Parajana-Sagara’s Chindamani erikhe (Rosary of wishing The fall of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China in 1368 jewels, 1739) gives a readable and lively account of how and the return of the great khans to Mongolia set the the Buddhist missionary Neichi Toin (1557–1653) con- state for the next era in Mongolian literature. With the fronted shamans in eastern Inner Mongolia. Secret History and other historical works lost or preserved DIDACTIC POETRY in Mongolian began with transla- only in obscure manuscripts, new narratives about tions from Tibetan and Sanskrit exemplars. The Oyun Chinggis Khan arose in the early 16th century linked to tülkhigür (Turquoise key), attributed to Chinggis Khan, is the EIGHT WHITE YURTS, the center of the worship of more likely a Mongolian adaption of this early tradition Chinggis Khan. Other stories, such as the “LAMENT OF dating from the 17th century. The THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN, TOGHAN-TEMÜR” and the tales of MANDUKHAI SECHEN Lubsang-Dambi-Jalsan (1717–66), wrote many widely KHATUN, told of how the Mongols lost their capital in copied hymns and liturgies for uniquely Mongolian China and fought to defend the rule of Chinggis Khan’s deities. By adapting Tibetan forms to the MONGOLIAN descendants against Oirat usurpers. Wise sayings and sto- LANGUAGE, he gave strong impetus to Mongolian-lan- ries with morals were also attributed to Chinggis Khan. guage didactic poetry, a major genre of poetry through Some of these stories, such as the “Tale of Quiver-Bearer the early 20th century. Arghasun” and the “Lament of Toghan Temür,” were incorporated later in the 17th-CENTURY CHRONICLES, LITERATURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY while others, such as the “Story of How the Three Hun- In the 19th century the genres of chronicles, hagiogra- dred Tayichi’ud Were Conquered,” circulated indepen- phies, devotional hymns, and didactic poetry continued. dently. The written prayer texts used in the Eight White The poems of “General Lu” (Lubsangdondub, 1854–1909) Yurts’ cult of Chinggis Khan and the oldest texts in the in KHALKHA and Ishidandzanwangjil (1854–1907) and FIRE CULT and in the prayers to heaven (TENGGERI) appear Kheshigbatu (1847–1917) in ORDOS were particularly well to have been fixed around this time. known. The üge, or “sermon,” genre used the speeches of BUDDHIST LITERATURE animals or inanimate objects to teach Buddhist lessons. The SECOND CONVERSION of the Mongols to Buddhism The poet KHUULICHI (Storyteller) SANGDAG used this opened a new era of translation. From 1578 to 1749 sev- genre to speak more widely about the feelings of the eral teams of Mongolian translators worked to translate lonely and marginalized in society. the two immense collections of Tibetan Buddhist scrip- Buddhist poetry in all genres reached its height in the tures and canonical commentaries, the bKa’-’gyur and works of DANZIN-RABJAI (1803–56). In 1831 Danzin-Rab- bsTan-’gyur. This work gave the Mongols access to the jai also composed an original opera based on the Tibetan entire body of Indian Buddhist literature, including religious novel Tale of the Moon-Cuckoo (1737, Mongolian Dandin’s influential Kavyadarsha, or treatise on poetics. translation, 1770). This opera, in addition to the TSAM Many translators followed the example of Chosgi-Odsir performances then begun in Mongolia, marked the begin- in the 14th century and appended devotional verses to ning of Mongolian theater. their colophons or postscripts. The 19th century also saw a growing vogue for CHI- Indian story collections were among the most popu- NESE FICTION in translation. The first novels to be trans- lar of the new Buddhist translations. The SUTRA OF THE lated had Buddhist themes, but from the 19th century WISE AND FOOLISH, a collection of stories about the Bud- historical and romantic fiction became popular. In south- dha’s previous lives, was first translated around 1586. The eastern Inner Mongolia the family of INJANNASHI wrote more secular stories of King Kirshna and his Thirty-Two Mongolian masterpieces of both Chinese-style poetry and literature 337 fiction. Injannashi’s Khökhe Sudur became famous for its MOVEMENTS produced many essays advocating secular romantic rewriting of the rise of Chinggis Khan as well as education and enlightenment. The KHORCHIN Mongol the preface’s profound critique of contemporary attitudes Kheshingge (1888–1950) wrote lyrics in the Chinese to ethnicity. style. The first Inner Mongolian modern prose work was “Struggling in a Sea of Suffering” (Gashigun-u dotorakhi MODERN MONGOLIAN LITERATURE telchilegchi khemekhü üliger, 1940) by Rinchinkhorlo In Mongolia the literature after the 1921 REVOLUTION was (1904–63) of Khüriye (Hure) banner, who also translated dominated by drama based on Beijing opera and dealing an American detective story from Japanese into Mongo- with historical and propagandistic themes. Most of these lian. The Chakhar romantic poet and essayist Saichungga plays have now been lost, with the exception of those by (later known as NA. SAINCHOGTU, 1914–73) pioneered BUYANNEMEKHÜ (1902–37). The surviving poetry is mostly modern secular Inner Mongolian poetry during the composed of patriotic songs and anthems. One of the first Japanese occupation (1937–45). postrevolutionary prose works was the account of the 1921 After 1947 many young Inner Mongolians were Battle of Tolbo Nuur by the political leader DAMBADORJI. recruited for propagandistic writing for the eastern Inner From the 1920s the Philology Institute (later Mongo- Mongolian cavalry and autonomous governments under lia’s ACADEMY OF SCIENCES) began sponsoring translations Chinese Communist auspices. Saichungga, having changed of foreign literature, as well as reprinting classic pieces of his name to Sainchogtu, returned from a stay in ULAAN- Mongolian literature and Asian literature in traditional BAATAR and joined them. The works of the leading authors Mongolian translation. TSYBEN ZHAMTSARANOVICH ZHAMT- in Inner Mongolia before the Cultural Revolution SARANO, NATSUGDORJI (1906–37), TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN, (1966–76), such as those of the poet Bürinbekhi (b. 1928), and BYAMBYN RINCHEN translated short stories and novels the novelist A. Oddzar (b. 1924) of Baarin (Bairin), Malch- from German, Russian, French, English and other lan- inhüü (Malqinhu, b. 1925) of Liaoning province, and the guages. After WORLD WAR II the volume of translations playwright T. Damrin (b. 1926) of Jilin province, all bore increased greatly. the marks of this propagandistic origin. Reprinted works The formation of the leftist Writer’s Circle in 1929 of Mongolia’s Natsugdorji and the Buriat playwright brought many more writers into literature and encour- Khotsa Namsaraiev (1889–1959) also served as models for aged the writings of short stories, beginning with “The revolutionary literature. The poets benefited from that Rejected Girl” (Gologdson khüükhen) by Ts. Damdinsüren genre’s long Mongolian tradition and their works were (1908–86). The poet Natsugdorji, who had been technically of far higher quality than those of short stories excluded from the group as a TAIJI (petty nobleman), and novels. Some writers, such as Malchinhüü, have writ- wrote several of the era’s best-known short stories and ten about Mongolian topics but only in Chinese. poems, while Buyannemekhü continued as a poet and After the Cultural Revolution, during which literary playwright. The GREAT PURGE of 1937–40 destroyed activity had been impossible, the surviving senior authors Buyannemekhü as well as many other notable authors. began writing again with a freer choice of topics. Young In 1948 the First Congress of Mongolian Writers met authors began pursuing more daring topics. One contro- with about 74 delegates. This marked the professionaliza- versial work was Batumöngke’s (b. 1951) novella Üdeshi- tion of Mongolian literature. Literary criticism also first yin dulagan (Evening warmth, 1984), whose main appeared around this time as a discipline separate from character, “Nose” Lodon’s, responds to his humiliations creative writing. B. Rinchen (1905–79) published Mongo- in the Cultural Revolution in ways modeled on the title lia’s first novel, combining folklore, historical documents, character of the great Chinese author Lu Xun’s work The and imaginative characters to re-create the 1921 Revolu- True Story of Ah Q (1921). tion in his trilogy Üriin tuyaa (Rays of dawn, 1951–55, See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S revised 1971). The most popular novels remain historically REPUBLIC; PROSODY; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC based, such as Ch. Lodoidamba’s Tungalag Tamir (The clear PERIOD. Tamir, 1961), and S. Erdene’s Zanabazar (1989). Mongo- Further reading: Charles R. Bawden, Mongolian Tra- lian writers produce poetry, narrative poems, short stories, ditional Literature: An Anthology (London: Kegan Paul novels, European-style plays, and film scripts. Poetry International, 2002); Ts. Bold and D. Natsadorj, eds., remains, however, the form of literature with the highest Some Short Stories from Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar; State Pub- public visibility, and its practitioners, including RENTSENII lishing House, 1988); Gombojab Hangin, “Batumöngke’s CHOINOM (1936–79), OCHIRBATYN DASHBALBAR (1957–99), ‘Qamar Lodon’—A New Period in Inner Mongolian Liter- D. Uriankhai, and L. Dashnyam have often played the role ature,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 27 (1984): of controversial public intellectuals. 163–171; Malqinhu [Malchinhüü], On the Horqin [Khorchin] Grassland (Beijing: China Literature Press, INNER MONGOLIAN LITERATURE 1988); Punsek [Pungsug], “The Golden Khingan Moun- Between 1911 and 1945 Inner Mongolian authors associ- tains,” Chinese Literature 4 (1954): 106–154; Henry G. ated with the eastern Inner Mongolian NEW SCHOOLS Schwarz, ed., Mongolian Short Stories (Bellingham, Wash.: 338 Liu Bingzhong Center for East Asian Studies, 1974); Dojoogyn Tsedev, rial introducing the history of Confucian governance ed., Modern Mongolian Poetry (Ulaanbaatar: State Publish- and proposing that Qubilai, while not a sovereign, still ing House, 1989). implement comprehensive reforms. Qubilai appointed Confucian officials in Xingzhou, and Liu followed Qubi- Liu Bingzhong (Liu Ping-chung) (1216–1274) An lai’s entourage in his 1253 campaign against Dali (YUN- eccentric Buddhist monk and specialist in divination and NAN) and his 1259 campaign against the Song. geomancy who introduced Qubilai Khan to Confucian prin- Constantly repeating “Heaven and Earth love life” and ciples and scholars “the Lord Buddha’s heart lies in mercy,” he significantly Liu Bingzhong’s ancestors served the Kitan Liao dynasty moderated Qubilai’s practice of warfare. In 1256 Qubilai (907–1125) and the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) as planned a new city in Inner Mongolia, Kaiping (later Confucian officials. When MUQALI conquered North SHANGDU), for which Liu Bingzhong selected a site with China, he appointed Liu Run civil and military chief of excellent fengshui. Xingzhou (modern Xingtai). Run’s son Liu Bingzhong In 1260, with the election of Qubilai as great khan, received a typical Confucian education and in 1228 was Liu Bingzhong saw his plans for a Confucian administra- taken by the Mongols to Xingzhou as hostage for his tion bear fruit. QUBILAI KHAN ordered Liu to create a new father’s good behavior. In 1233 Liu Bingzhong began court ritual that would combine Chinese experience with serving as a low-level scribe but soon fled this degrading the traditions of the Mongols. Chinese-style year titles and service. Taking his Dhyana (Zen) ordination as Zicong, the dynasty title Yuan were all chosen by Liu. In 1267 he he later wandered to Datong. Meeting Dhyana Master also selected a new site for Yanjing (modern Beijing), Haiyun there in 1242, he followed him to the court of the which was renamed DAIDU and made the main capital. prince Qubilai. Qubilai took a great fancy to the monk Despite his high court role, Liu continued to dress and act and kept him at his camp when Haiyun returned to as an unworldly, rustic monk. In 1264 a more conven- China. Although Liu was a monk, he had great interest in tional Confucian minister, Wang E, memorialized that Confucian divination texts, such as the Classic of Changes while Liu should receive the high honorific title of grand (I Ching) and the works of Shao Yong (1011–77). Qubilai guardian (taibao), he should also accept a proper court believed implicitly in Liu’s profound understanding of title, wear proper clothes, and marry. Qubilai followed the Heaven and Earth, and Liu Bingzhong began the process memorial, but Liu’s marriage with a high official’s daugh- of familiarizing Qubilai with Confucian ideas and invit- ter was never consummated. He died in Shangdu in 1274 ing Confucian scholars to the Mongol camp. while meditating in a Buddhist monastery. While Liu Bingzhong returned to Xingzhou to See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CONFU- mourn his father, Qubilai’s brother MÖNGKE KHAN was CIANISM. elected khan (1251) and Qubilai appointed to supervise Further reading: H. L. Chan, “Liu Ping-chung,” in In North China. Xingzhou, which before the Mongol con- the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early quest had 10,000 households, had dropped to 500–700 Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz households through war and maladministration. Liu, et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 245–269. appalled by the conditions he saw in Xingzhou and excited by Qubilai’s new influence, wrote a long memo- Liu Ping-chung See LIU BINGZHONG. Magsarjav, Sandagdorjiin See MAGSURJAB. M new Soviet-supported revolutionary government in Khüriye in August, aiding the pursuit of the White Rus- Magsurjab (Sandagdorjiin Magsarjav, Maksorjab) sian remnants from Khowd to Ulaangom in Septem- (1878–1927) Major military commander under the theo- ber–November 1921. He served as deputy minister of cratic, White Russian, and revolutionary regimes the army and then from December 1922 as army minis- Magsurjab’s father was a sula (unassigned) duke in ter until his death on September 3, 1927. In 1924 he Itegemjitü Zasag banner (modern Khutag-Öndör Sum, had renounced all his titles of nobility and joined the Bulgan). Born in July 1878, Magsurjab was tutored by MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY. the ZASAG (banner ruler) Ganjuurjab. Afterward, he See also REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. farmed and served as clerk in the banner administra- Further reading: Kh. Choibalsan, “A Brief History of tion. Around age 30 he also began serving in the AIMAG the People’s Indomitable Hero Margsarjav,” in Mongolian administration, and during the 1911 RESTORATION of Heroes of the Twentieth Century, trans. Urgunge Onon Mongolian independence he was representing the Sain (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 105–142. Noyan aimag servicing the Qing garrison in KHOWD CITY. After fleeing the garrison in January 1912, he was Mahmud Yalavach (fl. 1218–1252) and Mas‘ud Beg appointed by the new Mongolian government to join (d. 1289) Father and son who served as chief administra- the attack on Khowd in May 1912. He distinguished tors in Turkestan and North China under the great khans himself in his command of the final assault on August 5 Little is known of the background of Mahmud Yalavach, and was given high titles. From 1913 to 1916 he battled except that he was a caravan trader from KHORAZM. Chinese forces and Chinese and Mongolian bandits on Sometime before 1218 he must have entered the service the southern frontier and was promoted to prince and of CHINGGIS KHAN, for in that year the Mongol ruler sent given half of Itegemjitü Zasag banner. On September 11, him with several other Turkestani merchants to serve as 1920, the new Chinese authorities arrested him. envoys to Sultan ‘Ala’ud-Din Muhammad, the Khorazm- Released from prison on February 4 by the victory of the Shah. Delivering his message, he returned and fortunately White Russian commander BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH did not attend the second Mongol mission, which was VON UNGERN-STERNBERG, he was made minister of the slaughtered by the Khorazmian governor of the city of army and commander in chief of all Mongolian troops Otrar (see OTRAR INCIDENT). During the ensuing invasion in the baron’s government on February 21, 1921. After Mahmud, variously known as al-Khwarazmi, “The Kho- scattering the Chinese troops in Choir Monastery, he razmian,” or Yalavach, “Messenger,” was appointed over- was appointed to pacify the west. Soon disillusioned seer (DARUGHACHI) of those spared in Ghazni in with the senseless violence of the Whites, on July 22, Afghanistan. 1921, he killed 24 Russians and their Buriat comman- In 1229 the newly elected ÖGEDEI KHAN appointed der, Wandanov, outside ULIASTAI. Magsurjab joined the Mahmud Yalavach the first governor (sahib-divan) of 339 340 Maksorjab Transoxiana, Turkestan, and Uighuristan and YELÜ CHU- Transoxiana began with widespread plunder of the peas- CAI that of North China. Mahmud Yalavach won favor antry, doing damage that Mas‘ud in 1269–70 could only with Ögedei through lavish entertainments and through partially restore. After 1271 Mas‘ud and his sons served cultivating his love of stories of heroic generosity. Like QAIDU (1236–1301), who proved less destructive than Yelü Chucai, Mahmud freed civilian households from Baraq. Mas‘ud Beg had endowed one of the largest military levies and commuted unpredictable “contribu- madrasas (Islamic schools) in Bukhara, but it was burned tions” (qubchiri) into a fixed silver tax. In 1238–39 he in an Il-Khan invasion in 1273. managed to stop the Mongol armies from exterminating See also CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN the inhabitants of Bukhara, who had just risen in an THE MONGOL EMPIRE. abortive revolt. Muslim writers give him and his son Further reading: Th. T. Allsen, “Mahmud Yalava^c, Mas’ud Beg high praise for their administration. Mas‘ud Beg, ‘Ali Beg, Safaliq, Bujir,” in In the Service of the In 1240, as Ögedei became entranced by the possi- Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan bility of much higher revenues in North China, he Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. (Wies- replaced Yelü Chucai with Mahmud Yalavach who baden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 122–135. received the title “great judge,” (yeke JARGHUCHI in Mon- golian), leaving Mahmud’s son, Mas‘ud Beg, the governor Maksorjab See MAGSURJAB. of Turkestan and Uighuristan. At the same time he appointed ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, a favorite of Empress TÖRE- GENE, chief tax collector in North China. After Ögedei Mamluk Egypt The armies of Mamluk Egypt checked died in 1241, Töregene tried to arrest Yalavach, whose the Mongol advance in the Middle East and sapped the influence she had long resented, but the governor fled to strength of the Mongols’ IL-KHANATE. During the early Köten, Ögedei’s son, in northwest China. In his place Mongol conquests the fractious Ayyubid dynasty Töregene elevated ‘Abd-ur-Rahman and Yang Huaizhong, (1171–1260), founded by the Kurdish Salah-ad-Din (Sal- a Chinese clerk. Mas‘ud Beg likewise fled to the court of adin, 1138–93), collectively controlled Egypt, the Levant, BATU. Töregene’s son GÜYÜG, however, supported Mah- and much of KURDISTAN. At first Kurds formed the mud Yalavach and Mas‘ud Beg, and after being elected dynasty’s military core, but Sultan as-Salih Najm-ad-Din khan in 1246 he returned them to their old positions: Ayyub (1240–49) exploited the flood of enslaved Mahmud as governor of North China based in Yanjing QIPCHAQS generated by the Mongol conquest to create a (modern Beijing), and Mas‘ud Beg as governor of regiment of trained military slaves, or Mamluks. After his Turkestan and Uighuristan with his seat in Besh-Baligh. death in 1250, these Mamluks overthrew as-Salih’s son, Güyüg’s early death in 1248 did not affect their posi- founding a new Mamluk regime (1250–1517). The royal tions: They supported the election of MÖNGKE KHAN Mamluks were Qipchaq slaves bought by the sultan, con- (1251–59) and at first remained high in favor. verted to Islam, trained in war, and then emancipated at Despite a good reputation in Muslim circles, Mahmud their majority to serve as soldiers in the sultan’s regiment. was not popular in North China. Mongol administrative These highly trained royal Mamluks were supplemented methods inspired by Turco-Islamic usage, such as tax farm- by Mamluks of the sultan’s emirs, Kurdish and other free- ing, tax payments in silver, and merchant-official partner- booters, and bedouin auxiliaries. The Mamluk core com- ships, were unpopular innovations, and Mahmud’s foreign bined Inner Asian fighting skills with a strong pride in origin made these practices more galling. With Möngke’s defending Islam and the orthodox caliphate (see ‘ABBASID election Chinese Confucian-trained opponents of these CALIPHATE). methods found a patron in his brother Qubilai (1215–94). After HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65) destroyed the Baghdad In 1252 Qubilai criticized Mahmud over his cavalier exe- Caliphate (1258) and founded the Mongol Il-Khan cution of suspects during a judicial review. When Qubilai’s dynasty, the Egyptian Mamluks under Sultan Qutuz Chinese protegé, Zhao Bi, attacked Mahmud for his pre- (1259–60) crushed a Mongol force at ‘Ain Jalut (in Pales- sumptuous attitude toward the throne, Möngke dismissed tine). Qutuz was murdered soon after, and it was left to the Khorazmian, who apparently died soon after. his successor Baybars (1260–77) to create the ideological, Mas‘ud Beg remained as the governor of Turkestan diplomatic, and military foundation for defense against and Uighuristan until Möngke’s death in 1259. When the Mongols. He settled an ‘Abbasid heir in Cairo as civil war broke out between Qubilai and his brother ARIQ- caliph and symbol of Mamluk legitimacy. From 1262 he BÖKE, Mas‘ud naturally opposed Qubilai. Ariq-Böke kept also exchanged envoys with Berke (1257–66), Muslim him in Mongolia until 1264, when he sent him to Alghu Mongol khan of the GOLDEN HORDE, expressing Mamluk (r. 1260–65/6), khan of the CHAGHATAY KHANATE, or hostility to Hüle’ü and emphasizing their common faith. realm, to try to restore relations with them. Alghu Threats from their Mongol rivals prevented the Il-Khans employed Mas‘ud Beg again as sahib-divan in Transoxi- from focusing forces on the Mamluks. ana. After the death of Alghu, he served Baraq Khan (r. To warn of Mongol attacks, postroads and beacon 1266–71) as vizier, or prime minister. Baraq’s rule in towers linked the frontier fortresses of al-Bira (modern Manchuria and the Mongol Empire 341 Birecik), al-Rahba, and ‘Ain-Tab (modern Gaziantep) to Rivalry in the Hejaz in the Reign of Abu Sa‘id Egypt. In summer, when the heat forced the Mongol (1317–1335),” Studia Iranica 21 (1992): 197–214. troops to evacuate the lowlands, Syrian troops—Kurds, Turkmen, and Arab Bedouins, occasionally aided by Manchuria and the Mongol Empire Only slowly mamluks—raided the Mongol frontier in LESSER ARME- subdued by Mongol armies, Manchuria supplied falcons, NIA, Malatya, Diyarbakır, and Mosul. These raids espe- pearls, and other native products. cially focused on Armenian and Assyrian Christian At the time of the Mongols, southern Manchuria targets. Meanwhile, tribal groups impatient with Il-Khan (modern Liaoning), while ethnically diverse, was subject rule, whether Kurds, Turkmen, or even Mongols, often to regular Chinese-style civil administration. A substan- defected to the Mamluks. Baybars personally led large- tial Han (ethnic Chinese) population coexisted with scale raids into Lesser Armenia (1266) and Seljük seminomadic KITANS, who had earlier founded the Liao TURKEY (1277). After 1277 the local Karaman Turkmen, dynasty (907–1125). North of them, along the Sungari based in the Taurus Mountains and Laranda, collabo- (Songhua) River, lay the heartland of the Jurchens of the rated with Egypt in raiding both Lesser Armenia and JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), then ruling North China. Mongol-held Turkey. Although Manchuria was the original heartland of the Jin The Mongol Il-Khanate’s strategy in response was dynasty, the migration of Jurchens to North China as sol- inconsistent and ineffective. Up through 1305 the Il- diers left the Jurchen presence there rather weak. Khans fruitlessly sought alliance with Latin Christendom. In the north the Liao and the Jin dynasties gathered Unlike the Mamluk sultans, the Mongol khans rarely tribute from the so-called Water Tatars (Chinese, Shui campaigned personally in Syria. Thus, a 1281 Mongol Dada, Mongolian, Usu Irgen or Usu Mongghol). These advance was defeated at Homs due to inexperienced lead- included the Üjiyed (Chinese, Wuzhe) and Gilemi, ances- ership and poor communication. Significantly, the one tors of today’s Manchu-Tungusic Nanai and Hejen nation- campaign personally led by a Mongol khan, that of alities (also called Hezhe, Golds, or Fish-Skin Tatars), who GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) in 1299–1300, was the war’s fished and hunted martens, otters, and seals along the only resounding Mongol success. Even so, Ghazan evacu- lower Amur, and the Ghilyaks, whose lifestyle was similar ated with most of his troops in spring, and the Mamluks to the Üjiyed but who spoke a Paleo-Asiatic language. recovered the lost territory. In 1211 as the Mongols invaded, the Jin government The Mamluks made no response to the naive peace ordered that two Jurchen families be billeted with each offers of the Il-Khan Sultan Ahmad (1282–84), the Il- Kitan family to keep watch. In 1212 a Kitan, Yelü Liuge, Khan’s first Muslim ruler, but after Ghazan’s accession revolted in central Manchuria (near modern Changchun Mamluk raids declined. In 1312 the Mamluk governor of and Siping), his forces soon swelling to more than Aleppo, Qarasonqur, fled to the Il-Khan’s Sultan Öljeitü 100,000. When Mongol envoys arrived, Yelü Liuge swore (1304–16), briefly reviving the Mongol war party. loyalty to the MONGOL EMPIRE and fought off repeated Jin Threatened by the defection, Mamluk sultan an-Nasir attacks by Puxian Wannu, the chief Jurchen general in Muhammad (1310–40) recognized the dangers of con- Manchuria. However, in 1215, after the Jin rulers aban- tinued war, and when the Mongol commander in chief doned the north, Puxian Wannu himself set up his own CHUBAN became regent for the young khan Abu-Sa‘id Eastern Xia, or Jurchen, dynasty in eastern Liaoning. (1317–35), peace was concluded in 1323. Despite Both Yelü Liuge and Puxian Wannu had audiences with Chuban’s fall in 1327, the peace was confirmed by the CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) and left hostages, yet two courts’ mutual execution of exiles, including by 1218 Yelü Liuge’s Kitans had revolted against both him Chuban’s son Temürtash and Mamluk defector Qarason- and the Mongols and were fighting a combination of Pux- qur. Abandoned by the Mongols, Lesser Armenia made a ian Wannu’s forces, the Koreans whose border towns they separate peace in 1325, paying 50,000 gold florins annu- had occupied, and a Mongol force sent to bring order to ally to Egypt. As an Islamic realm, the Il-Khanate angled the area. The Mongol force soon withdrew, and condi- unsuccessfully from 1318 for support in Mecca, even tions remained chaotic. sending an elephant to accompany the pilgrimage cara- In 1226 Yelü Liuge’s widow visited Chinggis Khan’s van in 1330. With the Il-Khans’ fall in 1335, the Mam- court again, and the next year his hostage son Xuedu was luks solidified their power in the former frontier zone returned and made commander in chief of Guangning in and prospered as trade between Europe and India gravi- western Liaoning. Puxian Wannu, however, did not sub- tated toward the Red Sea. mit, and ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) dispatched Prince See also ‘AINT JALUT, BATTLE OF; BYZANTIUM AND GÜYÜG and the general Tangghud with TAMMACHI troops BULGARIA. (long-term garrison armies, largely non-Mongol) to dis- Further reading: Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and pose of him. By 1233 the pacification of southern Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cam- Manchuria was complete. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Charles Under Ögedei’s reign the Mongols subdued the Melville, “‘The Year of the Elephant’: Mamluk-Mongol Water Tatars in the northern part of the region some- 342 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun times after 1233. In 1237 conditions seem settled enough chronicles state; the Shira tughuji attributes various Oirat for Ögedei to demanded harem girls, sparking unrest folk practices to her punitive decrees. She participated in that was harshly suppressed. At the beginning of the later attacks on the Oirat, during one of which she was Mongol YUAN DYNASTY (1271–1368) the area was put pregnant with Dayan Khan’s twin sixth and seventh sons. under the Helan Prefecture Water Tatars Route, with five Mandukhai’s giving birth to seven sons and only one myriarchies (10,000 household militia units) controlling daughter was seen as confirmation of her decision to the lower Songhua and Amur Rivers and the Pacific marry a true Chinggisid. With Dayan Khan she later went coast. In 1330 the total taxable population was recorded to the EIGHT WHITE YURTS (the shrine of Chinggis Khan) as 20,906 households. in ORDOS to be re-enthroned, but they had to flee a Chi- During the conquest many princes and noblemen, nese attack and went to the KHERLEN RIVER (1501). She particularly MUQALI and Chinggis’s younger brothers was apparently dead by 1510. Temüge Odchigin and Belgütei, received large appanages in various parts of Manchuria, delaying the implementa- Mangghud (Mangudai: Turkish Manghit) One of the tion of regular civil administration. Descendants of the major clans in CHINGGIS KHAN’s army, the Mangghud fraternal princes strongly supported QUBILAI KHAN’s coro- were particularly important in the GOLDEN HORDE and its nation in 1260, but the younger generation, led by Bel- successor states. gütei’s descendant Nayan, desired more independence. The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS and RASHID-UD- Nayan’s failed rebellion in 1287–88 pruned the fraternal DIN FAZL-ULLAH (drawing on Mongol oral histories) both lines and led to the creation of a Liaoyang Branch Secre- describe the Mangghud as a branch of the ruling Niru’un tariat covering Manchuria. or Kiyad lineage, closely associated with the Uru’ud, but The Mongols’ main interest in northern Manchuria the two sources’ exact genealogies differ. Two bodies of was in the white and gray falcons that flew across the Sea Mangghuds joined the conquest elite under Chinggis of Okhotsk to roost at the mouth of the Amur. By 1297 Khan. The first was under Jedei Noyan, whose father was they had created a special Üjiyed-Gilemi myriarchy on killed by his Mangghud clansmen hostile to Chinggis. the lower Amur to handle enforcement of the falcon trib- Raised in his BARGA (Barghu) mother’s clan, Jedei, with ute and maintain dogsled post stations for tribute collec- his brother Doqolqu Cherbi (Steward), joined Chinggis tors. Demand for falcons was onerous from the Khan. The victorious Chinggis enslaved the hostile beginning, and the Water Tatars rebelled in 1346. The Mangghuds and gave them to Jedei Noyan as his 1,000. rebellion was suppressed and the myriarchies reorganized Doqolqu Cherbi commanded a 1,000 in the KESHIG in 1354. After the MING DYNASTY (1368–1644) expelled (imperial guard). the Yuan from China proper, a Mongol commander, According to the Secret History another body of Naghachu, continued to hold southern Manchuria. Mangghuds under Quyildar Sechen formed, with the Naghachu surrendered to a large Ming force in 1387, but Uru’uds, part of Chinggis’s crack vanguard troops famed the Ming solidified control only under the Yongle for their military discipline. Quyildar himself died of (1402–24) emperor. wounds suffered at the defeat of Qalaqaljid Sands See also FALCONRY; HUNTING AND FISHING; KOREA AND (1203), and his orphans were treated with special favor. THE MONGOL EMPIRE; NAYAN’S REBELLION; THREE GUARDS. After that defeat the 2,300 Uru’ud and Mangghud remained loyal, forming half of Chinggis’s people. Mandukhai Sechen Khatun (Wise Empress Man- Rashid-ud-Din was familiar with this version yet also dukhai) (b. 1449?) Empress who helped reestablish knew of another version in which only Quyildar and a Chinggisid supremacy and overthrow Oirat rule few companions were loyal while the bulk of the Mang- Mandukhai was the daughter of Chorosbai-Temür ghud opposed Chinggis. Chingsang (Grand Councillor) of the ÖNGGÜD clan of the With the division of Chinggis’s people, Mangghuds TÜMED Mongols. Married to Manduul Khan (1473–79), of both groups were distributed among the various she bore two daughters and was preferred to his childless appanages. Chinggis assigned the 1,000 under Quyildar’s Oirat wife. Manduul’s death left the throne without an son Möngke-Qalja (along with the Uru’ud) to MUQALI’s heir. His grandnephew Bolkhu Jinong died in flight a few TAMMACHI (garrison) army assigned to North China. years later, but a seven-year-old boy was brought to the Under ÖGEDEI KHAN Möngke-Qalja received an appanage regent, Mandukhai, with the claim that he was Bolkhu in Dongping. One branch of Jedei Noyan’s descendants Jinong son, Batu-Möngke. Mandukhai, then 33 years old, was assigned to the tammachi armies in Afghanistan, rejected the powerful suitor Üne-Bolod of the KHORCHIN ancestors of the later QARA’UNAS. From there they entered and insisted on marrying Batu-Möngke as a true Ching- the service of the Il-Khans. GHAZAN KHAN’s commander in gisid. She enthroned him as BATU MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN chief (beglerbegi), Qutlughshah, was one of them. (1480?–1517?) at the shrine of Eshi Khatun (that is, In the Golden Horde around KHORAZM, the Mang- SORQAQTANI BEKI) in CHAKHAR. Later, she defeated the ghud and QONGGIRAD formed the two main clans. Under OIRATS, bringing the prince along “in a box,” as the Edigü (Edigei, d. 1420), the Manghit (as written in the massacres and the Mongol Conquest 343 Turkish language they had adopted) displaced the Qong- massacres and the Mongol Conquest Wholesale girad as ANDA (sworn brothers) and QUDA (marriage massacres, particularly after a city was taken by storm, allies) of the BLUE HORDE (the Golden Horde’s eastern were a recurrent feature of medieval warfare, engaged in half) khans. Edigü eventually deserted his Chinggisid by most of the Mongols’ enemies. Mongol massacres sovereign, TOQTAMISH (fl. 1375–1405), serving after 1395 stood out, however, for their systematic character. When as beglerbegi (commander in chief) for a succession of a city was taken by storm, the regular Mongol precedent Jochid puppet rulers, while his son Nur-ad-Din held the was to order all the inhabitants of the defeated city out Manghit base between the Volga and the Emba Rivers. into the surrounding plain and to assign a specified num- After Edigü’s death his descendants served as beglerbegis ber to each Mongol soldier. Craftsmen, including physi- and anda-quda for the contending Jochid sovereigns, cians, astronomers, and sometimes actors and clergy, while the main clan body, said to number 200,000 war- were separated out. While the inhabitants were outside riors, remained around Saraychik. From the time of the city, the Mongol army would enter the city and pil- Edigü’s grandson Musa (fl. 1455–1502), the Manghit lage it, killing all they found hiding there. Sometimes lords (beg/biy) dominated the Black Sea–Caspian steppe sympathetic clergy were allowed to use churches, in the middle 16th century as independent potentates. mosques, or temples as places of refuge. Having num- These Manghit appear in Russian, Crimean, and Ottoman bered the defeated, the Mongol soldiers, if so ordered, Turkish sources as “Nogays,” after a certain Noghay, but would dispatch their victims with an ax. Even if the any connection to the 14th-century Jochid prince NOQAI/ inhabitants were generally spared, each soldier would Noghay is uncertain. Bodies of Manghit tribesmen fol- levy a number of able-bodied men to serve as cannon lowed biys of Edigü’s family into CRIMEA by 1523 and into fodder against the next city. The craftsmen would almost the Uzbek horde, which had occupied Mawarannahr always be spared and divided among the commanders (Transoxiana) by 1512. In Crimea they were (under the and princes to be deported and serve as slaves. At name Mansur-oghlan) one of the major clans, and in Zhongdu (modern Beijing) in 1215 and Baghdad in 1251 Mawarannahr the Manghit founded their own dynasty at the population seems to have been too large to move out Bukhara from 1753 to 1920. into the plain, so the victors simply entered the city and With the Kalmyk invasion of the 1620s, the Nogay- massacred as they pleased for a week or so. Manghits were driven out of the Volga River basin. The Mongols generally massacred in those cities that largest body settled in northern Dagestan, and another had surrendered and then rebelled again, where their group settled in Khorazm (around the modern town of envoys had been killed, or where the resistance was par- Mangit). Those in Dagestan now form the Nogay nation- ticularly fierce. Occasionally, as at Bamiyan and Nisha- ality (estimated population 60,000–80,000), while those pur (Neyshabur), where missiles from the defenders’ in Khorazm are a major component of the Karakalpak mangonels killed relatives of CHINGGIS KHAN, all the liv- people. Manghits are also found among the TATARS, ing creatures, including the craftsmen and even the dogs Bashkirs (Bashkurt), and KAZAKHS. Everywhere the and cats, were destroyed. In rural areas where the Mon- Manghits have preserved tales of the heroic liege Edigü gols faced persistent guerrilla resistance, they would form and his tyrannical master Toqtamish. their soldiers in a hunting ring, or nerge, up to 150 kilo- On the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU Mangghuds are found in meters (100 miles) wide and comb through the land, eastern KHALKHA (Mongolia proper) and in Baarin slaughtering all they found. (Bairin) banner of eastern Inner Mongolia. The precedent for these wholesale massacres was the Further reading: Yu. Bregel, “Mangit,” in Encyclopae- 1202 conquest of the TATARS. Convinced that these hered- dia of Islam, 2d ed., vol. 6, 417–418; Vadim V. Trepavlov, itary foes of the Mongols would never become obedient, The Formation and Early History of the Manghït Yurt Chinggis Khan ordered all those taller than a Mongol (Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for cart’s linch-pole, male and female alike, massacred. Due Inner Asian Studies, 2001). to the tenacious resistance, Chinggis Khan and his gener- als repeatedly massacred cities during the conquest of the Manghit See MANGGHUD. JIN DYNASTY in North China (1211–23) and KHORAZM (1219–23). Likewise, the sieges in Eastern Europe from Mangudai See MANGGHUD. 1236 to 1242 and those of HÜLE’Ü in southwest Asia from 1256 to 1262 were mostly concluded by massacres. In Mangu Khan See MÖNGKE KHAN. China, local officials in Mongol service began to alter Mongol policy toward the defeated. Chinggis Khan’s eth- Maodun See MODUN. nic Tangut (Mi-nyag) commander Chagha’an dissuaded him from several massacres in 1226–27. During the final Mas‘ud Beg See MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG. annihilation of the Jin in 1234, YELÜ CHUCAI convinced ÖGEDEI KHAN to spare the Jin capital of Kaifeng (see Masqud Beg See MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG. KAIFENG, SIEGE OF), and under QUBILAI KHAN in China the 344 matrilineal clans conquest of the Song in 1274–76 took place with few Each matrilineage retained a distinct territory (nutag) wholesale massacres. with a cairn (OBOO). Matrilineages, like Mongolian patri- The death toll of Mongol massacres is difficult to lineages and clans elsewhere, also had their own tamga estimate. Persian historians estimate the death toll in (cattle brand) and consecrated animal, marked with seter, cities such as Herat and Nishapur (Neyshabur) at more or strips of cloth. The lineage maintained a main family than 1.5 million, but these estimates seem to exceed con- yurt with a particular fierce Buddha as guardian siderably the possible populations of these cities. Hüle’ü (sakhius). Before the 1950s lineages contained large joint claimed that his Mongol soldiers killed 200,000 people in families with up to 20 persons and more than 1,000 head Baghdad (1258). In North China, under the previous Jin of livestock. Division of such joint families did not, how- dynasty (1115–1234), a census of 1207 found 7.68 mil- ever, end membership in the lineage. lion households, while the Mongol census of the same In the 1950s the matrilineal lineages declined. Pro- territory in 1236 found only 1.83 million households. gressive taxation of private herds, intended to promote While the Mongol census certainly involved a major collectivization, broke up the joint families, antireligious undercount, the figures plainly demonstrate a demo- pressure forced the lineage cult underground, and increas- graphic catastrophe. Much population loss took place as ing familiarity with the outside world introduced both a result of the anarchy of the invasion and subsequent the traditional Mongolian concept of patrilineal kinship Mongol misrule. Persian and Chinese writers claim that and the modern ideal of the nuclear family. Khot-ails this maladministration was even more damaging than the (camps) are still mostly formed on a matrilateral kinship conquest themselves. Thus, by 1330 cities such as Samar- basis, however. With democracy and DECOLLECTIVIZATION qand and Bukhara, where the civilian population was not after 1990, the old matrilateral clans have partially massacred, were in decline under the unreformed Mongol revived their prestige as part of local tradition, but the rule of the CHAGHATAY KHANATE, while Urganch city in bilateral model of modern Mongolian kinship is still Khorazm, which suffered wholesale massacre, was flour- strong. ishing under the more effective Mongol administration of See also CLAN NAMES; FAMILY; KINSHIP SYSTEM; LAMAS the GOLDEN HORDE. AND MONASTICISM. See also ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BAGHDAD, Further reading: Tomasz Potkanski and Slavoj SIEGE OF; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KIEV, SIEGE OF; Szynkiewicz, The Social Context of Liberalisation of the MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF. Mongolian Pastoral Economy (Brighton, 1993). matrilineal clans The anthropologically unusual situ- mausoleum of Chinggis Khan See EIGHT WHITE ation of matrilineal pastoral nomadic clans emerged in YURTS. the Gobi during the 19th century. By the 19th century the traditional Mongolian patri- lineages, outside the ruling BORJIGID (Chinggisid) lineage, medicine, traditional Before 1900 the principal Mon- were disintegrating. Monasticism brought about unbal- golian methods for treating the physically and emotion- anced sex ratios, and even householding lamas could not ally sick included: 1) shamans and shamanesses; 2) formally marry or pass their clan membership to their special healing by bone setters, or bariach; 3) a wide vari- sons. In many areas of the GOBI DESERT matrilineal lin- ety of unsystematized cures, including foods, herbs, eages of varying degrees of cohesion replaced the old heated stones, and so on; and 4) the elaborate system of patrilineages. Called deedüül, from deedes (ancestors), Tibetan medicine combining empirical observation with a these lineages were named after male apical ancestors, multifaceted theory of human bodily and psychological four or five generations before the 1950s. operations. (For more on the first and second methods, see Despite the male apical ancestor, membership in BARIACH and SHAMANISM.) these lineages was transmitted solely through the female A number of folk remedies have a long history on the line, and daughters, not sons, stayed in their family of MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. Common Mongolian foods are tra- origin. Formal marriage on the Mongolian pattern, with ditionally believed to have curative properties. The the giving of bridewealth and virilocal residence, was famous 1330 cookbook for the Mongol court in China by unknown, and even long-term uxorilocal cohabitation the Uighur Hu Sihui (Qusqi) classifies foods according to was not common, replaced by brief liaisons or visiting their nourishing qualities and recommends the many marriage, in which the man would spend the days in his varieties of mutton soup among “red foods” (meat) and sisters’ YURT and nights with his woman in her yurt. Few fermented mare’s milk, or KOUMISS, among “white foods” children had close relations with their fathers. Headship (DAIRY PRODUCTS). of the matrilineage passed to a son who resided in his The XIANBI, an early steppe people, are said to have mother’s yurt, and a man’s wandering days often ended by used both hot stones and moxibustion, and hot stones are returning to the maternal yurt to take up lineage head- still believed to cure ills when applied locally. The skins ship on the death of a brother or mother’s brother. or warm rumen of freshly slaughtered animals are also medicine, traditional 345 believed to cure diseases; in 1269 QUBILAI KHAN had his the Indian Ayurvedic humors of bile (bad-kan, Mongo- feet treated for gout by wearing boots made from the skin lian, batgan), phlegm (mkhris-pa, Mongolian, shar, yel- of a large fish. The ultimate example of this practice was low), and wind (blung, Mongolian, khii), and the Greek the use of fresh human organs. This method was used by conception of wind and phlegm as cold humors and a Mongol prince, Quli, in Armenia around 1260. ALTAN blood and bile as hot humors. In treatment, the pride of KHAN may have planned such a treatment in 1580, place is taken by Indian herbal remedies with Chinese although some sources say it was with a horse’s body; in moxibustion also used. As in Chinese medicine, taking any case a Buddhist cleric intervened, curing him with the pulse is the dominant diagnostic tool. While surgery prayer. is theoretically known, it is virtually never used. In the MONGOL EMPIRE the khans actively sought all While some monastic physicians in traditional Mon- varieties of medicine. Physicians were among those golia, called sutra doctors, relied purely on the Tibetan exempt from taxes and always spared in massacres (see classics, others adopted Mongolian and Chinese medicine ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE.) CHINGGIS KHAN in varying degrees. Some, such as Chorji Mergen (fl. (Genghis, 1206–27) had a Chinese physician, Liu 1728), who focused on healing external wounds, were Zhonglu, and in 1262 QUBILAI KHAN created a Chinese- predecessors of the modern BARIACH, or “bone setters.” style Palace Medical Service. He also commissioned the The great Tu (Monguor) lama and polymath Sum-pa Nepalese artist ANIGA to revise a chart of Chinese mKhan-po Ishi-Baljur (Ye-shes dPal-’byor, 1704–87) acupuncture and moxibustion points on the body. In incorporated many Mongolian folk remedies in his medi- 1270 he created a Muslim Medical Office to dispense cal works while being the first to link bubonic plague to Middle Eastern medicines. Meanwhile, among the Mon- marmots (see BLACK DEATH; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE). gols in the Middle East two Jewish doctors, SA‘D-UD- The Mongolian lay Tibetologist DUKE GOMBOJAB (fl. DAWLA and RASHID-UD-DIN FA’ZL-ULLAH, rose to high 1692–1749) chaired a translation project that produced a power as physicians at the khan’s court. comparative Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese, and Turkish materia medica, although his work was later criticized by TIBETAN MEDICINE sutra doctors, who felt he had misunderstood some After the fall of the Mongol Empire Buddhist medical Tibetan terms. The ORDOS INCARNATE LAMA and physician knowledge dominated the Mongols’ medicine. This Ishidandzanwangjil (1854–1907) used poetry to explain knowledge was vital in the SECOND CONVERSION of the medical ideas in Mongolian. Mongols to Buddhism from 1575 on. In conversion accounts lamas frequently converted both nobles and TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN THE MODERN ERA even shamans by their effectiveness in healing with The encounter between Tibetan and Western medicine prayer. Medically, the Tibetan lamas vaccinated against began in Russia. While Russian doctors denounced what smallpox, which since the 1550s had been ravaging the they saw as the quackery of many lama physicians, the Mongols. In nomadic Mongolia smallpox was often con- Buriat physician Pëtr A. Badmaev (1856–1920) became a tracted by adults with devastating effects, so that the court physician for the last czar in St. Petersburg. While Tibetan live-virus technique, using pus scraped from pox sores, was worth the risk to children. Tibetan Buddhist medicine is based on the funda- mental text the Four Roots (Tibetan, rGyud bzhi; Mongo- lian, Jud-shi or Dörben ündüsü), said to have been rediscovered or authored by gYu-thog Yon-tan mGon-po (1112–1203). Even as Buddhism was spreading in Mon- golia, the Tibetan medical system was reorganized by the Fifth Dalai Lama’s regent (sde-srid), Sangs-rgyas rGya- mtsho (r. 1679–1703), who sponsored the now authorita- tive commentaries on the Four Roots and created a series of 79 paintings illustrating the Vaidurya sngon-po. Sangs- rgyas rGya-mtsho also created the first unified monastic medical college in Tibet. Tibetan medicine, like Greek, Indian, and Chinese medicine, views the body as a system of interrelated phases, or humors. Illness is caused by imbalance in humors, and treatment primarily consists of weakening Mongolian doctor wrapping Tibetan-style powdered the excess humor. Karmic and demonic causes of disease medicines in Shiliin Khot, Inner Mongolia, 1987. The labels are also accepted and need to be dealt with by appropri- on the bottles are all in Tibetan. (Courtesy Christopher ate religious and/or exorcistic means. The Four Roots uses Atwood) 346 Menggeser Noyan himself a Christian, Badmaev published an unabridged Menggeser Noyan (d. 1253) Chief judge during the translation of the Four Roots in Russian in 1902. The accession of Möngke Khan, who executed the purge of the great Buriat Mongolian lama AGWANG DORZHIEV khan enemies (1853–1938) brought a set of Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho’s The clan of Menggeser Noyan (Commander Menggeser) 79 medical paintings to Buriatia to his new Atsagat Medi- of Jait JALAYIR had served CHINGGIS KHAN’s father, YISÜGEI cal College there; it is now one of the three extant copies BA’ATUR, and remained loyal to Chinggis Khan even during in the world. the khan’s orphaned childhood. Menggeser served Ching- In the 20th century the Soviet government in Russia gis’s son TOLUI at the siege of Fengxiang (1231) and Tolui’s used discrediting Buddhist medicine as a key to winning son MÖNGKE KHAN during the great western campaign of over its Kalmyk and Buriat Mongol populace. From 1921 1236–41, winning favor by forwarding all booty to the on in Mongolia proper as well, Buddhist physicians were princes and keeping nothing for himself. GÜYÜG Khan (r. accused of charlatanism and were denounced. The death 1246–48) made him a judge (JARGHUCHI). After Güyüg of the revolutionary hero GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR in 1923 died Menggeser strongly supported the candidacy of was blamed on poisoning by jealous lamas. Eventually, Möngke as khan, threatening to behead Bala, an Uighur the virtual annihilation of the monasteries almost scribe who opposed him. On his coronation Möngke destroyed Tibetan medicine in Mongolia. The new medi- immediately appointed Menggeser supreme judge. When cal system built in Mongolia after 1940 was entirely it was revealed that Güyüg’s branch of the imperial family European in content. Even so, in Buriatia the priceless set was staging a coup, Menggeser captured the plotters of 79 illustrations was rediscovered in 1958 and became before they realized the plot had been discovered. Möngke the core of scholarly research on the Tibetan medical tra- put Menggeser in charge of interrogating and executing all dition, although its religious origins still had to be played malcontents. During the purge, which lasted through fall down. In 1968 an institute devoted to the study of 1252, Möngke relied on Menggeser implicitly, not review- Tibetan medicine was created. ing the sentences until after their execution. In fall 1253 The Chinese Communist government, however, fol- Möngke appointed Menggeser a commander of 10,000 for lowed the policy of pairing Western medicine with a the coming China campaign, but he died that winter. modernized Chinese medicine. In Inner Mongolia a Chi- nese-Mongolian medical college was created in 1953, and Mengü Khan See MÖNGKE KHAN. in 1959 a separate Mongolian medical faculty was cre- ated. That same year the Four Roots and Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho’s commentaries were published in Mongolian Mergen Gegeen, Third, Lubsang-Dambi-Jalsan for the first time, although with the religious material (Dambijaltsan) (1717–June 7, 1766) Liturgist, lyricist, completely cut. Mongolian folk remedies, acupuncture, translator, and incarnate lama who dedicated his life to and modern anatomy were also added to Mongolian making Buddhism truly Mongolian medicine. Despite the translations, prescriptions were A son of the ordinary herder Lubzang from Urad Left- still written in Tibetan. Mongolian doctors in Inner Mon- Duke banner (modern Urad Zhongqi) was enthroned as golia have a good reputation for healing liver diseases. the Third Mergen Gegeen (INCARNATE LAMA of Mergen) Since 1990 traditional medicine has rapidly revived in in 1721. He presided over Mergen Kheid Hermitage in Mongolia and Mongol areas of post-Communist Russia. the Muna Uula Mountains of Urad Right-Duke banner The revival was spurred not only by religious freedom but (modern Urad Qianqi), with the monastic name Lubsang- also by the economic crisis, which made imported West- Dambi-Jalsan. The Third Mergen Gegeen’s life’s work was ern medicines hard to obtain and expensive. to create a Mongolian liturgy for the full cycle of Bud- See also LAMAS AND MONASTICISM. dhist service. In addition to the complete Indo-Tibetan Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- liturgy, the Mergen Gegeen added liturgies for the wor- quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- ship of fire and the local Muna Uula Mountain in the sity Press, 2001); John F. Avedon, et al., The Buddha’s Art temples, as well as for lay-oriented festivals dedicated to of Healings: Tibetan Paintings Rediscovered (New York: Mongolian deities: The OBOO (local cairn), CHINGGIS KHAN, Rizzoli International Publications, 1998); C.R. Bawden, the banner standard, and the WHITE OLD MAN. Similar “Supernatural Element in Sickness and Death according Mongolian themes were even more widespread in his “81 to Mongol Tradition, Parts I and II,” Asia Major 8 (1961): Songs” on devotional topics, many still sung today. The 215–257 and 9 (1962): 153–178; Tseren Korsunkiyev, Mergen Gegeen also composed widely imitated didactic Ancient Oirat Books about Oriental Medicine trans. John R. poems, exhorting listeners to strive to repay the kindness Krueger, (Bloomington: Indiana University, Research of the Buddhist and secular authorities. To encourage lit- Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2001); Ruth Meserve, eracy he wrote rhymed primers of the Mongolian alpha- “On the History of Medicinal Plant Research in Mongo- bet. He also wrote the Altan tobchiya (Golden summary), lia,” in Remota Relata, ed. Juha Janhunen and Asko Par- a Mongolian-language history of Buddhism in India, pola (Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society, 2003), 155–167. Tibet, and Mongolia. Merse 347 In his liturgy the Third Mergen Gegeen departed Toqto’a Beki in turn made alliance with the NAIMAN khan from the previous approach of wiping out the ongghon in western Mongolia, marrying a Naiman woman. When (shaman spirits) and replacing them with Buddhist Jamugha and Chinggis Khan fell out, the Merkid joined a deities. Instead, following Tibetan precedent, he wanted league of the TATARS, the Naiman, and the OIRATS as well to see the old ongghons put under oath to protect the as many Mongol clans in acclaiming Jamugha khan. superior Buddhist faith. While frustrated by the persis- In 1204, having defeated his old ally Ong Khan, tence of bloody sacrifices even at the oboo, the Mergen Chinggis Khan attacked the Naiman. Toqto’a Beki sup- Gegeen‘s aim was to make Buddhism, now unassailably ported the Naiman, but they were defeated, and in the dominant, more truly Mongolian and to preserve into the same year Chinggis conquered the Merkid at the Battle of future a version of the pre-Buddhist past, suitably trans- Qaradal Huja’ur. Toqto’a and his sons fled west to the formed by Buddhist ethics. Thanks to his work the remnants of the Naiman in the ALTAI RANGE. After Mon- monasteries of Urad Left-Duke banner continue to hold gol raids in 1206 and 1208 Toqto’a Beki lay dead, and his Mongolian-language services to the present. sons fled west to the Turkic Qangli and Qipchaq peoples See also EIGHT WHITE YURTS; FIRE CULT; FOLK POETRY in modern Kazakhstan. AND TALES; MONGOLIAN RELIGION. While Toqto’a’s sons and followers fled west, the bulk of the Merkid submitted to the Mongols and were allowed to continue as a tribe. In 1216, however, when Merkid (Merkit) The Merkid tribe in northern Mongo- Chinggis Khan was returning from the conquest of North lia tenaciously resisted the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN. In the China, the Merkid again revolted, attacking the Mongols mid-12th century the Merkid occupied the land along the in their home camp, or a’uruq. Chinggis sent his great lower SELENGE RIVER, between where it meets the ORKHON general SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR against the rebels, and after a RIVER and the Khilok River. To the north lived the BARGA desperate resistance the Merkid were conquered. This (Barghu) people, to the south was the KEREYID Khanate, time they were slaughtered and the remnants divided up and to the southeast lay the perennially divided Mongol as slaves among the Mongols. Their former territory was clans. The Merkid presumably spoke a Mongolic language. taken over by the Suldus. Sübe’etei followed up this cam- Like the rest of the people on the Mongolian plateau, they paign around 1218 with a successful raid on the were nomads, but since captives among the Merkid were QIPCHAQS between the Volga and Ural Rivers, killing Toq- made to pound grain, presumably some agriculture was to’a’s sons. practiced. In their religion the Merkid seem to have been After these victories the Merkid lost their corporate shamanist; at least one chief bore the title Beki, which identity. One Merkid woman, OGHUL-QAIMISH, became a referred to a chief shaman. The Merkid were divided into wife of GÜYÜG Khan and served as regent from 1248 to many clans and had no khan. The Uduyid and U’as clans 1251. Few Merkid men received high posts in the early were dominant, but at least four others are known. MONGOL EMPIRE, but BAYAN (1281?–1340) and his The Merkid first appear in the records of the Kitans’ nephew TOQTO’A served as grand councillors of the Mon- Liao dynasty in North China. In 1096–97 they joined gols’ YUAN DYNASTY from 1335 to 1356. Descendants of Marqus, chief of the Zubu (Kereyid) tribe, in an attack on the Merkid, under the clan name Merged, are found the Liao dynasty. In 1129 Merkid tribesmen joined a today in ORDOS (southwest Inner Mongolia) and in KHEN- Kitan adventurer in founding the QARA-KHITAI dynasty in TII PROVINCE of Mongolia. Turkestan. After this event Merkid history again becomes obscure. Merkit See MERKID. The Merkid grudge against Chinggis Khan went back to his father’s time. When the Merkid tribesman Chiledü was leading home his bride, Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN, the Mongol Merse (Guo Daofu, Kuo Tao-fu) (1894–1934?) A Daur YISÜGEI BA’ATUR kidnapped her and took her for his own. Mongol intellectual and nationalist of wide talents who Later, after Yisügei died and when his son Temüjin became disillusioned with revolutionary activity after the (Chinggis Khan) had just married his bride BÖRTE ÜJIN, failed insurrection of 1928 three Merkid chiefs, including Toqto’a Beki of the Uduyid, Born in Mekhertü Ail (in modern HULUN BUIR’s Ewenki led 300 soldiers to attack Temüjin’s camp in revenge. They Autonomous banner), Merse was the son of a wealthy kidnapped both Börte and Yisügei’s second wife, giving Daur rancher and official of the Gobol clan. After being Börte to Chiledü’s younger brother. Temüjin escaped, educated in Manchu and Mongolian in Hailar and attend- however, and sought the aid of JAMUGHA, the main chief of ing a Chinese high school in Qiqihar, Merse studied Rus- the Mongols, and Toghril, khan of the Kereyid. These sian in Beijing. After being baptized a Christian in 1917, allies welcomed an opportunity to spoil the Merkid, and a bandit attack on his hometown forced him to leave they recovered Temüjin’s family. school. From then on he and Fumingtai (revolutionary In succeeding years Chinggis Khan and Toghril Khan alias Buyangerel, 1898–1938), a Daur relative by mar- (later named ONG KHAN) repeatedly raided the Merkid. riage, promoted education in Hulun Buir. Merse designed 348 mGon-po-skyabs a Latin script for the Daur language. The two also joined 1941 and lies in south-central Mongolia. Its territory is the Buriat-led 1919 pan-Mongolist DAURIIA STATION entirely in KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Tüshiyetü MOVEMENT. Merse married two Daur women, Xujie and Khan province. The province is 74,700 square kilometers Soujie (probably sisters), and had several daughters. (28,840 square miles) in area, but despite its name is only Inspired by Mongolia’s 1921 REVOLUTION, Merse, who partly gobi (habitable desert); the northern half is dry was no longer a Christian, created with Fumingtai succes- steppe. Small mountain ranges dot the province’s land- sively a student union, a local branch of the Mongolian scape. Middle Gobi’s population of 24,600 in 1956 grew People’s Party (later MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY to 51,300 in 2000. The number of livestock reached PARTY), and a cooperative to finance revolutionary activi- 2,105,200 head in 1999, but they were devastated by the ties in 1923–25. Among Chinese he wrote and spoke ZUD (winter disaster) of spring 2000 and fell by the end widely, attacking China’s neglect and exploitation of the of that year to only 1,282,800 head. SHEEP (663,800) and Mongols and advocating reform. GOATS (441,400) form the great bulk of the animals. In December 1924 Merse linked up with a mostly The capital, Mandalgowi, has a population of only KHARACHIN group of all-Inner Mongolian nationalists led 14,500 (2000 figure), the second-smallest of any by Bai Yunti (1894–1980). At a party congress on October provincial capital. 13–27, 1925, Merse became secretary, under Chairman Bai See also BUYANNEMEKHÜ. Yunti, of the People’s Revolutionary Party of Inner Mongo- lia (PRPIM), fighting for Mongol autonomy and sup- Middle Mongolian See MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. ported by the Communist International (Comintern). In 1927 Merse and Bai split over tactics, and Merse relocated to ULAANBAATAR, becoming secretary of the Mongolian military of the Mongol Empire The Mongol military trade unions. Appointed the Inner Mongolian party’s act- of the 13th century combined the characteristic strength ing chairman in November, Merse (with Fumingtai) fol- of nomadic warriors with the siege warfare capabilities of lowed Comintern instructions to launch an insurrection sedentary armies, as well as a vision of comprehensive in Hulun Buir in July 1928. By September the insurrection warfare unique in the Middle Ages. (On the later Mongo- had been bloodily suppressed, while promised aid from lian armies, see NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY; OIRATS; TUMU Mongolia and the Comintern never materialized. Merse INCIDENT; ZÜNGHARS. On the modern Mongolian military, made peace with the Manchurian authorities, while his see ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA.) former comrades returned to Ulaanbaatar. The Mongol army inherited many centuries of mili- Now strongly critical of the Soviet Union and of tary development. The warriors of the earliest nomadic Mongolia as a puppet state, Merse returned to educa- empire in Mongolia, the XIONGNU, had only simple sad- tional activities, opening a normal school for Mongols in dles, no stirrups, and a bow inferior to that of their Chi- Mukden (Shenyang) and writing books and articles advo- nese enemies. By the sixth century Byzantine descriptions cating genuine Han (ethnic Chinese)-Mongol coopera- of the Avars describe the full panoply of the heavily tion and equality. In September 1931, when Japan armored Inner Asian cavalryman: wooden saddle and invaded Manchuria, Merse returned to Hulun Buir to iron stirrup giving a strong seat on an armored horse for rally resistance. Entering the Soviet consulate in shots with a powerful composite bow, numerous Manzhouli to request assistance, he was arrested on remounts and flocks of sheep accompanying the warriors, December 11 and tried by Soviet security organs in 1934 and characteristic tactics involving ambushes, sudden for counterrevolutionary activities. His sentence and fate appearance and disappearance, and feigned retreats fol- are unknown. lowed by a volley of arrows and a sudden charge. Over See also INNER MONGOLIANS; KHAFUNGGA; NEW the centuries these tactics time and time again devastated SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS. inexperienced armies not familiar with nomadic tactics. Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, Young Mon- Inner Asian armies were, however, frequently ununified, gols and Vigilantes in Inner Mongolia’s Interregnum weak against fortifications, and useless at occupying and Decades, 1911–1931 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002); Uradyn E. garrisoning the territory of defeated lands. The Mongols Bulag, The Mongols at China’s Edge: History and the Politics stood out by combining the strengths of Inner Asian cav- of National Unity (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, alry with effective siege and occupation capabilities. 2002); Kuo Tao-fu [Guo Daofu/Merse], “Modern Mongo- The MONGOL TRIBE before the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN lia,” Pacific Affairs 3 (August 1930): 754–762. (Genghis, 1206–27) was extremely poor. Later sources claim that their stirrups were of wood and their arrow- heads of bone; iron stirrups marked a great chief. Unfor- mGon-po-skyabs See GOMBOJAB, DUKE. tunately, little is known in detail of their equipment and strategies at the time. In Inner Mongolia and Manchuria Middle Gobi province (Middle Govi, Dundgov’) the Liao dynasty (907–1125) of the Inner Mongolian Middle Gobi province was carved out of South Gobi in KITANS and the Jurchens’ JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) had military of the Mongol Empire 349 brought Inner Asian cavalry techniques and equipment to khans and officials repeatedly pointed to the Mongol vic- perfection, and once the Mongols unified the MONGOLIAN tories as proof both that their enemies were wicked peo- PLATEAU and invaded the Jin, they must have rapidly ple and that God (or heaven) had willed the rule of the reequipped their armies with the excellent equipment Mongols. later observers noted. The following is a description of The Mongol way of warfare stood out from that of Mongolian military organization at its height, from their sedentary contemporaries as well as from other roughly 1220 to 1260. nomadic peoples in its single-minded focus on conquest as the sole war aim. Once provoked to war, the Mongols OCCASIONS AND AIMS OF MONGOL WARFARE aimed not for plunder, annexation of disputed territory, Despite their reputation as insatiable conquerors, the or receipt of tribute, but rather for the complete subjuga- Mongols themselves believed that all their campaigns had tion of the enemy ruler, who would be either destroyed a clear justification. For Chinggis Khan in particular, war with his whole family or enrolled as a subordinate execu- was a personal vendetta against willfully defiant rulers. tor of Mongol administration. After his unification of Mongolia, all Chinggis Khan’s Despite this single-minded focus on conquest, the campaigns were justified in one of three ways: 1) aveng- Mongols repeatedly concluded treaties with states who ing past attacks by the enemy on Chinggis’s ancestors; 2) proved too large or powerful to be absorbed in one cam- punishing those who gave refuge to defeated enemies of paign. These treaties, however, the Mongols considered the Mongols; and 3) punishing those who executed Mon- merely temporary, and they felt free to resume the con- gol envoys. Once defeated, the most hated enemy rulers quest of these states without warning at any time. Not were given derisive nicknames, such as Jirumtu, “The until the YUAN DYNASTY withdrew from Vietnam in 1294 Righteous,” Shidurghu, “The Upright,” or Xiaosi, “Little and the Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE made a permanent Slave.” peace with MAMLUK EGYPT in 1323 did the Mongol suc- By the time of Chinggis’s grandson GÜYÜG Khan cessor states formally renounce their ambitions of total (1246–48), the Mongols had begun to proclaim an victory. explicit ideology of world conquest. When the papal envoy JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI arrived at the Mongol THE SOLDIERS: WEAPONRY, TRAINING, REWARDS court to protest Mongol attacks on the Catholic king- The core of the Mongol army was its cavalry. Mongolia doms of Central Europe, Güyüg stated that these people possessed great herds of HORSES, and each Mongol caval- had slain Mongol envoys in the time of Chinggis Khan ryman thus went on campaign with at least two and usu- and of his son ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41). He also claimed ally four to seven remounts, so that horses ridden one that “from the rising of the sun to its setting, all the lands day would be allowed to rest for a few days afterward. have been made subject to me. Who could do this con- The Mongolian horse is small, about 12 to 13 hands high, trary to the command of God?” Submission was now but admirably hardy and usually well trained. Mongols demanded of unconquered peoples all over Eurasia with- rode geldings almost exclusively because of their out any pretense of prior offense against the Mongols. strength, docility, and quietness, an especially important Full submission to the Mongols meant agreeing to point in ambushes. Mongolian saddles, then as now, were seven demands: 1) the ruler’s personal attendance at built on wooden cores with a high pommel and cantle court; 2) dispatch of sons or younger brothers as and weighed 3.5–4.5 kilograms (eight to 10 pounds). hostages; 3) a census; 4) a supply of soldiers for further Horses were, if it could be afforded, shod with iron or Mongol conquests; 5) payment of tribute; 6) appointment wooden shoes. While on the road, the Mongols did not of a Mongol DARUGHACHI (overseer); and 7) maintenance allow the horses to eat or drink but waited until the of the JAM (postal relay). Still, the Mongols rarely evening and let the horses cool off before putting them to demanded the full rigor of submission from peoples far pasture. To whip a horse in the face and to eat before see- away or on the border of hostile powers. ing to one’s horses’ needs in the evening were capital Before going to war the Mongols always sent envoys offenses. to demand surrender. Faced with defiance, the envoys The Mongol cavalry’s main weapons were first the would formally announce their hostility along the follow- bow and arrow and second the sword. A full-size Mongo- ing lines: “If you should not believe our letters and the lian composite bow made of sheep’s horn and wood had a command of God, nor hearken to our counsel, then we normal range of about 325 meters (350 yards) but could shall know for certain that you wish to have war. After reach more than 530 meters (575 yards) with a strong that we do not know what will happen, God alone archer under optimal conditions. Each cavalryman car- knows.” Before any campaign was undertaken, favorable ried two bows, or at least one good one. The Mongols omens had to be sought by SCAPULIMANCY (burning a had a wide variety of arrows, most tipped with a pointed sheep’s shoulder blades). From the time of Chinggis Khan iron head, but some with v-shaped points designed to victory in war had become the seal of divine approval of inflict slicing wounds, some with holes that produced the righteousness of the Mongol conquests. Mongol whistling sounds to serve as guides for others to follow, 350 military of the Mongol Empire and also camel-bone arrowheads to stun, not kill. Each insisted that the destruction of the enemy be completed warrior carried two or three quivers of these various before the soldiers seized booty for themselves, and this types. The wealthy had a light scimitar and sometimes rule was strictly enforced. Once the battle was over, one or two lances or halberds. Clubs or maces served the booty would be divided among all soldiers according to poorer soldiers for hand-to-hand combat. their merits and demerits, leaving shares for the great Defensively, the Mongols wore armor in accordance khan, imperial family, and commanders (NOYAN). While with their wealth. The wealthiest had scale or chain planned retreat was a routine maneuver, those guilty of mail made of iron, those of middling rank had leather retreat against orders were cowards and either executed armor, and the majority (six or seven out of 10, accord- or drafted into ba’atur (hero) units that were routinely ing to one estimate) had little or no armor. Leather assigned the most risky assaults. Several observers armor was sewn from pieces and, hanging from iron noted that in reporting on their battle experiences, the shoulder plates, reached from the neck to the thigh. Mongol soldiers showed the most extraordinary hon- Separate strips were tied over the arms and legs. Wealth- esty, informing on themselves to their commander ier Mongols also armored their horses down to the even about faults deserving death and meekly accept- horse’s knees or fetlocks in the usual steppe and East ing execution. Nevertheless the Mongol soldiers were Asian style, usually with sewn leather but occasionally by no means automatons. Their tactics and strategy with iron, and always with an iron head plate. Helmets depended almost entirely on exploiting the initiative of were iron on top, with leather neck pieces. The most autonomous groups of cavalrymen often operating far common kind of shield was almost one meter (three from any watching eye. Obedient to their commanders feet) wide and half again as tall and made of light wood to a degree that frightened observers from China to (willow or bamboo) as available, but it was used mostly Europe, the Mongol soldiers behaved in battle not as by sentries on guard. Heavy iron-reinforced shields were passive instruments but as active partners in the venture used to protect the vanguard when they dismounted to of world conquest. deliver either a particularly accurate or particularly powerful volley of arrows. MOBILIZATION, ORGANIZATION, Each Mongol soldier also carried rope for drawing AND COMMAND siege engines; an ax (rarely used in battle), and files for The Mongol armies generally preferred to campaign in sharpening arrows. Leather sacks of varying sizes were the winter and rest during the summer. Even during long used to keep their equipment dry when fording rivers; expeditionary campaigns, the main body of men and the commanders had sacks large enough to sit on and horses would rest during the summer, especially in the row with oars. Middle East, China, or India, where the summer heat was On large-scale campaigns intended to occupy new particularly oppressive (see INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; territory, the main body of the army would move with MAMLUK EGYPT; SONG DYNASTY). Campaigns were dis- their families and their gers (yurts) and herds. The cussed at the summer QURILTAI, and active preparation, mounts fed on grass, and mare’s milk and sheep’s meat particularly reconditioning the horses, began in autumn. supplied the army. If the food ran short, they would hunt The Mongols disliked fighting in either the late spring, and eat small game. Those going on long expeditions when the horses were weak due to exertion and poor fod- demanding speed took only a small tent and two leather der, or in the full summer, when they were fat and out of flasks of up to 4.5 kilograms (10 pounds) of qurud (mod- condition (qadaq). ern khuruud), a kind of dried cheese (see DAIRY To mobilize their armies the Mongols used the PRODUCTS). This they supplemented with blood bled famous decimal organization. All Mongols were divided from their horses. into 10s, 100s, and 1,000s. For each campaign the khan The skills of the Mongolian soldiers were honed by would command that every unit, either in a particular their lives. Babies in the cradle would be tied to saddles area or over the whole empire, provide a certain number and followed their mothers; by their third or fourth year out of 10 (usually one to three) to meet at a rendezvous they would sit in the saddle and begin to practice shoot- point. With the order transmitted on notched sticks ing with small bows and arrows. The great hunts devel- down the chain of command, the relevant commanders oped war skills: Just like a campaign, they began with of 10 would each select the requisite number from their dispatching scouts to inspect the game and proceeded unit to serve and dispatch them to the designated point. with the mobilization of men through the DECIMAL ORGA- Failure to appear at the right time was a capital offense. NIZATION, strictly enforced rendezvous, and coordinated Knowing the number of 10s specified in the original movement in a circle often scores of kilometers wide to order, the commander of the campaign could thus know concentrate the animals in a single spot to be killed. the exact size of his task force. In deciding the time of All Mongol men aged 15 and older served as sol- rendezvous and choosing commanders, the Mongols diers and received no pay. War booty was, however, a again took omens by scapulimancy and trusted the vital incentive. From the beginning Chinggis Khan resulting decisions implicitly as the decision of heaven. military of the Mongol Empire 351 Total Mongolian manpower was a tightly guarded well spaced, so that grass within the camp was left for the secret, but estimates under Chinggis Khan range from horses, of which two for each soldier would be kept on 95,000 in 1206 to 129,000 at his death. Since the 1,000s hand and saddled through the night. The commander averaged only half strength, this would indicate an avail- camped with his tent facing south or southeast and with able manpower of 50,000–75,000 at most. On Chinggis’s his men to the left, right, and behind him. The comman- early campaigns, such as those in North China and der’s name was the sentries’ password. against KHORAZM, he seems to have used most of his Armies on the move were screened on all four sides available soldiers. Allies and local recruits (particularly in by scouts reconnoitering scores or even hundreds of kilo- China) also swelled the ranks. Eventually, subject peoples meters beyond the main force. Such scouts paid special were also brought into the decimal organization so that attention to capturing locals with information about several field armies totalling as many as 100,000 or roads, topography, cities, enemy movements, provisions, 200,000 were used against South China in 1258–59 and fodder, and the like. The scouts also attacked enemy sol- in 1273–76. Even so, many of the most famous Mongol diers but scrupulously avoided the distraction of pillage. exploits were achieved by quite small task forces. JEBE At night the scout parties camped in a circle with the unit and SÜBE’ETEI A’ATUR commanded only three tümens commander and the horses in the center. To avoid noise, (nominally 30,000 men) on their legendary sweep the sentries used special pieces of wood in place of pass- around the Caspian Sea; CHORMAQAN subdued the Cauca- words. Long-distance coordination between units was sus with the same number; and Uriyangqadai achieved by mounted messengers. Mongol scouts were (1199–1271) and AJU rode from YUNNAN, subdued Viet- extremely effective: Mongol armies rarely, if ever, suffered nam, and crossed hundreds of kilometers of hostile Song ambush, and they usually knew the battlefield and their territory in 1258–59 with 13,000 men, only 3,000 of enemy far better than their opponents did. whom were Mongol. Mongols armies were deployed in a great center MONGOL STRATEGY AND TACTICS (ghol, modern gol) and two wings. When the khan per- Mongolian strategy generally emphasized forcing an sonally joined battle, his bodyguards, or KESHIG, held the engagement with the enemy’s main body of troops. Once center. This force, consisting of 10,000 men, was particu- the Mongols mastered siege warfare techniques (see larly well armored and had a vanguard of 1,000 ba’aturs, below), they could deal with an enemy dispersed in or heroes, chosen for their prowess. Great commanders fortresses, but they usually preferred to begin the con- received special guards (qabiqchi) for the duration of quest of a new enemy with a victory in open battle and their campaigns, to which they could add their ger-ün then besiege the remaining citadels. Despite their small kö’üd (houseboys) or personal slaves. Command of the numbers, Mongol invasions took place on vast fronts, right and left wings, both for the nation as a whole and and they relied on their messengers and superior mobility for the commanders’ task forces, was highly prestigious to converge suddenly on the enemy’s main force. The and usually fixed by hereditary precedent based on past simultaneous invasion of Central Europe in 1240–41 by service. several columns operating on a front stretching from the As a sign of Mongolian battlefield professionalism, Danube to the Vistula was only the most extraordinary the chief commander, whether a khan or a great noyan example of this. (commander), rarely participated personally in battle. While scouts and special task forces pursuing for- Instead, he and his family and retinue occupied a com- eign rulers avoided the distraction of pillage, plunder mand post that gave a view of the battlefield. This com- was an important part of general Mongol strategy. Once mand was marked by a banner specially designed for the main body of the army entered enemy territory, raid- each commander, in addition to a parasol if the great ing parties were sent out to plunder, focusing especially khan was commanding. The Mongols did, however, rec- on captives and livestock. Captives were useful as can- ognize the value for morale of leading from the front, and non fodder, and livestock formed the Mongols’ provi- crown princes and wing commanders often fought in the sions. These depredations weakened the enemy and forefront. As in all East Asian armies, advance was sig- helped provoke the decisive battle for which the Mon- naled by a kettledrum set up by the command post and gols were looking. retreat signaled by a gong. By the 1240s, however, the Mongols found them- Since their tactics emphasized ambush, the Mongols selves engaged on several fronts and possessing forces too themselves were constantly on guard against the same small to advance everywhere. Thus, in areas such as KUR- methods. The army carefully chose upland sites with DISTAN in the west and on the frontier with the Song good visibility for night camps. Camps were pitched in dynasty in the east, local Mongol commanders reverted to broad daylight, so that the surrounding area could be the nomadic tradition of repeated razzias. While inca- carefully inspected. Sometimes, though, fires would be pable of destroying the enemy, these raids weakened their lit, and after dark the army would move to a different opponents until major forces could be dedicated to the spot, leaving the fires behind as a decoy. Tent sites were front in question. 352 military of the Mongol Empire Mongol battlefield tactics were designed to produce SIEGE WARFARE AND OCCUPATION decisive victories and inflict such high casualties as to The Mongol military would have had only the temporary prevent the enemy from recovering. Following East Asian successes of other nomadic armies had it not been for the practice, the Mongols cut off the ears of dead enemies to speed with which it absorbed the techniques of siege war- get an accurate body count. A common way to achieve fare. Mongol tribes in the forest-steppe built wooden pal- this decisive victory was to lure the enemy away from isades when on the defensive. In their early campaign their base by a brief attack, followed by a feigned retreat against the XIA DYNASTY in 1205 and 1209 and against the of several days’ duration. If the enemy followed, the Mon- Jin in 1211–12, Mongol generals had to rely on surprise gols, after giving battle at a place of their own choosing, to capture walled cities, but by 1213 the Mongols were would then be able to wipe out the defeated soldiers as successfully besieging prepared citadels in North China. they fled back to their base. Chinggis Khan appointed a BARGA (Barghu) Mongol, Mongol armies were almost always outnumbered by Ambaghai, the chief of the Mongols’ engineer corps, and their enemies, who often fought behind battlefield fortifi- he began to train a multiethnic force of 500. Artillery cations. Thus, a key tactical precept was never to attack soon became an integral part of Mongolian military tech- until the enemy’s formation was disorganized. The most niques, and Ambaghai’s force by the time of the cam- common tactic to produce this disorganization was an paigns in Central Asia had expanded to a tümen immediate attack followed by a quick withdrawal. The (nominally 10,000). Artillery was used primarily in siege advancing enemy’s disorganized lines would then be vul- warfare but also on the battlefield and in naval warfare. nerable to a sudden counterattack. In the 1204 Battle of While small rivers could be forded by swimming, the Keltegei Cliffs against the NAIMAN and in 1241 at Liegnitz Mongols relied on pontoon bridges to cross large rivers. in Poland, the Mongols used a more complex strategy to In 1218 Chinggis Khan appointed Zhang Rong (Chang achieve this aim. The Mongols first approached in a tight Jung, 1158–1230), the leader of his military engineers. array, called the qaraghana march after the dense and Completing a sturdy pontoon bridge across the Amu- thorny pea shrub (Caragana), thus minimizing their front Dar’ya in less than a month, Chinggis gave Zhang the to enemy arrows. Once the battle began, they rapidly title of usuchi (marine) and made him commander of a fanned out in a “lake” array, surrounding the enemy and permanent multiethnic artillery and marine unit. shooting arrows to disorganize their ranks. Once the The Mongols adopted the usual elements of medieval enemy’s disorganization was complete, the armored van- siege warfare. In any siege they first erected a chapar, or cir- guard formed up and charged the enemy in the “chisel cumvallation, to keep in the attackers and then dug saps fight.” When the enemy was behind fortifications or toward the enemy walls. Sappers dug under mantlets proved impervious to the previous techniques, the Mon- armored against the defenders’ projectiles. The Mongol gols would stampede cattle or drive captives against them. assault parties approaching the walls fired crossbows and When heavily outnumbered, the Mongols would create an defended themselves with special linked shields. Walls impression of numbers by setting up dummy figures on were battered with trebuchets and other mangonels which extra horses, use cattle to create clouds of dust that could were dug into pits for protection and fired large stones. be confused for reinforcements, or light extra fires at night. Where stones were unavailable locally, as, for example, in Setting extra fires could also cover a nighttime retreat. The the SIEGE OF BAGHDAD in 1258, they were imported or trees Mongols, unlike their enemies, preferred to fight in cold were cut down for ammunition. While they preferred direct weather, and one unusual tactic was using a magical jada assault through breached walls, the Mongols were familiar (Turkish, yai) stone to bring on snow and disorganize the with night attacks, tunneling under the walls, and diverting enemy. Mongol and Chinese sources state that the Mongols watercourses to flood cities. Starvation brought down oth- broke Jin armies with this technique in 1232. erwise impregnable fortresses, such as Zhongdu (modern Once the enemy’s main force had been defeated, the Beijing) and Kaifeng. During sieges the Mongols constantly Mongols often faced sustained guerrilla resistance from dispatched envoys to demand the surrender of the city, fre- remnant enemy troops, bandits, escaped prisoners of war, quently promising safe conduct. Once the siege had begun, and armed civilians. In this case, when the enemy was however, the Mongols saw no obligation to keep such numerous but disorganized and weakly armed, the Mon- promises. The massacres that frequently followed sieges gols applied the principles of the great hunts directly to were the grimmest part of the Mongol conquest. war. The troops would deploy over a wide front covering The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery technol- over a hundred kilometers. As the wings advanced, they ogy and counted catapult operators among the craftsmen would gradually converge in a circle, driving before them almost always exempted from any massacres of defeated everyone within their reach, civilian and military alike. soldiers. In their last-stand defense of 1232–34, Jin When the circle was closed and tightened, all inside would dynasty generals began firing exploding cast-iron shells, be killed. This nerge (hunting circle) formation was used to and by 1240 the Mongols themselves were hurling such great effect in Galicia in 1240–41, in Yunnan in 1254, and exploding shells against Kiev and the armies of Hungary by MÖNGKE KHAN against Mongol malcontents in 1251. and Poland. Burning naphtha was also hurled at enemy military of the Mongol Empire 353 The Mongols besieging a city, from an illustrated version of Rashid-ud-Din’s Compendium of Chronicles (Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientalabteilung) 354 Mingat cities to set them aflame. The Mongols exchanged artillery gol successor states had become deeply influenced by the technology between China and the Middle East. Under political concepts of their subject peoples. While the Ambaghai 1,000 Chinese mangonel operators and naphtha adoption of such concepts stabilized the regimes finan- throwers participated in the siege of the Isma‘ili fortresses cially and politically, they proved incompatible with the in northern Iran, while in 1272 in the siege of the great Mongolian concept of unlimited expansion and the treat- Song citadel of Xiangyang the Mongols’ Uighur general, ment of subjects as cannon fodder. The natural tendency ARIQ-QAYA, brought in especially powerful catapults and of the decimal units, more or less hereditary from the their operators from Iraq. The world’s earliest known can- start, to become uneven in size and resources impeded non, dated 1282 and found in Heilongjiang province in full mobilization. Finally, as the Mongolian aristocracy Mongol-held Manchuria, attests to the Mongols’ continued expanded and the memory of the charismatic early khans experimentation with siege weaponry. faded, the former unity of vision broke down into fac- Siege was medieval warfare’s most deadly operation, tionalism and insubordination. Thus, the strategic clarity, and the Mongols reduced the cost to themselves by using the brutally effective tactics, total mobilization, and the prisoners of war as cannon fodder. After taking one town, unified command of the Mongol army at its peak all the Mongols would levy young men from the city, assign- declined. The Mongol successor dynasties on the Black ing up to 20 men to each Mongol soldier, and would use Sea–Caspian steppe, in Central Asia, and in Mongolia them in assaulting the next town: filling in moats, dig- proper continued to wage war successfully in the Inner ging saps and artillery pits, and making the first assault Asian fashion for several centuries more but never on breached walls. Such levies sometimes served in the attempted to duplicate the strategic vision of Chinggis Mongol army for years, forcing the Mongols to levy pro- Khan and his immediate successors. visions for them from the conquered territories. When See also ‘AIN JALUT, BATTLE OF; ARCHERY; CENSUS IN the Mongols began drafting soldiers from the sedentary THE MONGOL EMPIRE; HUAN’ERZUI, BATTLE OF; HUNTING peoples, this need for levies became more acute. When AND FISHING; JUYONGGUAN PASS, BATTLES OF; KAIFENG, HÜLE’Ü set out for Persia in 1256, for example, not only SIEGE OF; KIEV, SIEGE OF; KÖSE DAG ˘ ı, BATTLE OF; KULIKOVO were all pastures reserved for the Mongol cavalry, but the POLE, BATTLE OF; LIEGNITZ, BATTLE OF; MASSACRES AND THE subject lands had to supply one taghar (305 kilograms or MONGOL CONQUEST; TAMMACHI; XIANGYANG, SIEGE OF; 675 pounds) of flour and half a taghar of wine per sol- ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF. dier, in addition to a heavy monetary tax. Further reading: Nicola di Cosmo, ed., Warfare in Once the Mongols pacified a given area, they drafted Inner Asian History (500–1800) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002). laborers to break down all remaining city walls. Although the Mongols proved effective at siege war, they recog- Mingat See MINGGHAD. nized its high cost in lives and saw their great advantage in open fields. Mongol garrison camps stayed outside the Ming dynasty As successor of the Mongol YUAN cities. Should an insurrection occur, the local darughachi DYNASTY, the ethnic Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) (overseer) would send out messengers, and the Mongol had multifaceted relations with the Mongols. The Ming soldiers would converge on the city. From Armenia to employed numerous Mongol troops in the capital and China large areas were also emptied of cultivators to pro- along the borders yet had to deal with the constant prob- vide pasture for the garrisons’ livestock as well as hunting lem of border defense. This article describes Chinese-Mon- for the khans. In the Middle East the Mongols adopted gol relations during the Ming: (For the general history of the the traditional pattern of nomadizing from the mountain Mongols in this period, see NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY.) pastures in the summer to the lowlands in the winter, but in China they became mostly sedentary ranchers. FOUNDING OF THE DYNASTY Zhu Yuanzhang (b. 1328, reigned as Hongwu emperor, END OF THE MONGOL WAY OF WARFARE 1368–98) founded the Ming dynasty in Nanjing in 1368 Despite the division of the Mongol world empire in 1260 out of the chaos of the late Yuan rebellions. On Septem- into four separate khanates, the distinctive Mongolian ber 14, 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang’s generals entered the Yuan military tradition continued for several decades. In the dynasty capital, DAIDU, as the Mongol emperor Toghan- Mongol Yuan dynasty in China, effective assimilation of Temür (1333–70) and his court fled north. Daidu (Great Chinese naval techniques allowed the generals Aju, Ariq- Capital) was renamed Beiping (Northern Pacification). Qaya, and BAYAN CHINGSANG to lead a mixed Sino-Mongo- The victorious advance carried Ming armies through lian army down the Chang (Yangtze) River in the Gansu and into Inner Mongolia, where they captured the complete conquest of the Song dynasty in 1276. Most emperor’s family in 1370. In 1372, however, the Yuan Mongol wars from 1260 on, however, were civil wars, crushed the Ming armies in the Mongolian heartland, and the Mongolian strategic aim of total victory proved checking the Ming advance. inapplicable to civil war among rulers who were all Yuan armies still held the frontier region of Inner descendants of Chinggis Khan. By the 1290s all the Mon- Mongolia and had the loyalty of commanders and princes Ming dynasty 355 of Manchuria and YUNNAN. In 1382 Ming armies con- or more. As late as 1465 special Mongolian-speaking offi- quered Yunnan. From 1387 to 1390 Ming generals estab- cials were assigned to Nanjing to handle the guardsmen lished new garrisons in southeast Inner Mongolia, there. Land grants to surrendered Mongols were used both induced the Mongol commander in Manchuria, Naghachu, to pasture livestock, especially the “Tatar” cavalry’s horses, to surrender, captured another Yuan emperor’s family at and for farming. Despite claims by disgruntled Chinese Buir Lake, and formed the THREE GUARDS in northeast officials, the Tatar soldiery remained loyal throughout the Inner Mongolia from several captured Mongol princes dynasty. and commanders (NOYAN). The Ming also had a number of loosely controlled gar- Despite these successes, the Ming founder could not risons beyond the frontier, composed of surrendered Mon- force the Yuan emperors in Mongolia to give up their gols. The Three Guards of northeast Inner Mongolia imperial pretensions. The Mongol emperors still preserved eventually were resettled to the south and are the ancestors the Yuan seal, to which they clung as an ultimate symbol of many of southeast Inner Mongolia’s Mongols. The Chigil of legitimacy. Attempts to induce Mongol surrender by Guard in Gansu became part of the Yellow Uighurs, the sending back captured crown princes proved fruitless. modern Yogur nationality in Gansu. Finally, Mongol and After Zhu Yuanzhang’s death, his youngest son, Zhu ÖNGGÜD “aboriginal officers” (tusi) near Xining formed the Di, seized the throne and declared himself the Yongle nucleus of the current Tu (Monguor) nationality. emperor (1402–24). Originally stationed in southeast Inner Mongolia, his troops included Mongol soldiers from THE TRIBUTARY SYSTEM, 1424–1454 the Three Guards. After his accession he rewarded them by From Yongle’s time until 1454 Ming policy was to engage opening horse fairs in 1407, at which the Ming state pur- the Mongols and Oirats (who became dominant on the chased army mounts for cloth, silk, and other goods. In plateau from 1423 on) through tribute, the granting of 1421 he moved the capital north to Beiping, now renamed titles, and the generous treatment of defecting Mongols. Beijing. Finally, Yongle removed the frontier garrisons in Eventually, even the Yuan emperor Togtoo-Bukha (titled Inner Mongolia, creating a vacuum of power. It is scarcely Taisung, 1433–52) sent tribute missions. This TRIBUTE surprising that the rumor spread among the Mongols that SYSTEM was, in fact, a form of trade, allowing the Mongols Yongle was really Toghan-Temür’s son and a Mongol. and Oirats access to grain, silk, iron kettles, and other Yongle continued his father’s struggle to subdue the everyday and luxury goods. Indeed, the often 2,000-man- Mongols. After 1388 incessant fratricidal struggle among strong tribute missions from the Oirats contained many the Yuan princes meant the Yuan was no longer a credible merchants from Hami, Turpan, and Samarqand. At the dynastic rival. Yongle led imperial armies deep into Mon- same time, the discontinuation of tribute missions sup- golia in 1410, 1414, 1422, and 1423, but only the first of plied a stick to punish recalcitrant nomads. However, as a these expeditions was aimed (in part) at a Yuan emperor. form of politically structured foreign trade, the Mongols The others were all against non-Chinggisid kingmakers, and Oirats constantly used violence or the threat of vio- whether among the Mongols or the OIRATS, a closely lence to improve their bargaining position. related people to the northwest. The tribute system remained in operation through the 15th century yet became less effective after the TUMU MONGOLS IN THE MING INCIDENT of 1449, in which the Oirat ruler, ESEN Taishi (r. The Ming founder’s policy toward the Mongols and the 1438–54), captured the Ming’s Zhengtong emperor Mongol legacy was ambivalent. (Legends of a general (1436–49, re-enthroned as Tianshun, 1457–64). The Chinese massacre of the Mongols during the mid-autumn Ming’s Inner Mongolian buffer zone completely col- festival, with messages spread by moon cakes, have no lapsed, the Three Guards were dispersed before resettling historical foundation.) The new dynasty immediately closer to the border, and the Mongols swarmed into the restored classical standards of education and began refer- strategic ORDOS region south of the Huang (Yellow) River. ring to the unsubmissive Mongols as “barbarian slaves,” The extensive migrations made any centralized policy yet Zhu Yuanzhang encouraged Mongol desertions to his hard to maintain. Esen’s sons did not maintain his close camp and proclaimed his intention to treat such surren- ties with the Central Asian oasis states, whose merchants dered Mongols fairly. Mongols served in “Tatar” (the had formed a large part of his embassies. Without buyers usual Ming word for Mongols) units, accompanied by to the west, the Mongols proved less interested in paying their wives and children. Since the Ming adopted the “tribute,” even though the Ming remained basically will- Yuan institution of a hereditary caste of military house- ing to receive it until at least 1504. holds, the integration of Mongol households was rela- Despite the frequency of raids, there was little tively easy. Mongols became as much as a fourth of the chance of the Mongols overthrowing the Ming. Even metropolitan guard units. formidable commanders such as Esen proved completely While these Mongols adopted Chinese dress and unable to take fortified cities. The Ming installed can- hairstyle as a sign of loyalty, they maintained their lan- nons in their towers as early as 1449, and many Ming guage and much of their pastoral way of life for a century strategists considered firearms to be the key to defeating 356 Ming Dynasty the nomads, although they never made effective offen- which had proven hard to control, but frontier horse fairs sive use of them. The Mongol raids on China generally from 1571. At these fairs the Ming government bought began in the fall, while the Ming counterattacked in the horses from Mongols for the Chinese army with cloth, spring or summer, when Mongolian horses were out of kettles, and other goods. Mongol noblemen presenting condition. The Ming’s major successes came either by goods were entertained, and each fair was assigned to par- trapping the more mobile Mongols against fixed points ticular noblemen. Private trade was allowed but taxed. At (lakes, walls, etc.) or by attacking the Mongolian base first the trade was limited to a few fairs a year, but eventu- camps with their women and children, forcing the sol- ally it grew to many large and small fairs operating year diers to come to their defense. round. Altan Khan was enfeoffed as prince of Shunyi. In Tümed, at least, the fairs did exactly what the BORDER POLICY, 1454–1571 advocates of peace said they would. From 1571 the fron- By 1472 court officials, unwilling to accept the Mongol tier’s military and financial situation improved dramati- occupation of Ordos, proposed to drive the Mongols out cally. The fairs did not work so well in Ordos, where of the area. A Shaanxi administrator, Yu Zijun (1429–89), instead of one Tümed prince, the Ming had to deal with who understood the small likelihood of success, took four dozen or so smaller princes only nominally unified advantage of a local Ming victory to build an adobe wall under a titular ruler. Even so, everywhere the fairs were in 1473–74 along the northern border of Shaanxi, the opened the scale of raids declined. first branch of the Great Wall. The wall proved successful In the eastern frontier, however, the Yuan great in reducing raids, but Ming statesmen continued to advo- khans, ruling only the CHAKHAR tribe now, appear to cate military offensives they did not have the finances or have continued their objection to relations with the soldiery to achieve. Ming under any form. In fact, by controlling the Three Frontier raids reached a new level of scale under Guards, now resettled along the Inner Mongolian–Liaon- BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?). His reign ing frontier but still part of the tribute and horse fair sys- marked a resurgence of the Chinggisid ideology, and his tems, the Yuan khans could indirectly trade with China mission in 1488 was the first in decades to use the title without recognizing its sovereignty. From 1595 to 1615 a “Great Khan of the Great Yuan.” After 1500 the Mongols’ renewed bout of raiding, carried out by the Chakhar growing military and dynastic confidence suspended khans and their Three Guards allies, affected the eastern their interest in paying tribute. By the time their interest frontier, although Ordos also showed unrest. Continuing revived in 1541, the Ming’s Jiajing emperor (1522–67) the logic of the peace policy, the Ming responded by car- was adamantly opposed to receiving it. The emperor rot and stick methods: temporarily cutting off horse briefly supported instead a plan for conquering Ordos, markets and restoring them when the leaders involved proposed by a frontier general, Zeng Xian (1499–1548), proved more reas sonable. Meanwhile, wall building and the grand secretary Xia Yan (1482–1548), but even- continued. tually rejected it and executed its authors. While tribute By 1619 the appearance of the Manchus, a powerful and military policy were both blocked, wall building took new force in the northeast, caused the Ming to see the their place. Weng Wanda (1498–1552), responsible for Chakhar khans as allies. Having begun through the Three the key Datong-Xuanfu (modern Xuanhua) sector, built Guards to receive trading rights in the east, Ligdan Khan the most elaborate and complex system of walls. by 1620 was receiving 40,000 taels of silver annually as a subsidy. As the other Mongols revolted against Legdan’s BORDER POLICY, 1571–1644 attempt to centralize control over them, the Ming only ALTAN KHAN (1508–82) of the TÜMED (around modern increased his subsidy as he attacked the Tümed and Höhhot) took the most active interest in opening tribute Ordos Mongols to the west. The Ming themselves fell to relations. A junior grandson of Dayan Khan, Altan Khan peasant rebellions, and the empire was conquered by the spent his long life looking for alternative sources of legit- Manchus’ QING DYNASTY in 1644. imacy. Serious epidemics, which hit the unexposed Mon- See also MOGHULISTAN; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; gols when they came in contact with Chinese, also UIGHURS; YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. caused hardship. Even after Altan Khan burned the sub- Further reading: Hok-lam Chan, China and the Mon- urbs of Beijing in 1550, he immediately requested tribu- gols: History and Legend under the Yüan and Ming (Alder- tary relations. Many Ming officials believed that the shot, Hampshire: Ashgate, 1999); Henry Serruys, Mongols Mongols were raiding only out of hunger and advocated and Ming China: Customs and History (London: Variorum opening relations. Under severe pressure the Jiajing Reprints, 1987); ———, Sino-Mongol Relations during the emperor opened horse markets for a year and then Ming, vol. 1, Mongols in China during the Hung-wu Period closed them. (1368–1398) (Brussels: Institut belge des hautes études After Jiajing’s death, however, the grand secretary chinoises, 1980); Arthur Waldron, The Great Wall of Zhang Juzheng (1525–82) adopted a plan of Wang China: From History to Myth (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Chonggu (1515–89) to open not tributary relations, versity Press, 1990). mining 357 Mingghad (Myangad, Mingat) The Mingghad are a lished in 1949 to exploit Mongolia’s mineral wealth. The subethnic group or yastan in northern Khowd province. former mined fluorspar, tin, and uranium in Choibalsang The name mingghad means “thousands” and apparently province (now EASTERN PROVINCE) and SÜKHEBAATUR has arisen several times independently in post-Chinggisid PROVINCE, where the metals could be shipped out on the Inner Asia. Choibalsan-Borzya Railway built for military purposes in The ancestors of the western Mongolian Mingghads World War II. Profits were shared equally between the appeared in 1695 along the Kem River in Tuva as tribu- Mongolian and Soviet governments. Mongolneft’ pumped taries, along with a body of Bashgid (i.e., Bashkir) and and refined oil from the Züünbayan field in EAST GOBI Kirgis (i.e., Kyrgyz) people, to the KHOTOGHOID of west- PROVINCE; Mongolia received 5–6 tögrögs per metric ton ern KHALKHA. In 1764, due to the Mingghads’ complaints of oil and 20 percent of profits. Both companies proved about mistreatment from their lord, Dorjitseden (r. disappointing, and in 1957 the Soviet Union donated its 1737–64), they were detached from the Khotoghoids and shares to Mongolia. By 1958 major mining commodities settled on the east of the Khowd River (modern Myangad included coal (472,900 metric tons; 521,283 short tons), Sum, KHOWD PROVINCE). fluorspar (32,200 metric tons; 35,494 short tons), crude There, along with the ÖÖLÖDS settled on the other side oil (35,400 metric tons; 39,022 short tons), and lime of the river, they performed special corvée services for the (17,300 metric tons; 19,070 short tons). Production was Manchu garrison at the Khowd fortress. The Mingghads almost solely for the domestic market, however. Coal elected their own banner da (commandant general). They production reached 1,999,300 metric tons (2,203,850 shared the Tügemel Amurjuulagchi Temple (popularly short tons) in 1970, with a new mine in Sharyn Gol called Shara Süme or Yellow Temple) on the Buyantu River opening in 1964. Subsidized Soviet oil, however, made with the Öölöds, jointly inviting either the Jalkhanza or Züünbayan’s oil uneconomical; production fell to 4,500 the Narobanchin khutugtus (see INCARNATE LAMA) when metric tons (4,960 short tons) before being stopped in the incumbent passed away. The Mingghads were divided 1969. into three “bones” (yasu)—Mingghad proper, Bashgid, and Only in the 1970s did mining became a major branch Kirgis—which were strictly exogamous. of the economy, thanks to a single enterprise, the ERDENET After 1912 the Mingghad resisted successfully when CITY mine, producing molybdenum and copper concen- the theocratic government tried to make the banner trate. Coming into operation in 1978, the mine, operated rulership hereditary. Their population of 3,537 in 1916 by the Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock company Erdenet has grown slowly, reaching only 4,800 in 1989. Mingghad Ore-Dressing Plant, produced in 1990 4,208,000 metric is still found as a clan name in the old Khotoghoid terri- tons (4,638,525 short tons) of molybdenum concentrate tories (northeast UWS PROVINCE and southwest KHÖWS- and 354,100 metric tons (390,328 short tons) of copper GÖL PROVINCE) and in Tuva. concentrate at 35 percent purity, accounting for 74 percent See also KHOWD CITY; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. of Mongolia’s total mining output. To supply the plant’s vast consumption of energy, Ulaanbaatar’s no. 4 power mining Poor transportation and initial investment plant was constructed. To fuel it coal production was costs kept mining only a small part of the Mongolian expanded to 7,147,500 metric tons (7,878,768 short tons) economy until after 1970, when it became the country’s annually by bringing into production the vast Baganuur main export earner. field. These three new enterprises—Baganuur, no. 4 power Around 550 C.E. the founders of the Türk Empire plant, and Erdenet—constitute what is still Mongolia’s were said to be iron miners in the ALTAI RANGE, and major industrial base despite their dependence on MARCO POLO in the late 13th century mentioned the min- imported equipment, spare parts, and diesel fuel. In the ing of asbestos from Tuva. Modern mining in Mongolia east a Mongolian-Czechoslovak company, Monczechoslo- started with the Mongolor Company, which began mining vakmetall (established in 1979), and a Mongolian-Soviet gold in 1906 despite local Mongolian opposition. From company. Mongolsovtsvetmet (now Mongolrostsevmet), 1907 to 1913 Mongolor mined 771 kilograms (1,697 mined fluorspar, tungsten, uranium, and aluminum. pounds) of gold. In 1915 Russian investors also opened Unprocessed fluorspar production reached 455,900 metric up Nalaikh Coal Mine, which by 1920 had a capacity of tons (502,544 short tons) in 1990, and fluorspar concen- 1,500 metric tons (1,653 short tons) annually. In both, the trate 118,900 metric tons (131,065 short tons). In 1988 workforce was primarily Chinese. In 1921 these enter- mining products first topped 40 percent of Mongolia’s prises were nationalized. Soviet geological expeditions exports. When annual gold production was made public in surveyed the country in 1930–31. Production at Nalaikh 1991, it was 722.5 kilograms (1,593 pounds). increased from 869 metric tons (958 short tons) in 1922 The collapse of the Soviet economy and the opening to about 150,000 in 1940, and in 1938 a narrow-gauge of Mongolia in 1990 changed somewhat the structure of railway connected Nalaikh to ULAANBAATAR. the Mongolian mining economy, but not its importance; After WORLD WAR II two Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock it now employs more than 18,000 persons. Since 1995 companies, Sovmongolmetall and Mongolneft’, were estab- the total output of Mongolia’s mining has increased 358 Modogoiev, Andrei Urupkheevich absolutely, in percentage of all industrial production Modogoiev’s rise as a party apparatchik began in (55.7 percent in 2000), and in its edge over other manu- November 1941 with his election as first secretary of the facturing branches in value added per person. Mongo- Communist Youth League’s Buriat Regional Committee. lia’s shares in Erdenet and Mongolrostsvetmet remain He worked as the first secretary of the KYAKHTA District state owned, although the Russian shares were trans- Party Committee and in 1957 was instructor in the party ferred to the privately owned company, Zarubezh- school attached to the Communist Party’s Central Com- tsevmet, Inc. The Mongolian government now holds the mittee in Moscow. In 1960 he returned to Ulan-Ude as controlling interest in the Erdenet joint venture. Con- the chairman of the Buriat ASSR’s Council of Ministers cerns over corruption in the plans to privatize Erdenet (i.e., premier). From 1962 on he was concurrently the played a large role in the troubles of the Democratic first secretary of the Buriat Regional Party Committee. Coalition administration from 1996–2000, and the plans Closely associated with the Soviet ruler Leonid Brezh- have been shelved. nev, Modogoiev remained in power until Brezhnev’s death, Higher oil prices and Western technology and when Moscow’s new leaders retired him. Like other Soviet investment have made Züünbayan and other oil fields ethnic party bosses, Modogoiev supported cultural Russi- economical again; production reached 65,220 barrels in fication—in 1970 Buriat-language classes were eliminated 2000. Another mining branch revitalized by foreign in schools—while favoring a network of rural-origin offi- investment has been gold, with production in 2000 cials of his own ethnic group. He also used his influence reaching 11,808 kilograms (26,032 pounds), although it to create a research center for the study of traditional dropped by 11.8 percent in 2001. All gold must be sold bioactive substances, headed by the dissident Buddhist to the Central Bank, making it an important revenue scholar Bidiyadara Dandaron (1914–74), although he source. Coal production, meanwhile, has declined to could not prevent Dandaron’s arrest in 1972. around 5 million metric tons (5.5 million short tons) See also BURIAT REPUBLIC; BURIATS; UST’-ORDA BURIAT annually. After serious problems in the transition, AUTONOMOUS AREA. Erdenet’s present production, all of which is exported, is 450,000–480,000 metric tons (496,000–529,000 short Modun (Maodun, Modu) (r. 209–174 B.C.E.) Xiongnu tons) of copper (at 27 percent purity) and 2,800,000 (Hun) leader who founded Mongolia’s first unified steppe metric tons (3,086,000 short tons) of molybdenum con- empire centrate (at 50 percent purity). Recent rebuilding Modun was the eldest son of Touman, Shanyu (ruler) of promises to increase this output significantly. After an the XIONGNU. Hoping to make his son by a favored concu- initial drop, flourspar production reached 733,500 met- bine his successor, Touman dispatched Modun as a ric tons (808,545 short tons) in 2000. Important newly hostage to the Yuezhi nomands in Gansu. Modun escaped, exploited deposits include the zinc deposit at Tömörtiin and Touman, appreciating his ability, made him a com- Owoo near Sükhebaatur province’s Baruun-Urt, to be mander of 10,000. In 209 B.C.E. Modun led a band of developed with Chinese capital, the gold deposits of horse archers trained to unquestioning obedience to mur- Bornuur in Central Province, and the new gold and cop- der his father and seize the throne. Modun paid tribute to per deposits discovered in Oyuu Tologoi in SOUTH GOBI the seminomadic eastern Hu (see XIANBI) but attacked PROVINCE both to be developed by Canadian companies. them when they demanded some of his land in the GOBI Ferrous metals, lead, silver, and especially rare earths DESERT. He then subdued various South Siberian tribes. are all potentially exploitable, although transportation Having recovered Inner Mongolia, Modun extorted from remains a key bottleneck. the new Han dynasty’s emperor Gaozu (256–195) a Han See also AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA; ARTISANS IN princess and a treaty of heqin (peace and friendship) with THE MONGOL EMPIRE; BAOTOU; BURIAT REPUBLIC; HAIXI the Xiongnu (198). Sometime before 176 Modun drove MONGOL AND TIBETAN AUTONOMOUS PREFECTURE; INNER out the Yuezhi from Gansu and conquered Kroraina MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; KALMYK REPUBLIC; UST’- (modern ruins at Loulan, near Lop Nuur) and other ORDA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA; WUHAI. towns of the Tarim Basin. His son and successor, Jizhu (reign name Laoshang, 174–60), continued Modun’s cam- Modogoiev, Andrei Urupkheevich (1915–1989) paign against the Yuezhi, killing their king and making his Chief official during the Brezhnev years who presided over skull into a goblet. Modun’s biography by the Chinese his- the industrialization and Russification of Buriatia torian Sima Qian (145–89) highlights Modun’s regard for Born on January 13 in the Zagatui ulus, or village, of the loyalty and land as the basis of rule. Kuda area (in modern Bayandai district of Ust’-Orda), Andrei Modogoiev studied accounting in Irkutsk. He worked first as an accountant for the livestock procure- Mogholi language and people The Mogholi people ment office of Yeravna (Buriat, Yaruuna) district in the in Afghanistan, descendants of the Negüderi QARA’UNAS, Buriat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic preserved into the 20th century their now almost extinct and then for several higher offices in ULAN-UDE. Mongolic language. Moghulistan 359 ORIGINS fertilize them. The remembered clan division into the The Mogholis stem from the Negüderi group of the western Burghutis and the eastern Arghunis played no Qara’unas, who from 1270 on occupied the province of role in everyday life. The Mogholis of Herat were share- Sistan along the modern Iranian-Afghan border (includ- croppers, while those in Pol-e Khomri were semino- ing the Helmand and Farrah watersheds). The two madic. The total number of Mogholis by 1954 was known Mogholi CLAN NAMES, Burghut and Arghun, are perhaps several thousand persons. found elsewhere only in the Jochid BLUE HORDE and pre- MODERN CHANGES sumably arrived with the NOYAN Negüder (fl. 1238–62), who was a Jochid retainer. Conquered by TIMUR in 1383, By the time detailed linguistic investigation was under- the Negüderis appear as a nomadic people in 16th- and taken, the Mogholi language was rapidly declining. 17th-century histories; Babur (1483–1530) noted that Although mostly a kitchen language used in private, some of them still spoke Mongolian in his day. Mogholi poetry written in the Arabic script has been preserved. By the 1950s only the Herat Moghols still LANGUAGE spoke Mogholi fluently and that only at home, while in Mogholi language is one of the most conservative Mon- the Ghorat they spoke Dari Persian and in Maymaneh golic languages, fully preserving diphthongs such as i’a-, and Pol-e Khomri, Pashtun. Only a few elders there a’u-, and so on (for example, nioldu-, “to glue,” qalöɯ n, could remember Mogholi phrases. Even in Herat virtu- “hot,” köɯ n, “son”), and the unbroken -i- (for example, ally all sophisticated vocabulary, including all numbers miqon, “meat,” shira, “yellow”). On the other hand, the over five, was Dari Persian. Since then Mogholi has initial h-, preserved in Mongolic languages such as Daur rapidly declined as a spoken language even in Herat. and Tu, had disappeared. Another conservative feature is Their fate in Afghanistan’s wars since 1978 is not clear, the preservation of the q and the back ï (for example, and their language seems likely to be on the verge of qudol, “falsehood,” qïtqei, “knife,” qïmsun, “fingernail”); extinction. in most other Mongolia languages q has changed to either See also HAZARAS; MONGOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY. x or k, and in all others ï has merged with i. This conser- Further reading: H. F. Schurmann, Mongols of vatism is probably related to the Turkic and Iranian envi- Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghols and Related ronment. Iranian influence also seems responsible for the Peoples of Afghanistan (The Hague: Mouton, 1962). frequent change of a to o (for example, ghol, “fire,” soin, “good”). Given the fragmentary knowledge of Mogholi Moghulistan The eastern successor state of the and the dialect of Middle Mongolian spoken in the west- Chaghatayid dynasty, ruling the steppes north of the ern khanates, it is hard to find any clear similarities Tianshan Mountains until 1508, long retained Mongo- between the two. In a few cases, however, Mogholi shares lian language and customs. In the chaos of the the flattening of noninitial o found in the western CHAGHATAY KHANATE breakup after 1338, the QARA’UNAS, khanates (for example, quana, “it dries,” from qo’o-; cf. based in the south, and the previously obscure Mongol qo’osun). In morphology Moghol is fairly conservative but clan of Dughlat (Dogholad), based in the east, emerged like some other Middle and New Mongolian languages as the main power contenders. In 1347 Emir Bolaji of has created personal conjugations through postposed the Dughlat sought out and enthroned Tughlugh-Temür pronouns (for example, irambi, “I come,” iranchi, “you (1329–62), a last descendant of the Chaghatay Ulus’s come,” iramda, “we come”) (see ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; Esen-Buqa Khan (1309–18). Tughlugh-Temür converted MONGOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY). to Islam and briefly occupied Samarqand. After his death Emir Bolaji’s brother, Qamar-ud-Din, deposed DISTRIBUTION AND TRADITIONAL LIFE Tughlugh-Temür’s son and seized the throne (1365–92). By 1800 the Mogholis (Persian for Mongols) lived solely This non-Chinggisid usurpation and repeated invasions in mountain valleys in Afghanistan’s Ghorat province, by TIMUR (Tamerlane), who had founded a new dynasty south of Teywarah (Teyvareh) and east of Por Chaman in the central Chaghatayid lands, threw Moghulistan (Parjuman). Sunni Muslims, they had a somewhat Mon- into chaos. Eventually, Bolaji’s son, Emir Khudaydad (fl. golian appearance. Mogholis began emigrating due to 1363–1446), set another of Tughlugh-Temür’s sons on land pressure from their Afghan (Pashtun) and Teymanni the throne and submitted to Timur. The restoration of neighbors, forming several villages near Herat by 1815 the Chaghatayid dynasty and the death of Timur in and others near Maymaneh (Maimana) and Pol-e Khomri 1405 stabilized Moghulistan; Kashgar was recovered (Pul-i Khumri) by 1935. In the Ghorat, where they lived around 1433–34 and Tashkent around 1486. in scattered villages practicing irrigation agriculture, The term Moghul Ulus, used by the Moghuls them- Moghol social life was relatively egalitarian, with selves, meant simply “Mongolian realm or people” and widespread landownership. During the summer the expressed the Moghuli’s pride in their ancestry. (The Mogholis lived with their herds in black goat-hair YURTS widely used Moghulistan, “land of the Moghuls,” is prop- of the Afghan (Pashtun) type in outlying fallow fields to erly geographical and not political.) The Timurids and 360 money, modern the Moghuls were rival successors of the Chaghatay rapidly lost their Mongolian language and customs after Khanate; the Timurids called the Moghuls jete (bandits), losing the Ili Valley. In the Tarim Basin Sufi khojas of the while the Chinggisid Moghuls despised the Timurids as Naqshbandi order eventually deposed the Moghul khans, qara’unas (half-breeds) and insubordinate commoners. but the Chaghatayids in Turpan surrendered to the QING Decrees (JARLIQ) were written in Mongolian exclusively to DYNASTY (1636–1912) in 1689 and maintained their rule the end of the 14th century, and Mongolian was spoken there and in Hami as local princes until the 20th century. at court through the reign of Sultan-Mahmud Khan See also ESEN; NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY; OIRATS; (1487–1508). MING DYNASTY (1368–1644) records call YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. the realm Ili-Baligh, “Ili-City.” Further reading: Mano Eiji, “Moghulistan,” Acta Asi- Like other Mongol realms, Moghulistan was struc- atica: Bulletin of the Institute of Eastern Culture 34 (1978): tured into right and left wings and a center. The emir of 46–60; Kim Ho-dong, “The Early History of the Moghul the Dughlats, who held the center, received the title of Nomads: The Legacy of the Chaghatai Khanate,” in The ulus-begi (commander of the realm), and the status of Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss DARQAN (exempt) and khan’s QUDA (in-laws) in every and David O. Morgan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), generation. From the time of Emir Sayyid-Ali (d. 1458), 290–318; W. M. Thackston, trans., Mirza Haydar Dugh- the emirs dwelt in Kashgar, while the junior members lat’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi: A History of the Khans of Moghulis- (mirza) controlled other cities of the Tarim Basin. The tan, vol. 2 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1996). Kashgar population was divided into civilian house- holds, or tümen (10,000, from the units in the old 13th- century Mongol census) and military households, or money, modern Until 1911 Mongolia used a wide qa’uchin (“old” armies). Other classes were the aimaq variety of currencies, some common to the QING DYNASTY (tribes), or Moghul nomads, and the urban learned of which Mongolia was a part and some peculiar to itself. class. The standard Mongolian tögrög was introduced in 1925 Moghulistan included most of modern Xinjiang as and has, despite bouts of serious inflation, been in use well as Kyrgyzstan, the Ferghana valley, and adjacent continuously since then. parts of Kazakhstan. The rulers nomadized in the pas- tures north of the Tianshan and through the mountain THE QING DYNASTY AND THEOCRATIC PERIOD passes into the Aksu area. The area south of the Tianshan From the disintegration of the MONGOL EMPIRE’s succes- (the Ferghana valley, the Tarim Basin, and the Ysyk Köl), sor states in the mid-14th century to the 18th century it dominated by oasis agriculture, constituted the Mangalai is not known what currency, if any, was used in Mongolia. Sübe, or “Facing the Sun,” and was granted to the Dugh- In the late 18th and 19th centuries silver ingots were lat. Turpan (Turfan) and Hami were not originally part of used as they had been in China since the Middle Ages the Moghul realm. Tributary under Ways Khan (1417–32), (see YASTUQ). The largest ones were the fifty-tael yüwem- Turpan became an integral part of the realm in 1487–88, büü (Cyrillic, yömbüü, from Chinese yuanbao, “main trea- and Mansur Khan (1508–43) conquered Hami from the sure”), shaped like the bottom of a boot or a boat and Ming in 1513. Ming records show Buddhist clergy in Tur- weighing about 1.86 kilograms (4.1 pounds). Also circu- pan and Hami emigrating to Gansu around 1437 and lating were Spanish and Mexican silver dollars, called 1473, respectively, due to Moghuli raids and domestic yangchiyan (Cyrillic, yanchaan, from Chinese yangqian, Islamization. “foreign money”), weighing about 24 grams (0.85 The legend of the Sufi Arshad-ud-Din’s conversion of ounces). Within the capital city, blocks or loads of brick Tughlugh-Temür to Islam became the realm’s founding TEA were the principal fractional currency. The treasuries charter. Arshad-ud-Din’s descendants, keeping his tomb of nine great monasteries issued paper notes called teize in Kucha (Kuqa), were titled “great khojas” (descendants (Cyrillic, tiiz, from Chinese tizi, “signature”). Those of Muhammad). However, even late in his life Tughlugh- issued by the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA (the treasury of the Temür invited Tibetan Buddhist clerics, and Mongol ritu- JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU) circulated from at least 1870 to als, such as worshiping the battle standard, continued at 1908–09. Chinese-style square-hole cast copper coins court at least through 1508. The historian Mirza Haydar (zoos) were rarely used. Dughlat (1499–1551), an embittered emigré whose Per- During the THEOCRATIC PERIOD (1911–21) the newly sian-language Tarikh-i-Rashidi (c. 1533) is the major independent Mongolian government did not issue its source on Moghuli history, admired the unsuccessful own currency, despite the chartering of a Russian- efforts of Yunus Khan (1472–87), raised as an emigré at financed National Bank in 1915. In 1913 the government the Timurid court, to force sedentarization and Islamic made the Russian gold ruble note the legal currency, law on the Moghuls. while tea blocks and silver ingots and coins remained the After 1508 the Moghuls lost first the Ferghana valley primary money used in the marketplace. and then the Ili region to the KAZAKHS. Although Moghuli The Russian Revolution made the gold ruble worth- rule continued in Turpan and Yarkand, the Moghuls less, ushering in a period of financial chaos. Mongolia’s money in the Mongol Empire 361 Chinese occupation government from 1919 to 1921, the account, while issuing paper money in China and coins succeeding White Russian government, and the revolu- in the western areas of the empire. Before the Mongol tionary government in KYAKHTA all issued short-lived Empire neighboring realms in Inner Mongolia and banknotes. None of these currencies alleviated the des- Turkestan used various forms of money. The Uighur perate shortage of reliable money, which was part of the kingdom of Turpan (Turfan) and the Kitan Liao dynasty collapse in trade in Mongolia from 1920 to 1923. (907–1125) in Inner Mongolia used cloth bolts (see UIGHURS and KITANS). Uighur monetary bolts were four MONEY IN INDEPENDENT MONGOLIA cubits long and a span in breadth and were stamped with In 1925 the joint Soviet-Mongolian Bank of Trade and the seal of the Uighur khan. Every seven years the strips Industry created a new tögrög (Uighur-Mongolian tögörig, were washed and restamped. After about 975 the Liao “round”) currency. The new currency was based on a dynasty began importing Chinese-style copper coins tögrög of 18 grams (0.63 ounces) of 22.2 carat silver. To from the SONG DYNASTY (960–1279) in China and coin- win confidence the paper bills were completely convertible ing their own copper cash. After the fall of the Liao and to silver coins. Small copper fractional currency, or möngö the rise of the Jurchen people’s JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), (silver) were also introduced. All other currencies were the Jin mostly used Song dynasty coins supplemented by withdrawn. During the LEFTIST PERIOD (1929–32) the gov- paper currency. In South China the Song had begun ernment cancelled convertibility amid rampant inflation. using paper cash as the principal currency after 1160. A new design for paper bills and base metal fractional Although the Mongols conquered North China coins (möngö) was issued in 1939 with the portrait of Gen- beginning in 1211, they did not at first issue local cur- eral SÜKHEBAATUR, now enshrined as the founder of the rency. As the rump Jin dynasty’s paper currency entered Mongolian People’s Republic. Slightly new versions were an inflationary spiral and copper cash began flowing introduced to take account of the beginning of Cyrilliciza- back to the Song in South China, parts of North China tion and the new seal (1941), the completion of Cyrilli- reverted to silk bolts for money. Under ÖGEDEI KHAN cization (1955), and another new seal (1966). The latter (1229–41) the Mongol administration began circulating issue added the government palace and electrification on paper currency backed by silk reserves. At the same the 20-, 50-, and 100-tögrög denomination bills. time, the Mongols also began collecting taxes directly in The massive inflation from 1991 to 1995 that accom- silver and adopted the ding, or silver ingot, weighing 50 panied the market transition resulted in the disappear- taels about 2.2 kilograms (almost five pounds), as a ance of the möngö as their metal value came to exceed money of account (see YASTUQ). Under QUBILAI KHAN their face value. New bills have been issued in denomina- (1260–94) the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China issued a tions up to 10,000 tögrögs with new designs: a horse, unified paper currency backed by silver reserves. Despite General Sükhebaatur in traditional Mongolian dress, and chronic inflation after 1272, the paper currency, supple- CHINGGIS KHAN. A new fractional currency of 100, 200, mented by old cash and limited issues of new copper and 500 tögrögs has also been introduced. cash, served as the principal means of exchange until after 1345, when rebellions, economic crisis, and fiscal MONEY IN INNER MONGOLIA mismanagement destroyed public confidence in the bills. Inner Mongolia, after being incorporated into the Repub- In the western realms of Turkestan and Iran the Mon- lic of China in 1911, used the same diverse combination gols began sponsoring coinage almost immediately after of moneys as in China. In HULUN BUIR the local semiau- the conquest. Heavily debased silver dirhams (silver coins) tonomous government in 1919 issued its own bills, called were struck in the name of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, “Mongol money.” In Japanese-occupied Inner Mongolia 1206–27) in Afghanistan, and local Mongol commanders PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB’s autonomous government issued silver coins in GEORGIA and Azerbaijan during the issued through the Mongol-Border Bank (Mengjiang yin- 1240s. Under MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) Mongol coinage hang) a new currency in 1938. Called “camel money” increased substantially, with gold and debased silver from the main design on the bills, the bills were bilingual, coinage in Central Asia and silver and copper coins for with the main matter in Chinese and some subsidiary Georgia, Iran, and the BULGHARS on the Volga. inscriptions in Mongolian. From 1947 to 1949 the Chi- In the steppe cloth bolts continued to be used as cur- nese Communist–backed Inner Mongolian Autonomous rency from Mongolia to the Black Sea, while in the forest Government also issued its own currency with bilingual zone, from Russia to eastern Siberia, squirrel skins and inscriptions. Since 1949 Inner Mongolia has used the other pelts functioned as money (see SIBERIA AND THE money of the People’s Republic of China. MONGOL EMPIRE). Money did, however, penetrate the See also MONEY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PAPER CUR- steppe: The Mongol capital of QARA-QORUM has yielded RENCY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; YASTUQ. large numbers of Song coins, and Yuan dynasty paper currency has been found in Mongolia and Siberia. money in the Mongol Empire The MONGOL EMPIRE With the division of the Mongol Empire the western adopted the Chinese silver ingot as a unified money of successor state of the IL-KHANATE in Iran, the CHAGHATAY 362 Monggoljin KHANATE in Central Asia, and the GOLDEN HORDE each future for the child and bestowed on him the name began its own coinage. While theoretically bimetallic, a Möngke, “eternal.” Tolui and Sorqaqtani Beki gave up silver shortage in the Islamic world had eliminated gen- their first child to Tolui’s brother, Ögedei, who had his uine silver currency since 1000. The Mongol conquest, childless third wife, Angqui, raise him. coinciding with an increased supply of European silver, In August–September 1230 Möngke went to war for brought genuine silver coinage back into use in the the first time, following ÖGEDEI KHAN and Tolui into bat- Islamic world. The Il-Khans and their local vassals, who tle against the JIN DYNASTY in North China. In 1232 his straddled the trade routes linking European silver and father, Tolui, died. Ögedei returned Möngke to his father’s African gold to Indian goods, coined in gold and silver ORDO (palace-tent), now under the control of Möngke’s with relative purity until 1287, when a trade downturn widowed mother, Sorqaqtani Beki. Following Mongol slashed bullion reserves and led to a fiscal crisis. A 1294 custom, Möngke inherited at least one of his father’s attempt to introduce paper currency into the IL-KHANATE wives, Oghul-Qoimish, the daughter of Qutuqa Beki of was a miserable failure. Fiscal reforms and a trade revival the Oirat tribe. WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK observed that enabled GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) to inaugurate a uni- Möngke had loved her deeply and gave special favor to fied bimetallic currency throughout the realm, including her elder daughter, Shirin, but Oghul-Qoimish was dead the highly sought gold “Ghazani dinars,” and succeeding by the time of his coronation. Il-Khans maintained a fine currency to the dynasty’s fall Möngke’s mother, Sorqaqtani Beki, was a Christian, in 1335. and from William of Rubruck’s description, Armenian In the Golden Horde a strong silver currency was and Assyrian Christian priests had a significant influence maintained from around 1260 on, although internally the over all of Möngke’s major wives. Möngke himself, how- sum (Italian, sommo), or ingot, weighing a tenth of a yas- ever, evinced no more than a polite respect for Christian- tuq, remained the major currency. The Chaghatay ity. Möngke reacted to the diverse religious currents in Khanate’s silver coinage began somewhat later (1269–70), the empire with a renewed devotion to Mongol tradi- stimulated by the same trade to the East through CRIMEA. tions. Both William of Rubruck and Chinese sources Both realms shared in the economic downturn of 1287, agree that he never took any important action without but in the Golden Horde coinage revived in 1304–05. consulting the omens found in burnt shoulder blades (see Only under the Chaghatayid khan Kebeg (1318–26) did SCAPULIMANCY.) wealth from both trade and raids on India result in a In 1235 Ögedei dispatched Möngke along with his high-quality silver dirham. From 1339 the Golden Horde own son GÜYÜG, CHA’ADAI’s son Büri, and several of the benefited from the breakdown of the Il-Khanate to Jochid princes headed by BATU (d. 1255) to attack the became a major route for Mediterranean trade with the QIPCHAQS, Russians, OSSETES, and other peoples of East- East, until civil wars in the Horde and economic decline ern Europe. Möngke made the most of this opportunity. in the Mediterranean and China cut off the trade after One episode, found in several histories, formed the cen- 1381. terpiece of narratives justifying Möngke’s rise, just as sim- See also INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; MONEY, MODERN; ilar episodes of heavenly intervention did in the histories PAPER CURRENCY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. of Chinggis Khan. When the most formidable Qipchaq Further reading: Bruce G. Lippard, “The Mongols chief, Bachman, fled to an island in the Volga delta, a and Byzantium, 1243–1341” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana Uni- heavenly wind dried out the land between the island and versity, 1983); A. P. Martinez, “The Use of Mint-Output the mainland. Möngke and his soldiers rushed out, cap- Data in Historical Research on the Western Appanages,” tured Bachman, and returned just as the water flowed in Aspects of the Altaic Civilization, ed. Denis Sinor back. Möngke also engaged in hand-to-hand combat in (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1990), 87–126. the sieges of the Russian cities. He participated in the conquest of Kiev and led the long siege of the Ossetian Monggoljin See FUXIN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. (Alan) city of Magas. While Güyüg and Büri let their rela- tionships with Batu deteriorate into open ridicule, Möngke Khan (Mengü, Mangu, Mongka) (b. 1209, r. Möngke, as chief man in the Toluid family, preserved 1251–1259) Third successor of Chinggis Khan, who began good relations with Batu and the Jochids, a fact that a new line, reformed administration, and extended Mongol would prove crucial to his later rise to khan. conquests When Ögedei recalled Möngke and Güyüg in winter 1240–41, Toluid’s son had become one of the leading MÖNGKE’S EARLY LIFE Mongol princes. In 1246, when Temüge Odchigin, Möngke was born on January 10, 1209, the eldest son of Chinggis Khan’s sole remaining brother, tried to seize the CHINGGIS KHAN’s teen-aged boy TOLUI and his wife of six throne and rule without confirmation by a QURILTAI years, SORQAQTANI BEKI. TEB TENGGERI, the powerful (assembly), the new khan, Güyüg, entrusted the delicate shaman who would soon lose his life in a challenge to task of trying Odchigin to him and Hordu, Chinggis Chinggis Khan’s new dynasty, saw in the stars a great Khan’s senior grandson. When Güyüg died in 1248 with- Möngke Khan 363 out leaving an heir with the experience and influence to Lasting until the final executions of Oghul-Qaimish and secure the throne, Möngke emerged as one of the main CHINQAI in summer and winter 1252, the purge was contenders. extended over all the empire. Estimates of the officials and Mongol commanders executed range from 77 THE TOLUID REVOLUTION AND MÖNGKE’S (RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH) to more than 300 (William ENTHRONEMENT of Rubruck). Most of the princess of the blood involved Late in Güyüg’s reign, when he and Batu seemed headed in the conspiracy, however, were given some form of exile for confrontation, Tolui’s widow Sorqaqtani Beki had or house arrest. The Mongol general Eljigidei in the Mid- warned Batu of Güyüg’s hostile intentions, thus establish- dle East and Cha’adai’s son Büri were handed over to Batu ing the Jochid-Toluid alliance against the Ögedei and and executed. The only pause came when Möngke’s Cha’adaid lines. After Güyüg’s death Batu became the mother, Sorqaqtani Beki, fell ill during the purges; to pro- clear leader among the Mongol princes despite the gout long her life an amnesty was declared for those con- that kept him bedridden. demned at that time. Her death early in 1252, along with Batu called a quriltai (assembly) in his own territory the purges, left Möngke and Batu the two authorities in (at Ala-Qamaq or Alaq-Toqraghu). Sorqaqtani Beki sent the empire. Möngke, while other attendees included leaders of the families of Chinggis Khan’s brothers as well as several MÖNGKE’S CONQUESTS important generals. Güyüg’s sons, Khoja and Naqu, Since the 1242 conclusion of the great campaign in East- attended briefly but then left. Thereafter, the only ern Europe, the Mongols had not significantly expanded remaining representatives of the Ögedeid and Cha’adaid their empire. Even before the conclusion of the purges, families were outsiders with little influence in their fami- Möngke set in motion several campaigns that had been lies. Güyüg’s widow, the regent OGHUL-QAIMISH, sent the planned earlier. One place in which Möngke did not Uighur scribe Bala as her delegate. resume the Mongol conquests was in Eastern Europe. The quriltai rejected the idea that only descendants Batu emerged from the Toluid revolution as a virtual of Ögedei could be khan and first offered the throne to coemperor in the west with Möngke. Old and ill, Batu Batu. Rejecting it, Batu instead nominated Möngke. was evidently satisfied with his territory and wary of hav- Despite vehement objections from Bala, the quriltai ing troops of princes and soldiers from other lines cross approved Möngke. One supporter of Möngke, MENGGESER his lands to the front. Thus, Möngke’s conquests were all NOYAN, threatened to execute anyone who opposed Batu’s directed to East Asia and the Middle East. In his first choice. plans of 1252 he chose Korea and the Dali kingdom in Given its location outside the Mongolian heartland modern YUNNAN as the main targets in the east and India, and its limited attendance, the quriltai was of questionable the fortresses of the ISMA‘ILIS, and the ‘ABBASID CALIPHATE validity. The supporters of Möngke tried to get the regent in Baghdad as the main targets in the west, assigning gen- Oghul-Qaimish and the main Ögedeids and Cha’adaids to erals to each. attend a formal quriltai at Ködö’e Aral in the ONON RIVER- Against Korea he assigned Jalayirtai Qorchi. Working KHERLEN RIVER heartland, but they refused. Möngke’s sup- together with Korean commanders who had joined the porters went ahead anyway, and on July 1, 1251, the Mongols, he ravaged Korea, but the king on Kanghwa delegates at Ködö’e Aral elected Möngke great khan. Only Island still refused to submit. Another general, Qoridai, a few Ögedeid and Cha’adaid princes acknowledged also launched an attack that ravaged Tibet and induced Möngke as khan: mostly sons by lesser wives and Qara- leading monasteries there to submit to Mongol rule. Hüle’ü, a grandson of Cha’adai who had been deposed Ögedei and Güyüg had found Mongol advances from rule over the family by Güyüg. Meanwhile, Ögedei’s against South China’s SONG DYNASTY foiled by the Chang grandson Shiremün and Güyüg’s son Naqu moved toward (Yangtze) River. Möngke decided to outflank the Song by the quriltai site with covert plans for an armed attack. By attacking Dali (in modern Yunnan) to the southwest and chance, one of Möngke’s falconers, searching for a stray assigned this campaign to his brother Qubilai and camel, entered the conspirators’ camp, discovered the Uriyangqadai (1199–1271), the son of SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR. preparations for the attack, and gave the news to Möngke. Marching through the Sino-Tibetan borderlands, Qubilai The khan dispatched Menggeser Noyan, his chief judge took Dali city in January 1254. Left as garrison comman- (JARGHUCHI), with an armed escort to investigate. The con- der, Uriyangqadai reduced the neighboring peoples to spirators were intimidated into abandoning their plan and submission and in winter 1257–58 beat the Trân dynasty brought to Möngke’s court. Meanwhile, Bala, the Uighur rulers of Vietnam into temporary submission. scribe, arranged with the king in Uighuristan a combined Its inaccessible fortresses in the Elburz mountains of anti-Muslim pogrom and anti-Möngke uprising, but this northern Iran and daring attacks of the fida‘is (fedayeen, plan, too, was thwarted, or warriors of the faith) had generated a mystique of Under Möngke’s active supervision, Menggeser invincibility about the Isma‘ili theocratic state in Alamut. Noyan now began a thorough purge of the opposition. The Mongols were also wary of the ‘Abassid Caliphate’s 364 Möngke Khan religious charisma. Preparations for the war against the had made the Islamic profession of faith before his coro- two Middle Eastern enemies were therefore very exten- nation. sive. Möngke put his brother HÜLE’Ü in overall charge of Reports on local conditions convinced Möngke that all military and civil affairs in the Iran area, and Hüle’ü the qubchiri (contribution) system of allowing local army set out in May 1253. Once operations began in earnest in units simply to demand what they wanted from the fall 1256 the two realms proved hardly a match for the neighboring population needed to be commuted into a Mongols. The Isma‘ili leader, Rukn-ud-Din, surrendered fixed poll tax collected by imperial agents and forwarded in January 1257, while the caliph in Baghdad surrendered to the needy units. Initially, the maximum rate was fixed in February 1258. Both were executed with their gener- at 10–11 gold dinars in the Middle East and 6–7 taels of als, officials, and scores of thousands of their people. silver in China. Protests from the landlord classes Meanwhile, in July 1256 Möngke decided on all-out reduced even this relatively low rate to 6–7 dinars and 4 war against the Song dynasty. He would campaign per- taels. Subsequently, officials such as Arghun Aqa raised sonally in Sichuan, while his brother Qubilai would the top rate on the wealthy to 500 dinars. In practice, the attack in Hubei. Again, long preparation ensued, and reform of the qubchiri did not lighten the tax burden and Möngke first attacked Song positions in Sichuan in probably made it more regressive, yet it did make the March–April 1258. Military operations, while generally payments more predictable and evened out the burden on successful, were prolonged. Meanwhile, Qubilai was still areas along popular routes. Along with the reform of the proceeding through North China toward the Song fron- tax system and the postroads, Möngke counted the entire tier. During the lunar new year celebrations (January 25, empire in a single census for the first and last time. The 1259), Möngke decided to stay in the south through the application of this census and the regressive silver tax to coming hot summer instead of retiring north as was the remote areas, such as Novgorod, which hitherto had been Mongol custom. The result was as his companions feared: little affected by Mongol demands, caused riots that were Möngke died of fever before the walls of Chongqing on rapidly crushed. August 11, 1259. After the purges of the Ögedeids, Möngke eliminated their traditional ulus, or territory, in the Emil and Qobaq MÖNGKE’S ADMINISTRATION (Emin and Hobok) valleys, assigning to acquiescent Möngke did not act according to the Turco-Mongol ideal members of the family new territories either in Turkestan of freehanded generosity but instead followed a more cal- or in northwest China. In another move to consolidate culating and centralized model of rule. Unlike Ögedei, his power, Möngke gave his brothers Qubilai and Hüle’ü who gave his high officials free rein to initiate policy, supervisory powers in North China and Iran, respectively. Möngke drafted his own decrees and kept close watch on While Möngke’s officials in Iran, led by Arghun Aqa, their revision. Möngke limited gifts to the princes, con- developed cordial relations with Hüle’ü, Qubilai’s verting them into regular salaries, and tried to reverse the entourage had frequent conflicts with Möngke’s adminis- practice of making extravagant payments in return for trators in North China. Although Möngke also appointed tangsuqs (rarities). He deprived the ORTOQ merchants of Cha’adaids and Jochids to join Hüle’ü’s expedition to their semiofficial status, making them subject to taxes Iran, the creation of what became new khanates led to and prohibiting them from using the official postal relay tensions that after Möngke’s death sparked the final system. This measure, too, hurt the Mongol nobles, who breakup of the empire. were virtually all involved as silent partners in ortoq When William of Rubruck met Möngke Khan in firms. He also repeatedly punished those generals and 1253, his most beloved wife, Oghul-Qoimish (not to be princes, including his own son, who allowed their troops confused with Güyüg’s widow), had been dead for several to plunder civilians without authorization. years. His youngest wife, Chübei, who had accompanied In administration Ögedei had given high position to him on his last campaign to China, died a month after North Chinese, and Güyüg had relied heavily on UIGHURS. Möngke at the base camp at the Liupanshan Mountains. Möngke Khan still used such officials but relied on Thus, after Möngke’s death there was no empress of Islamic officials more than any great khan before him. His stature to serve as regent, a fact that hastened the disinte- chief judge, Menggeser, was of a Mongol family long in gration of the empire. the service of Chinggisids, while the chief scribe, Bulghai See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL (d. 1264) was a Christian, probably of KEREYID origin. EMPIRE; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN Even so, of the 16 chief provincial officials listed in the THE MONGOL EMPIRE; INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; ISLAM IN YUAN SHI, nine were certainly Muslim and none Chinese. THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KIEV, SIEGE OF; KOREA AND THE MON- He reappointed Güyüg’s three supreme provincial admin- GOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS istrators, all Muslim: Mahmud Yalavach in North China, POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL Mas‘ud Beg in Turkestan, and ARGHUN AQA in Iran and EMPIRE; TAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET AND THE vicinity (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG). Rumors MONGOL EMPIRE; WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOL spread that at the behest of Batu’s brother Berke, Möngke EMPIRE. Mongol Empire 365 Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Mongol Imperial- ing Mongol governors, Chinggis and his lieutenants ism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, would order wholesale slaughter of the offending popula- and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259 (Berkeley: University of tion. Such massacres were particularly devastating in the California Press, 1987). campaigns in northern China, in Khorasan in eastern Iran, and in Chinggis’s final campaign against the Xia dynasty in northwest China. Mongol Empire From 1206 to 1260 CHINGGIS KHAN After the death of Chinggis Khan his third son, and his sons and grandsons built the Mongol Empire into ÖGEDEI KHAN, succeeded to the throne, according to his the largest land empire in history. At its greatest extent as father’s will. Ögedei (r. 1229–41) immediately set in a unified empire in 1259, it included all of present-day motion campaigns intended to wipe out all the Mongols’ Mongolia, Central Asia, Tibet, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, remaining foes. To the southeast he ordered the final Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Ukraine, most of campaign to destroy the Jin, who had retreated south of Siberia, European Russia, and Turkey, and the northern the Huang (Yellow) River. In the southwest he sent CHOR- and western parts of China. After the breakup of the MAQAN to eliminate Jalal-ud-Din, son of the last ruler of empire into successor Mongol states in 1260, the Mon- Khorazm, who was organizing resistance in western Iran, gols in the East completed the conquest of China and TURKEY, Armenia, and GEORGIA. To the northeast he sent added Korea and northern Burma to their rule. Mongol troops against the QIPCHAQS of the Caspian–Black Sea rule in the major sedentary states such as Persia and steppe, who had harbored refugees from Chinggis’s unifi- China fell in the 14th century, but Mongol khans cation of Mongolia and resisted his generals. The Russian descended from Chinggis Khan continued to rule the (including Belarussian and Ukrainian) principalities were Inner Asian steppe and the oasis cities of Central Asia allied with the Qipchaqs and had killed envoys of Ching- until the 18th century. This entry surveys the history of gis, and since the king of Hungary took Qipchaq refugees the Mongol Empire from its beginnings until its split into into his service, the third campaign expanded into a gen- separate successor states in 1260. eral assault on central and eastern Europe, one that reached the Adriatic Sea before returning to the Mongol THE MONGOL EMPIRE’S RISE AND CONQUESTS homeland on Ögedei’s death. The Mongol Empire began with the unification of the Succession struggles prevented the renewal of con- tribes on the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU by Chinggis Khan. quests during the regency of the empress TÖREGENE, the Born under the name Temüjin, the son of a chieftain of reign of her and Ögedei’s son GÜYÜG (r. 1246–48), and the MONGOL TRIBE, he suffered a difficult childhood after the regency of Güyüg’s empress, OGHUL-QAIMISH. Oghul- his father was poisoned. Alliances with traditionally dom- Qaimish’s regency was overthrown in a coup d’état that inant powers, particularly ONG KHAN of the KEREYID brought MÖNGKE KHAN, son of TOLUI, Chinggis Khan’s Khanate in Mongolia, made Temüjin an important player youngest son, to the throne. Möngke (r. 1251–59) in Mongolian politics. A falling out with Ong Khan reignited the engine of Mongol conquest. In the east he nearly destroyed Temüjin’s power, but, in a series of light- launched campaigns of conquest against Korea, the SONG ning campaigns from 1203 to 1205, he defeated Ong DYNASTY ruling South China, and Tibet, all of which had Khan, conquered his Kereyid tribe, and unified Mongolia. suffered Mongol raids under Ögedei. To the west he sent In 1206, Temüjin was crowned khan of the “Great Mon- his brother HÜLE’Ü to destroy the strongholds of the gol Empire” (Yeke Mongghol Ulus) at a QURILTAI (great ISMA‘ILIS (an Islamic sect known as the “Assassins”) in the assembly) and assumed the name Chinggis Khan. mountains of northern Iran, as well as the ‘ABBASID Succeeding campaigns by Chinggis Khan from 1211 CALIPHATE in Baghdad, the titular suzerains of the Islamic to his death in 1227 drove the JIN DYNASTY in North world. These campaigns were mostly successful, and the China south of the Huang (Yellow) River, wiped out the Mongol Empire reached its greatest extent as a unified QARA-KHITAI Empire, which held a loose rein over the realm, although Möngke died before his campaign against oasis cities of Turkestan (modern Xinjiang, Kyrgyzstan, the Song could reach a conclusion. and adjacent areas), and destroyed the Muslim dynasty of KHORAZM, which ruled the area of modern Uzbekistan, RULE AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and most of Iran. His final MONGOL EMPIRE campaign was undertaken against the Tangut people’s XIA At the head of the empire was the “Great Khan” DYNASTY that ruled northwest China. In all these cam- (Qa’an), a title first adopted by Ögedei (see KHAN). The paigns Chinggis Khan preferred to bring local rulers into Mongols had traditionally elected their ruler at a great tributary relations, often cemented by intermarriage with assembly (QURILTAI) of the leading clan heads, and this the Mongol ruling house. Nevertheless, when fighting practice continued throughout the empire and in all its those whom Chinggis considered hereditary enemies of successor states. While only descendants of Chinggis the Mongols, such as the Jin rulers, or when cities or Khan were eligible to rule, the empire never adopted tribes had killed Mongol envoys or rebelled after accept- any fixed succession rule, a fact that led to repeated Mongol Empire in 1259–1260 Boundary of Mongol Empire Sea of Okhotsk Province boundary Capital Negüderis Tribal entity Barga _____ Tribal entity under traditional pre-Mongol leader s Novgorod r ________ Besh-Baligh __________ Seat of tributary kingdom or realm Tata POLAND Rostov ______ Tver’ 0 600 miles t er ____ Moscow _______ 0 600 km Barga Wa Volodymyr _________ _____ Ryazan’ ______ Halych ______ HUNGARY Kiev Bulghar City __________ d ra__ BU Kyrgyz ______ g g_i__ n_ _ LG Oirats ______ _Q_o A A'uruq Beijing BY RIA KOREA Z Qirim üd_ A Saray Kaegyong Qara-Qorum gg__ N Bl a Caffa Ö_n__ TI ck ____ Se Chinqai City Datong a Lake Balkhash Yanjing UM Besh-Baligh __________ YANJING DEPARTMENT Yidu Aral Konya Sea Qayaligh Taiyuan Ca s p _____ Almaligh ________ Yangzhou Sighnaq ENT Tammachi Ayas Tiflis Erzerum ____ Ysyk-Köl RTM Liangzhou ____ Otrar E PA Kaifeng ian Se Tig Urganch Fengxiang r Gandzak HD a is IG Lin'an R. Aleppo Tabriz Samarqand AL o (Hangzhou) Mosul S H-B J i n g zh a Eu Damascus Bukhara BE Kashgar ph Maragheh Xiangyang Ezhou ra Am u D a r ’ ya te s AM Nishapur Merv Khotan SONG CHINA R. Baghdad UD Chengdu Quanzhou P T A R’ Y Balkh s Hamadan A DE P na Chingqing (Zayton) ’u EGY ARTMENT LUK Herat _____ ra M AM Yazd Ghazni Qa Srinagar _______ _sN __e_’u_- ________ _g_d_o_ ‘Bri-gung n__g Kerman _______ s Sa-skya ______ eri güd R. Indus R. Shiraz e Pe _____ N Dali ____ le Yachi rsi Ni an G ul f South VI E SULTANATE China T BUR N OF DELHI Sea AM MA Mongol Empire 367 strife. The emperor’s person was protected by a KESHIG, rulers who surrendered to the Mongols would send sons or imperial guard, which served as a training corps and or brothers as hostages to the Mongol court and receive crack military force. From Chinggis Khan’s time scribes imperial overseers (DARUGHACHI) to guard Mongol inter- recorded the khans’ and princes’ wise sayings (bilig) and ests. They also supplied troops for the Mongol conquests these, together with the empire’s written decrees, and paid taxes based on a Mongol census. The Mongols formed a body of precedents, or JASAQ, which came to divided the wealthiest zone of their realm, whether function as a sort of constitution of the empire. Any vio- directly ruled or tributary, into three departments: Yan- lation of these precedents by the khans could lead to jing (North China), Besh-Baligh (Turkestan), and Amu widespread opposition. Dar’ya (Persia), each of which had a single supreme offi- From the beginning of his rise, Chinggis sponsored a cial (either Chinese, Turkestani, or Mongol) supervising new Mongol aristocracy. Those who had supported him its tax payments and administration. Local affairs were early on were given high positions that they handed on to administered by the conquered peoples. A postroad sys- their descendants. Meritorious servants had regular Mon- tem (JAM) kept communications open between the far- gol subjects and also received grants of captive artisans flung outposts of the empire. and settled peoples all over the empire. These benefits While Chinggis Khan retained his ancestors’ mobil- were also given to members of the ruling family, which ity, he did build a sort of fort in northeast Mongolia, quickly grew to staggering size. Compared to other called A’uruq, or “base camp” (see AWARGA). Ögedei built Turco-Mongol states, the Mongol Empire was a family a large capital in central Mongolia called QARA-QORUM, affair. The Mongol commoners showed deep deference to which for a few decades became a center of Eurasian the Chinggisid family, and despite their often serious commerce. Other princes, princesses, and officials built divisions, members of the ruling family showed an palaces and colonies throughout the Inner Asian steppe. impressive forbearance toward one another. Even after All these areas were settled primarily by people deported the breakup of the dynasty, defeated Chinggisid rivals from the conquered areas: artisans, farmers, and postroad were only rarely killed, and relatively few khans met their workers. After the breakup of the empire, the rulers of death at the hands of subjects. At the same time, the large the successor states also founded such cities in their Mongol aristocracy, which insisted on sharing both the domains, such as Saray in the GOLDEN HORDE and administration and the revenue of the empire, constituted Soltaniyeh in the IL-KHANATE (see SARAY AND NEW SARAY). a constant enemy of centralization and fiscal restraint. Even so, the Mongol khans long retained their nomadic According to Mongolian custom, wives of great men customs, making regular circuits through seasonal camps were the keepers of the palace-tents (ORDO) both during and palaces. their husbands’ lives and afterward and were invited to all the great assemblies of the empire. As keepers of the FINANCE IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE ordos they also had a recognized right to receive tax mon- Lavish gift giving to Mongols and subjects alike held a eys and in-kind supplies from appanages to provision the central position in the political system of the Mongol ordos and their staff in suitable style. Thus, while not Empire, as it did in all Turco-Mongol Empires. From the given formal positions of power, the women of both the time of Chinggis Khan, those who suffered in war imperial clan and the QUDA (marriage ally) clans were expected to be rewarded richly. The importance of gen- full-fledged and influential members of the new Mongol erosity was particularly great, since Chinggis Khan aristocracy. strictly prohibited individual soldiers from seizing loot The nomadic peoples of the Mongolian plateau served for themselves, a precedent followed in the empire. His the empire and its new aristocracy both as taxpayers and successor, Ögedei Khan, took his generosity to extremes, soldiers, receiving in return a share of the booty. They developing a reputation for reckless prodigality. Ögedei were divided according to a cell-like DECIMAL ORGANIZA- and his successors hoped such generosity would encour- TION (10s, 100s, 1,000s, 10,000s), which made it easy to age the empire’s warriors, draw able men from all over pass demands down the chain of command. Toward the the world to the court, circulate back to the people the sedentary people, the Mongols at first had little organized booty seized in conquest, and give the emperor a glorious policy, but eventually they imposed the census and the reputation among his subjects and foreigners and in decimal organization on them as well. From the beginning heaven. While many later rulers followed this pattern of significant numbers of sedentary peoples were also incor- heedless liberality, others, such as Möngke, attempted to porated into the Mongol military, as common soldiers and turn gifts into budgeted annuities. specialists in artillery and other branches. While much of the wealth of the Mongol rulers came The Mongols administered the empire through a sim- from battle plunder, a regular tax system soon became ple bureaucracy. In Chinggis Khan’s time the Mongols necessary. Mongol nomads did pay taxes supplying milk adopted the vertical, alphabetic UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN and other pastoral products to their captains and to the SCRIPT, and the chief judge (JARGHUCHI) and scribe at the ruling family, but such supplies were far from meeting the khan’s court were always UIGHURS or Mongols. Those needs of the court or the army. The Mongols continued 368 Mongol Empire most of the existing tax payments in the various regions son, tried to enforce certain Mongol practices, such as a they conquered but added on top of them qubchiri (con- distinctive method of slaughtering without shedding tributions), a special tax to meet the immediate needs of blood and a prohibition against soiling water by washing the Mongol rulers and their army. With regard to this clothes or bodies, particularly in the summer. These two qubchiri, Mongol financial policy oscillated between two rules ran afoul of Islamic laws on slaughtering and ablu- distinct principles: either use messengers bearing tablets tions and caused serious tensions. The Mongols also or badges of authority (PAIZA) to simply seize what was pressured the Chinese in their major garrison cities to needed from the civilians, or turn the qubchiri into a reg- adopt the distinctive Mongol style of head shaving. ular tax, payable in silver to the treasury of the emperor, Certain religious groups were also seen as anti-Mon- who would in turn forward it to the army and the aristoc- gol or subversive and hence eliminated. The Isma‘ilis, or racy according to a regular budget. Ögedei and Müngke “Assassins,” a sect of Shi‘ite Muslims, had assassinated tried hard to implement the qubchiri as a regular silver Mongol officials, and the Mongols eventually responded tax, but under the regents and Güyüg’s reign the empire by destroying their stronghold in Alamut in modern Iran fell into a virtual anarchy of messengers bearing badges in 1256. The Dhutaists and other sects of Buddhism in and demanding goods. This oscillation continued in the China were at first denied recognition and sporadically successor states. persecuted by the Mongol authorities. Later anti-Bud- The Mongols never imposed a unified currency on the dhist polemics distributed by the Taoists were also empire as a whole but quickly adopted and produced local banned by the Mongols. In all these cases the Mongols currencies, including Chinese paper money. However, were also following the lead of the established religious Mongol financial practice everywhere encouraged a silver authorities, who expected the rulers to crush heretical standard. As the main unit of account for their central trea- and antisocial sects. sury, the Mongols adopted the Chinese silver ingots, or Finally, the Mongols did not extend recognition to ding, called YASTUQ in Uighur and weighing 50 taels (2.2 clergy who did not have state power. Zoroastrian fire kilograms or almost 5 pounds). In the Islamic areas silver priests in Persia, Manichean clergy in Turkestan, and Jew- always predominated over gold in Mongol coinage. The ish rabbis were not given any recognition by the Mongols Mongols borrowed the Turco-Persian practice of ORTOQ, before 1260, although they were not persecuted. Under “partners,” in which the Mongol rulers and aristocrats Chinggis Chinese CONFUCIANISM was not treated as a reli- loaned silver from the treasury at interest to merchants and gion, but Ögedei founded a temple of Confucius in his moneylenders as capital. They also preferred to collect capital, and later QUBILAI KHAN would extend to Confu- taxes by tax farming, in which agents would bid for the cian scholars the same privileges and immunities as the right to collect taxes in a given area, with a share going to Buddhist and Taoist clergy. the collectors as profit. The result in many cases was bid- In the successor states Mongol khans would become ding wars between tax farmers, which led to dramatic tax strong adherents of either Islam or a mixture of Confu- increases. Many writers lamented that such financial prac- cianism and Tibetan Buddhism. By 1260 already one local tices were more ruinous even than the conquest itself. khan, Berke in the northwest, was a Muslim. Even after the rulers’ conversion, however, the Mongol aristocracy CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE often resisted linking public policy to personal religious UNIFIED EMPIRE beliefs. The Mongol rulers made no attempt to impose a common culture on the empire. This attitude of cultural pluralism BREAKUP OF THE UNIFIED EMPIRE toward their subject peoples was exemplified in the Mon- By the time of Möngke’s death in 1259, differing branches gols’ famous policy of religious tolerance. One of the clear- of the Chinggisid family had developed clear spheres of est legacies of Chinggis Khan, the Mongol policy of influence in differing areas. The descendants of JOCHI, religious tolerance was based on the view that all worthy Chinggis’s oldest son, had received the western part of the religions were, in fact, praying to the same god, the great empire as their appanage, while Cha’adai, Chinggis’s sec- eternal god the Mongols called TENGGERI. God or heaven ond son, had received Turkestan. Möngke Khan granted (tenggeri means both) had granted world rule to Chinggis his brothers, Qubilai and Hüle’ü, jurisdiction over North and his successors. The Mongol rulers presented the clergy China in the East and the Middle East in the West, respec- of the recognized religions—Christianity, Buddhism, Tao- tively. Hüle’ü’s position in the Middle East caused resent- ism (Daoism), and Islam—a deal: In return for their ment among the descendants of Jochi, who considered that prayers to God for the Mongol rulers, the rulers would their claims to that area were being ignored. Similarly, the grant the clergy equal status and exemption from military descendants of Cha’adai felt constricted between Qubilai in service and taxes. Everywhere, socially dominant clergies the East and Hüle’ü in the West. When Möngke’s death led accepted this deal, and saw their influence expand. to a civil war in North China and Mongolia between his Mongol tolerance was not complete, however. Some two brothers, Qubilai and ARIQ-BÖKE, the other branches of Mongol rulers, such as CHA’ADAI, Chinggis Khan’s second the Chinggisid family used the interregnum to assert their Mongolia, State of 369 own claims. By 1265 four independent regimes had EMPIRE; SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SOCIAL CLASSES emerged: the Golden Horde in the northwest, ruled by the IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TAMMACHI; TIBET AND THE MON- descendants of Jochi; the Il-Khanate in the Middle East, GOL EMPIRE; WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. ruled by Hüle’ü; the Chaghatay Khanate in Central Asia; Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- and the realm of Great Khan Qubilai, later called the YUAN quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- DYNASTY (1206/1271–1368), in North China and Mongo- sity Press, 2001); Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. lia. Despite intermittent warfare over the next few decades, Morgan, Mongol Empire and Its Legacy (Leiden: E. J. Brill, none of these four realms was able either to reunite the 1999); Rene Grousset, Empire of the Steppes: A History of empire or even to alter significantly the balance of power. Central Asia, trans. Naomi Wallford (New Brunswick, While the other realms would usually acknowledge the tit- N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1970); Peter Jackson, “The ular preeminence of the Yuan dynasty’s great khans in the Dissolution of the Mongol Empire,” Central Asiatic Jour- East, in practice each remained completely independent. nal 22 (1978): 186–243; David Morgan, Mongols (For subsequent events, see CHAGHATAYID KHANATE; GOLDEN (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); H. F. Schurmann, “Mon- HORDE; IL-KHANATE; YUAN DYNASTY.) gol Tributary Practices of the Thirteenth Century,” Har- vard Journal of Asiatic Studies 19 (1956): 304–389. THE MONGOL EMPIRE IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY It is customary to see the Mongol Empire as a brief histori- Mongolia, State of The only independent state for the cal interlude that left no impact on Eurasian history. Cer- Mongol peoples and for many decades the only indepen- tainly its legacy was not in proportion to its size or dent state in Central and Inner Asia, the State of Mongolia comparable to that of the Roman, Arab, or European colo- lies between China and Russia. Its borders have been nial empires, yet its influence on contemporary medieval roughly fixed at their present form since 1915, although history was substantial. (On the issue of Mongol influence on there was great controversy over Mongolia’s status until the history of specific peoples, see the articles mentioned above after WORLD WAR II. Ethnically, Mongolia’s 2.4 million peo- on the successor states.) By 1300 the areas conquered by the ple are overwhelmingly ethnic Mongols speaking one or Mongols had recovered from their devastation, and tax another Mongolian dialect. All of the Mongols are tradi- policies, while still heavily regressive, were no longer tionally Buddhist, although some also have active tradi- destructive of economic development. The latter half of tions of SHAMANISM. Non-Mongols include the KAZAKHS Mongol rule coincided with the height of medieval east- (about 5 percent of the population) in the far west, who west trade linking Europe, Persia, Turkestan, India, South- are Turkic-speaking Muslims, and small numbers of Chi- east Asia, and China. Travelers and writers such as MARCO nese and Russian immigrants. Among the Mongol ethnic POLO, RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH, and MUHAMMAD ABU- groups, the KHALKHA, at 79 percent, form the overwhelm- ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA responded to this cosmopolitan ingly dominant group. Other main Mongolian subgroups environment by expanding their intellectual horizons far include the various Oirat ethnic groups in the west (about past earlier limits, thus permanently altering the world- 7.5 percent) and the BURIATS in the northeast (1.7 percent). view of European, Islamic, and, to a lesser degree, East With the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian indepen- Asian civilizations. The extraordinary events of the con- dence from China’s QING DYNASTY, the country entered its quest led to some of the most brilliant historical and travel THEOCRATIC PERIOD. This period ended in disaster, with writing of the Middle Ages. Although these expanded hori- Mongolia fought over by Chinese and White Russia zons contracted again dramatically after the catastrophes of troops. The 1921 REVOLUTION began Mongolia’s REVOLU- the mid-14th century, they left effects that bore fruit in the TIONARY PERIOD, which ended with the GREAT PURGE Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun’s pathbreaking conception (1937–40) and the destruction of Buddhism, solidifying of world history and the voyages of the Chinese explorer the new regime as a Communist dictatorship. Called the Zheng He and, later, Columbus. Ironically, it was the cross- MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC from 1924 to 1992, Mon- cultural transmission of another novelty—the BLACK golia received massive Soviet aid that created a new DEATH—in which the Mongols inadvertently seem to have industrial and largely urbanized society. In 1990, how- played a crucial role, that brought this Indian summer of ever, the collapse of the Soviet bloc sparked the 1990 their rule to an end. DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION, which led to the adoption of See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL the 1992 CONSTITUTION and the renaming of the country EMPIRE; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENTRAL EUROPE to simply the State of Mongolia. AND THE MONGOLS; CLOTHING AND DRESS; DARQAN; FOOD AND DRINK; INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; JARLIQ; KHAN; KOREA MONGOLIAN GEOGRAPHY IN WORLD AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL COMPARISON EMPIRE; MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MONEY IN THE The State of Mongolia lies in eastern Inner Asia. The coun- MONGOL EMPIRE; NOYAN; PAPER CURRENCY IN THE MONGOL try’s territory covers 1,566,500 square kilometers (604,830 EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS square miles), roughly the size of Texas, Oklahoma, New POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL Mexico, and Arizona or Germany, the Low Countries, 370 Mongolia, State of France, Spain, and Portugal combined. The country is conservative voters than the other parties. This rural base roughly lens shaped and has a 3,485-kilometer (2,165- has given the MPRP a continued lock on local govern- mile) land border with Russia and a 4,673-kilometer ment; even in 1996, 52 percent of local deputies were (2,904-mile) border with China. As a landlocked country MPRP members, and in 2000 the number rose to 89 per- sandwiched between two great powers, modern Mongolia cent. Several new parties emerged from the 1990 Demo- has always faced serious threats to its independence. cratic Revolution, of which the Democratic Party was the The country stretches between latitudes 52°09” and largest. After the failure of the 1992 election, the Demo- 41°35”, or roughly from the latitude of Cleveland to that cratic Party and several smaller parties merged to form of Saskatoon or Rome to London, yet Mongolia’s capital, the National Democratic Party (NDP). In 1996 they ULAANBAATAR, whose climate is close to the country’s formed a winning Democratic Coalition with the Social average, has temperature extremes similar to those of Democrats (a smaller party formed in 1990), but shortly Fairbanks, Alaska. As in many cold weather areas, vegeta- before the 2000 election the coalition broke up, and they tion is relatively abundant despite a level of precipitation campaigned separately. In 2000 the NDP gained only one similar to that of Tucson or Tehran. Mongolia’s average seat and the Social Democrats none; instead, two new altitude is 1,580 meters (5,184 feet) above sea level. parties, the Civic Courage-Republican Party led by S. The State of Mongolia is the most sparsely populated Oyuun (b. 1964), the sister of the slain democratic leader independent country in the world. In 2000 the total pop- SANJAASÜRENGIIN ZORIG, and the New Democratic Social- ulation of 2,407,500 persons was distributed at just over ist Party shared the other three non-MPRP seats. The 1.5 persons per square kilometer (3.9 per square mile). NDP and the Social Democrats have now merged into a By comparison, Australia has 2.3 persons per square kilo- new Democratic Party, and discussions are proceeding meter (6 per square mile) and Wyoming 1.8 per square with the New Democratic Socialist Party. kilometer (4.7 per square mile) (see CLIMATE; FAUNA; The chief issue in Mongolian elections has been eco- FLORA; MONGOLIAN PLATEAU). nomic management. Generally, the MPRP is seen as hav- ing a more statist approach, while the Democrats GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS represent free-market liberalism. The new parties in the Since the 1990 Democratic Revolution and the adoption 2000 parliament see themselves as moderates between of the 1992 Constitution, Mongolia has made the transi- these two extremes. In fact, while the 1992–96 MPRP tion from Soviet-style communism to a democratic and administration of Prime Minister P. Jasrai (b. 1933) was pluralist society with a market economy. Mongolia’s 1992 relatively slow in PRIVATIZATION, the 2000 MPRP adminis- Constitution guarantees basic democratic freedoms and tration of Nambaryn Enkhbayar (b. 1958) has mostly unlike those in the previous constitutions, these guaran- continued the free-market policies of the Democratic tees are observed in practice. Demonstrations are a rou- Coalition, including controversial land privatization. The tine aspect of political life, and there are no prisoners of freedom of action of Mongolia’s government is limited by conscience. The major newspapers and some cable televi- harsh economic constraints and the priorities of donor sion channels are now privately owned and represent a countries and international aid organizations. range of views. (On the formal structure of the state, see The new elite of Mongolia is a continuation of the 1992 CONSTITUTION.) Mongolia’s foreign policy is for- late socialist elite created by massive urbanization from mally one of neutrality and nonalignment, although in the 1960s on. Most of the leaders of the MPRP and the reality since 1991 it has been closely aligned with the democratic movement were educated in the Soviet Union Western countries (see FOREIGN RELATIONS). or Eastern Europe, which, regardless of their often hum- Given Mongolia’s small population and unicameral ble rural origins, made them part of the socialist elite. legislature elected at one time by a first-past-the-post sys- One important division in this elite was and remains that tem, Mongolian elections have seen wild fluctuations in between the managers, who mostly stayed with the party strength in each election. In 1992 the Mongolian MPRP, at least at first, and the intellectuals (academics, People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP), the former Com- writers, and artists), who led the democratic movement. munist Party then in transition to becoming a democratic Another difference is age, with the MPRP leaders being party, received 72 of 76 seats in the Great People’s Khural. mostly born before and the democratic movement leaders In 1996, however, the opposition Democratic Coalition mostly after 1955. received 50 of 75 seats, while in 2000 the MPRP again Despite the continuity in elites, government corrup- won 72 of 76 seats. In 1993 and 1997 Mongolian voters tion has, at least in popular impression, become a much used the presidential elections, which take place one year more serious problem since the democratic transition. after the parliamentary elections, to check these lopsided (An accurate assessment of high-level corruption before mandates, although in 2001 the MPRP candidate also 1990 is, of course, virtually impossible to obtain.) Scan- won the presidency. dals associated with banking and later privatization have The Mongolian party system is still dominated by the touched all sides of the political spectrum, but particu- MPRP, whose base is older, more rural, and culturally larly the democratic movement leaders. As is typical after al An Modern Mongolia: Administrative Divisions ik ga Ba ra R. Ye TUVAN REPUBLIC BURIAT REPUBLIC n ise y ke ALTAY R. (RUSSIA) La (RUSSIA) REPUBLIC Dar (RUSSIA) Lake n R. khad Uws Lake Ono Khöwsgöl Dö rb ö Bayad Ulaangom R. ur d BAYAN- Eg baat UWS KHÖWSGÖL k he SE Sü LE Ölgii s ÖLGII Mörön ge R. NG at len Darkhan E i Se Erdenet ur Khowd B Bulgan Choibalsang Kaz ZAWKHAN a BULGAN Ulaanbaatar KHENTII khs Uliastai NORTH Baganuur KHOWD KHANGAI . Öndörkhaan EASTERN lR uu Zuunmod T Orkhon R. Ürün gü Tsetserleg Baruun-Urt R. CENTRAL R. len Kh er hin Choir ac Altai h Arwaikheer SÜKHEBAATUR Bayankhongor Zak GOBI-ALTAI SOUTH Mandalgobi Dariganga R KHANGAI MIDDLE GOBI NGO O Sainshand NKH Zuunmod Capital of administrative A EAST GOBI division BAY Dalanzadgad KHENTII Name of administrative division XINJIANG SOUTH GOBI Buriats Sub-ethnic group or “tribe” (CHINA) Boundary of administrative division International boundary Note: Erdenet, Darkhan, and Choir are the seats of Orkhon, Darkhan-Uul, and INNER MONGOLIA 0 300 miles Gobi-Sümber provinces respectively. (CHINA) 0 300 km 372 Mongolia, State of the toppling of authoritarian governments, Mongolia has 1995. This economic decline has hit the small cities and experienced a serious crime wave. From 1990 to 2000 the towns especially hard, while the capital and rural areas rate of violent crimes increased from 1.5 per 1,000 adults have weathered it more successfully. About one-third of to 2.5, while that of property crimes increased from 1.8 the population lives below the poverty line. The distribu- per 1,000 to 3.6. tion of income, as measured by the Gini index number of Radical opposition to the post-1990 democratic 33.2 (1995 figure), is rather more egalitarian than in Rus- regimes comes from a vocal minority of vehement sia, China, or the English-speaking democracies, but nationalists and cultural conservatives. Some, such as somewhat less so than in Japan or the western European G. Boshigt (b. 1942), are disillusioned supporters of the social democracies. 1990 democracy movement who see the hoped-for Despite the economic crisis, Mongolian life expectancy Mongolian cultural renaissance threatened by a cheap has risen slowly from 63.7 years in 1990 to 65.1 in 1998. sensationalist pop culture and the privileges of the The main causes of death are cardiovascular problems Communist-era “red aristocracy” replaced by new mar- and cancer; respiratory diseases, which used to be the ket inequalities. The distinguished poet OCHIRBATYN main cause, have declined sharply since 1980. In the DASHBALBAR (1957–99) was elected on this type of plat- 1980s Mongolians married quite young (average age 20 form in the 1992 and 1996 parliaments. While the radical for women and 24 for men), and in 1990 the total fertility nationalists denounce poverty and embrace statist eco- rate was 4.5 children. During the transition, with eco- nomic policies, no genuine Marxist opposition exists. nomic difficulties and the legalization of abortion and contraception, the average age at first marriage rose two LIFESTYLE AND ECONOMY years and the fertility rate plummeted to 2.2 children. The Mongolian population is today a mix of urban and Probably due to the aggressive promotion of breast-feed- rural. In 2000 the capital, ULAANBAATAR, had 32.7 percent ing, however, infant mortality has dropped from 63.4 per of the population, other urban areas 24.5 percent, and 1,000 live births in 1990 to 35.4 in 2000. rural areas 42.8 percent. The agricultural sector, mostly Medical services were funded directly from the state nomadic herders but including a small number in farm- budget under the communist government but are now ing, hunting, and forestry, totals 49 percent of the coun- funded by a national medical insurance system with pre- try’s working population. Of Mongolia’s employed miums and copayments. Tibetan medicine, BARIACH (bone persons, 14 percent are in mining, manufacturing, utili- setters), and other traditional medicines have revived ties, or construction, and 36.7 percent are in retail, repair, widely. While quantitative indicators of the health net- and other services. The agricultural sector produces 33.4 work show some decline, the quality of health care seems percent of the country’s gross domestic product, while the to have increased in the transition, and health care is one industrial sectors account for 19.7 percent and trade and of the few areas of material living standards in which more services 48.7 percent. The main exports are semiprocessed people see improvement since 1990 than see decline. mineral products, such as copper and molybdenum, tex- tiles such as CASHMERE, and raw or semiprocessed furs, EDUCATION AND CULTURE skins, and hides (see ECONOMY, MODERN; MINING). By 1990 Mongolia had a universal education system based Most urban Mongols live in either high-rise apart- on 10 years of general education (from ages eight to 18). ment blocks (privatized as condominiums in 1997) or in Herding children were educated in boarding schools at fenced YURT courtyards (privatized as fully owned private district (SUM) centers. Adult literacy was estimated at 96.5 land in 2003). Since 1990 a small number of large private percent by 1989, and there was no significant gap between houses have also been built. Appliances such as radios, male and female literacy. Since then the budget crisis has televisions, refrigerators, and washing machines are com- led to a deterioration in educational facilities and teacher- mon among the urban dwellers. Households engaged in student ratios and to the introduction of fees for boarding Mongolia’s traditional nomadic herding now number only schools. The change in the economy has not been 34.6 percent of the country’s total; most still live in yurts reflected in the curriculum, leading to a mismatch and nomadize regularly. A small number of herding between education and job opportunities. As a result, the households have electricity provided by a generator or enrollment of children eight to 18 dropped from 98 per- windmill, and about 17 percent have motorcycles. cent to 87 percent from 1990 to 2000. This has affected The average annual income in Mongolia was esti- particularly boys, and female students now dominate mated in 1998 as the purchasing power equivalent of US higher education. Since 2000, however, the percentage of $1,356, somewhat more than that of the Philippines but children in school has again swung upward. well below that of either the former Soviet Union or of During the democracy movement years the Mongo- Asia’s newly industrialized countries. Income has lian press was dominated by party publications that dis- dropped significantly from the estimated $1,640 in 1990 cussed political questions and exposed the dark side of due to the general economic crisis of the former Soviet the communist era. By the mid-1990s the party publica- bloc, although there has been a modest recovery since tions had mostly folded due to lack of reader interest and Mongolian language 373 were replaced by the commercial press. The state-run Lawless, Wild East: Travels in the New Mongolia (Toronto: newspaper, Ardyn erkh, replaced the MPRP newspaper ECW Press, 2000); National Statistical Office of Mongo- Ünen, “Truth,” as the main newspaper in 1990. Owner- lia, Mongolian Statistical Yearbook 2000 (Ulaanbaatar: ship of Ardyn erkh and the other state-owned paper, Zas- National Statistical Office, 2001); Ricardo Neupert, giin gazryn medee, “Government News,” was transferred Urbanization and Population Redistribution in Mongolia to their staffs by the Democratic Coalition government in (Honolulu: East-West Center, 1994). 1998–99. Now renamed Ödriin sonin, “Daily News,” and Zuuny medee, “Century News,” these two publications are Mongolian language Mongolian, spoken by perhaps the main newspapers, although after the MPRP’s victory 4.5 million people, is the national language of Mongolia in 2000 Ünen has again increased its readership. There and a regional language of Inner Mongolia in China. It is are still state-owned television and radio channels, but a by far the largest and most important language in the number of privately owned television and radio broadcast Mongolic family and has a written history dating back to channels and television cable channels are also available, the 13th century. While Mongolian sometimes is said to including many foreign channels. In the capital televi- include the closely related Buriat and Kalmyk-Oirat lan- sion, with very cheap cable service, is the most widely guages, they are not included in this discussion (see used medium, while in the countryside radio is the only BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS and KALMYK-OIRAT LAN- regular source of news. GUAGE AND SCRIPTS). Since 1990 there has been a tremendous revival in interest in pre-1921 Mongolian culture. CHINGGIS KHAN DIALECTS AND DISTRIBUTION has become the premier national icon, treated with a Mongolian has numerous dialects, some of which shade combination of deep reverence and crass commercializa- into the Kalmyk-Oirat and Buriat languages to the west tion. Television programs, particularly during the time of and north. Mongolian, together with Kalmyk-Oirat and the WHITE MONTH (lunar new year) and the NAADAM Buriat, form the New Mongolian subfamily within the (national day celebrations), frequently feature historical larger MONGOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY. Modern Mongolian dramas and brief introductions to Mongolian traditional evolved in the 17th–18th centuries from Middle Mongo- culture, from games with sheep astragali to throat singing lian, the medieval form of the language. to Buddhist devotional poetry. Mongolia’s Buddhist cul- The dialects included within Mongolian proper can ture and legacy have also been revived both by individual be divided into two main groups, the central Mongolian believers and by state patronage of Mongolian cultural dialects and the east Mongolian dialects. The central monuments, such as the statue of the Buddhist deity Mongolian dialects include Mongolia’s main dialect, Migjid-Janraisig at GANDAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY (see KHALKHA. The Khalkha in Mongolia number 1,610,400, LITERATURE; RELIGION). or 78.8 percent of the country’s population (1989 figures) Since 1990 Western and Asian popular culture, and show certain dialectal variations, although these do including music of various genres (Asian pop, folk rock, not impede communication. Mongolia’s DARIGANGA heavy metal, hip-hop, and so on), video games, pornogra- (28,600, or 1.4 percent, DARKHAD (14,300, or 0.7 per- phy, and the Internet have spread widely in Mongolia. cent), and ÜJÜMÜCHIN (2,100 in Mongolia) also speak Scores of thousands of Mongolians, mostly from the capi- central Mongolian dialects. tal, have emigrated to developed countries to seek oppor- In Inner Mongolia the central Mongolian dialects can tunity. Mongolians both old and young often deplore the be divided into 1) the Gobi group (Abaga, Sönid, eastern ignorance and neglect of youth toward their country’s ULAANCHAB, and ALASHAN), which is phonologically virtu- cultural heritage. Nevertheless filial piety has always been ally identical to southern, or Gobi, Khalkha, although a deep ethical value of the Mongols, and songs of appreci- Alashan dialect shows Oirat features; 2) the CHAKHAR ation for one’s mother are still very popular and widely group (Chakhar, Üjümüchin, Kheshigten, and Urad); and sung with deep emotion. 3) ORDOS, which mixes Chakhar and Oirat features. See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; MONGOL Excluding Inner Mongolian districts where the Mongols ZURAG. have lost their language, Mongols in the Gobi area num- Further reading: Martha Avery, Women of Mongolia ber 203,000, in the Chakhar group area 184,000, and in (Boulder, Colo.: Asian Art and Archaeology, 1996); Ole Ordos 102,000. Bruun and Ole Odgaard, eds., Mongolia in Transition Inner Mongolia and Manchuria’s east Mongolian (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1996); Uradyn E. dialects differ substantially from the central Mongolian Bulag, Nationalism and Hybridity in Mongolia (Oxford: dialects, and some are, in their pure form, virtually Oxford University Press, 1998); Keith Griffin, ed., Poverty incomprehensible to Khalkha speakers. These dialects and the Transition to a Market Economy in Mongolia (Lon- can be divided into 1) the JUU UDA group, which is the don: St. Martin’s Press, 1995); Human Development Report closest to central Mongolian; 2) the Josotu group (includ- Mongolia 2000 (Ulaanbaatar: Government of Mongolia ing the now virtually extinct KHARACHIN dialect and the and United Nations Development Program, 2000); Jill living Monggoljin, or Fuxin, dialect); 3) the KHORCHIN 374 Mongolian language group (including Jarud); and 4) the Far Eastern group Mongolian neologisms rather than loanwords is offi- (including Jalaid, DÖRBED, and Gorlos). Excluding dis- cially promoted, but in Inner Mongolia in particular tricts where Mongolian has been mostly replaced by Chi- such neologisms frequently exist only on paper. In Mon- nese, Mongols in the Juu Uda area number 402,000 and golia the source of loanwords in recent years has the Khorchin areas 1,014,000. The Far Eastern and switched from Russian (oochirlo-, “to stand in line,” Josotu groups are mostly spoken in China’s Manchurian from Russian ócher, “queue, line,” siliiser, “pipe-fitter, provinces and number perhaps 235,000 and 175,000 repairman” from Russian slésar’), to English (menaj- speakers, respectively (based on 1990 figures). ment, “management,” ii-meil, “e-mail”). As seen from these examples, loanwords, once established, are gener- OFFICIAL DIALECTS AND LANGUAGE STATUS ally transformed according to vowel harmony based on In Mongolia central Khalkha (i.e., the dialect spoken the stressed vowel, which is treated as long. This phe- around the capital, ULAANBAATAR), written in the Cyrillic nomenon is also seen in Inner Mongolia, particularly script, is the official national language. As the national with dialect loanwords such as Khorchin piijii, “air- language, it is spoken by non-Mongol immigrants, by plane,” from Chinese feiji, and SHILIIN GOL (süüder) urban populations all over the country, and to an increas- joolokh, “to take a photograph,” from Chinese zhao ing degree even by non-Khalkha rural populations. (xiang). Formal language planning in Mongolia and Although standard Inner Mongolian is based on the Inner Mongolia generally rejects these “Mongolized” Chakhar dialect of Plain Blue banner (Zhenglanqi), in loanwords in place of native Mongolian neologisms. reality the sheer numbers and relatively high educational levels of the Khorchin and Juu Uda Mongols have given a VOWEL HARMONY strong east Mongolian cast to the spoken language of The vowel system of Khalkha and standard Inner Mongo- educated INNER MONGOLIANS. It is written in the UIGHUR- lian maintains a two-way vowel harmony. The basic dis- MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. tinction is of back vowels (a, o, u) and front vowels (e, ö, The most characteristic phonological feature separat- ü), with i as neutral. The first syllable of a word estab- ing Khalkha from standard Inner Mongolian is the split lishes it as front or back, which constrains all subsequent of middle Mongolian affricates ch and j into ch/j before i vowels to be from the same category (except that i can and ts/dz (conventionally written z) before other vowels. appear in back words). Central Mongolian dialects also Thus, middle Mongolian jam, “road,” and jima, “way, harmonize high (o, ö) and low (a, e, u, ü) vowels. High manner,” become dzam and jam in Khalkha but jam and vowels cannot appear in words that begin with a low jäm in standard Inner Mongolian. This Khalkha split is vowel, although long low vowels may appear in words shared with Kalmyk-Oirat and Buriat, although it is real- beginning with high vowels. Case endings thus appear in ized in a different way. at least two and as many as four vowel-harmonic forms, Compounding these differences in pronunciation are as shown by the past marker -laa in four verbs: yawlaa, those in vocabulary: Compare Khalkha (niisekh) ongots “went,” khonoloo, “spent the night,” elslee, “joined, and Inner Mongolian niisgel for “airplane,” Khalkha entered,” and törlöö, “gave birth.” toglokh and Inner Mongolian naadakh for “to play,” Compared to Middle Mongolian and Kalmyk-Oirat, Khalkha olon and Inner Mongolian ärwin for “many,” and the Mongolian rounded vowels have moved far back, so so on. Russian loanwords in Khalkha and Chinese loan- that what are conventionally rendered as o, u, ö, and ü are words in Inner Mongolian add to the contrast. The usage in fact ɔ, W, µ, and ¬. Khalkha and standard Inner Mon- of verb forms, particularly in the past tense, is also differ- golian also show to a moderate degree the general New ent, although the differences have not been adequately Mongolian trend toward palatalization of back vowels, described. particularly a and o, in the vicinity of i. This produces In Inner Mongolia and Manchuria Mongolian lan- front vowels that are, in fact, still treated as “back” in guage is being transmitted to the next generation primar- vowel harmony. Palatalization strengthens to the east ily in rural areas, whether herding or farming. In urban (Khorchin) and west (Kalmyk-Oirat) and is weakest in environments children generally do not achieve fluency. dialects such as Ordos and central Khalkha, midway Mongolian-language publishing and writing are heavily between the two. subsidized in China, and in the Mongol-dominant rural East Mongolian and Chakhar share with Buriat the areas Mongolian is used for official purposes at the SUM Manchurian areal tendency to change e to ə and split ö (township) and sometimes banner (county) level, yet the into ü or ə. These changes with Inner Mongolian’s lack of jobs for persons trained in Mongolian is blighting strong palatalization of all back vowels in the vicinity of the prospects of Mongolian-language education in Inner i transform the simple front-back opposition of other Mongolia. Mongolian languages into a center versus back/front Language planning in both Mongolia and Inner opposition. At the same time, Middle Mongolian’s con- Mongolia is concerned primarily with the creation of sonantal reflection of vowel harmony disappears com- technical terminology. In both areas the aim of using pletely in Inner Mongolia with the merger of velar stop Mongolian language 375 Scripts of the Mongolian language. 1) Duighur-Mongolian script, 2) Square Script, 3) Clear Script, 4) Ornamental version of the Uighur-Mongolian script, 5) Soyombo Script, 6) Cyrillic-script Mongolian (From B. Rinchen, Mongol Ard Ulsyn ugsaatny sudlal, khelnii shinjleliin atlas [1979]) allophones g/gh and k/q into g and h, respectively (in noninitial vowels are sharply reduced, creating in effect a Khalkha g/gh are still distinct in prevocalic positions). three-way length distinction of long, initial short, and As in all New Mongolian languages, u diphthongs noninitial short vowels. have been merged into long vowels, giving Mongolian phonemic vowel length as shown by minimal pairs such AGGLUTINATION as uul (from a’ula), “mountain,” and ul (from ula), “sole.” Modern Mongolian is an agglutinative language, indicat- The only surviving diphthongs are formed by back vow- ing grammatical relations by “gluing” one or more dis- els or ü in combination with i, but these, too, show a ten- crete endings onto the word root. Thus khüükhdüüdeesee, dency to merge into long vowels, palatalized or not. Short “from one’s own children,” breaks down into khüükhed, 376 Mongolian People’s Party, Third Congress of “child” + üüd PLURAL + ees, “from” + ee SUBJECT-POS- modern inflectional endings has been used as the official SESSIVE. There is no agreement (e.g., in gender or num- script. ber) between nouns or adjectives and no subject-verb See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; CYRILLIC-SCRIPT agreement (except in the imperative), and multiple MONGOLIAN; TIBETAN LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT. nouns can be governed by a single final ending. In these Further reading: Robert I. Binnick, Modern Mongo- aspects Modern Mongolian seems to be subject to East lian: A Transformational Syntax (Toronto: University of Asian areal influences, as Middle Mongolian retained Toronto Press, 1979); Rita Kullmann and D. Tserenpil, traces of natural gender and agreement and Buriat and Mongolian Grammar, 2d ed. (Hong Kong, 2001); John C. Kalmyk-Oirat have developed subject-verb agreement. Street, Khalkha Structure (Bloomington: Indiana Univer- Although some Middle Mongolian noun declensions and sity, 1963); N. N. Poppe, Grammar of Written Mongolian converb forms have been simplified (locative -a, dative - (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1954). da, and dative-locative -dur have merged to dative-loca- tive -d/-t) or have been replaced in Khalkha and standard Mongolian People’s Party, Third Congress of At this Inner Mongolian by other forms (thus, the Middle Mon- congress, which took place from August 4 to September 1, golian comitative -lu’a, “with,” by -tai, and contemporal 1924, the “noncapitalist development” line was affirmed, converb -maghcha, “as soon as,” by -nguud), modern and its opponent, GENERAL DANZIN, was shot. Mongolian in general has maintained complex declension From 1923 General Danzin, as de facto government and conjugation systems. leader, had aimed to restore Mongolia’s natural trade links As an Altaic language, Mongolian generally uses verb with China and to compromise with the Chinese firms on endings called converbs in place of conjunctions and uses the issue of unpaid private debts. The dogmatism of verbal nouns to form relative clauses. Modern Mongolian many Russian and Buriat advisers, especially ELBEK- shows certain changes in the use of these forms. Khalkha DORZHI RINCHINO, a Buriat Mongol member of the party’s and standard Inner Mongolian share with Buriat the elim- presidium, irked General Danzin as well as the prime ination of preverbal negation by means of the particles minister, TSERINDORJI, and the party chairman “Japanese” ülü and ese with finite verb forms and their replacement Danzin (1875–1934; no relation to General Danzin, nick- by postverbal negation through adding güi (from ügüi, named from his visit to Japan in 1916). In April 1924 the “without”) to verbal noun forms. Thus, instead of Middle two Danzins had denounced Rinchino as an enemy, yet Mongolian ese idebei, “didn’t eat,” Modern Mongolian has Tserindorji patched up the quarrel. ideegüi (Khalkha) or idsengüi (standard Inner Mongo- In the congress’s opening sessions Danzin defended lian). In conditional and concessive clauses as well, ver- the government’s record, as the young party presidium bal nouns with special particles (conditional bol, member DAMBADORJI criticized its penny-wise, pound-fool- concessive ch) often replace converbs. In Khalkha verbal ish economizing and Rinchino dazzled the delegates with nouns frequently replace even affirmative finite verbs. long speeches full of Soviet jargon. On August 26 Danzin absented himself from the sessions, later claiming plots SCRIPTS against him were afoot in the army. The same day the Around 1204 CHINGGIS KHAN adopted the Uighur script youth league members of the Khüriye (modern ULAAN- for his new MONGOL EMPIRE. His grandson QUBILAI KHAN BAATAR) branch entered to accuse their national leaders tried to promote a new Tibetan-based SQUARE SCRIPT, but Babasang (1899–1924) and BUYANNEMEKHÜ, of stifling the after the expulsion of the Mongols from China in 1368 youth league’s revolutionary actions in collusion with Mongolian was again written solely in the Uighur-Mon- Prime Minister Tserindorji. That night the delegates golian script until 1932. The SOYOMBO SCRIPT, designed ordered Danzin’s arrest and investigation. On August 30 by Zanabazar in 1686, was more for ornamental inscrip- Danzin and Babasang were executed, the one for plotting tions than for real use. A literary language called Classical with Chinese capitalists and the other for making the Mongolian, written in the Uighur-Mongolian script, youth league a rival party as Rinchino, noncapitalist devel- developed in the 17th century, which preserved many opment, and the principle of one-party autocracy tri- features of Middle Mongolian. Due to the monastic edu- umphed. “Japanese” Danzin was demoted to ambassador cational system, Mongolian was also written with Tibetan to Moscow. Choibalsang replaced Danzin as commander in letters in the 19th and early 20th centuries. chief, and Dambadorji replaced “Japanese” Danzin as party In 1932 a Latin script was briefly adopted in inde- chairman. Tserindorji’s presence was considered important pendent Mongolia during the LEFTIST PERIOD of 1929–32. in calming the conservative populace, and he remained In 1940 a renewed Latinization movement was proposed prime minister. but in 1941 superseded by Cyrillicization. The transfer to See also CHOIBALSANG, MARSHAL; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S the Cyrillic script was not formally completed until 1950, REVOLUTIONARY PARTY; MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY YOUTH however. In Inner Mongolia, after a brief experiment with LEAGUE; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. the Cyrillic script in 1955–58, the Uighur-Mongolian Further reading: Mongolia: Yesterday and Today script in a standardized postclassical orthography using (Tianjin, n.d.). Mongolian People’s Republic 377 Mongolian People’s Republic Mongolia’s official rival. The U.S. opening to the People’s Republic of China name from 1924 to 1992, the Mongolian People’s Repub- in 1972 was thus of ambiguous significance. While it lic was founded as a revolutionary socialist regime, eliminated the issue of Chiang Kai-shek’s obstructionism, deeply dependent both materially and spiritually on the Soviet fear of the potential U.S.-China alliance prevented Soviet Union. any U.S.-Mongolia normalization. After the 1921 REVOLUTION the revolutionaries first The easing of Sino-Soviet tensions in 1985 and the established a constitutional monarchy that lasted until breakup of the Soviet bloc in 1990 allowed Mongolia to 1924. With the death of Mongolia’s theocratic ruler in establish relations with the United States in 1987 and May 1924 (see JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH), a peo- South Korea in 1990, thus virtually completing Mongo- ple’s republic with a new constitution was proclaimed in lia’s quest for recognition. At the same time, the favorable November (see 1924 CONSTITUTION). For the next 16 conditions allowed Mongolia to become for the first time years radical social and intellectual change, Soviet con- genuinely nonaligned and to pursue an independent for- trol, and foreign tensions wracked the Mongolian Peo- eign policy (see FOREIGN RELATIONS; SOVIET UNION AND ple’s Republic. After the horrific GREAT PURGE and the MONGOLIA). destruction of Buddhism (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST), the new state became stabilized as a commu- GOVERNMENT nist dictatorship under MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG In formal structure the Mongolian People’s Republic was a (1895–1952), Joseph Stalin’s hand-picked man in Mon- democratic republic in which all positions were open to golia. (For a survey of Mongolia from 1921 to 1940, see talent and in which regular elections decided the nation’s REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD.) The Mongolian People’s Repub- top leadership. In reality, while upward mobility in society lic was renamed the State of Mongolia in 1992 as a result was real, the government structure oscillated between one- of the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION. (For Mongolia’s man rule and oligarchy. In general, the 10 or so members contemporary situation, see MONGOLIA, STATE OF.) of the Politburo, or Political Bureau (Uls töriin towchoon), of the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY (MPRP) INTERNATIONAL STATUS AND FOREIGN were the supreme authority. Choibalsang had ruled the RELATIONS Politburo with unquestioned authority until his death in By 1940 Mongolia’s status was still the same as in 1921: 1952, but his hand-picked successor, YUMJAAGIIN TSEDEN- Dependent on the Soviet Union, Mongolia was treated as BAL (1916–91), had to share power with his colleagues a breakaway territory by China and was ignored by other until about 1964, when he managed to reestablish his powers. As Choibalsang had hoped, WORLD WAR II gener- dominance. Tsedenbal was deposed in 1984 through Soviet ated a breakthrough in formal recognition. In 1945, as a intervention when advancing senility made his slavish condition of the Sino-Soviet Friendship Treaty, China’s devotion to Russian ways an embarrassment. His succes- ruler, Chiang Kai-shek, agreed to recognize Mongolia, sor, JAMBYN BATMÖNKH (b. 1926), presided over an increas- conditional on a plebiscite. In February 1946 China offi- ingly aged oligarchy until the Democratic Revolution of cially recognized Mongolia’s independence. Efforts to 1990 toppled the Communist regime. become a member of the UNITED NATIONS were, however, The MPRP’s central committee, which slowly swelled stymied by emerging Soviet-American tensions and Mon- to 90 or so members, contained all the chief figures in golia’s own diplomatic inexperience. government. Meeting several times a year and in the The Communist victory in China’s civil war 1950s and 1960s still the scene of serious debate, it was (1946–49) opened a new stage in Mongolia’s interna- the closest thing to an open forum of the national elite. tional status. By 1960 Mongolia was a full member of the The top government organ was the council of ministers Communist bloc, with embassies in and active relations (Said naryn Zöwlel) or cabinet, headed by a chairman with not only China and the Soviet Union but also East- (darga) equivalent to a premier or prime minister. Until ern Europe, North Korea, North Vietnam, and neutral 1974 the republic’s maximum leader held this position. nations such as India. In 1961 Mongolia was finally As in the Soviet Union, state control of the diversifying admitted to the United Nations. The opening of diplo- economy multiplied the number of cabinet-level min- matic relations with Great Britain, France, and other istries, which reached 42 by 1981. The MPRP congresses West European countries soon followed, and those with and the Great People’s Khural or legislature, ostensibly Japan were achieved after difficult negotiations in Febru- the supreme organs of party and government power, met ary 1972. Even so, Mongolia’s foreign policy remained only twice under Choibalsang’s rule and under Tsedenbal slavishly dependent on the Soviet Union. were convened every five years for solely symbolic ses- While Mongolia’s formal diplomatic ties expanded, sions. The eight-member presidium of the Great People’s the security environment changed radically with the Khural performed certain routine government tasks, and switch from the SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE of the 1950s to the its chairman was titular head of state. After 1974 this SINO-SOVIET SPLIT of the 1960s and 1970s. Mongolia now position, along with that of general secretary of the became the Soviet Union’s frontline against its Chinese party’s central committee, became the mark of the 378 Mongolian People’s Republic supreme leader. All these organs were chosen in pro which began in 1934 with Ulaanbaatar’s Industrial Com- forma elections with only one candidate; the sitting party bine, accelerated in the 1960s and in the 1970s was branches actually chose the candidates. joined by the creation of a massive new mining sector. Ideology was pervasive in the Mongolian People’s Railroad, motor, and airplane transportation led to the Republic. Socialism, “proletarian internationalism” (i.e., a abolition of the traditional ulaa, or postroad, corvée duty pro-Russian and pro-Soviet viewpoint), and a formulaic in 1949. Thus, from 1940 to 1990 the composition of the Marxism-Leninism were written into the 1960 CONSTITU- Mongolian economy changed fundamentally. Herding TION as obligatory articles of faith for the whole citizenry. and arable agriculture’s share of the total social product The regime required of its people repeated public affirma- declined from 64 percent to 15.7 percent, while industry tion that the Communist governments of Mongolia and and MINING’s share rose from 12.7 percent to 49 percent. the Soviet Union were the acme of human history. Com- The percentage of the labor force employed in herding pared even to other communist societies, such as in East- and arable agriculture declined from 69.9 percent in 1960 ern Europe, the limits of public discourse in Mongolia to 39 percent in 1990. (Exactly comparable figures for under Tsedenbal were extremely narrow. Mongolia’s lin- 1940 are not available, but the percentage of those in guistic and cultural isolation, its defensiveness over the herding and farming was around 85 percent.) The indus- China threat, and its steadily increasing material prosper- trial and mining labor force expanded from 14 percent in ity helped keep dissent well within manageable limits. 1960 to 26.5 percent in 1990. Nevertheless, many writers, academics, and party leaders After 1960, and particularly after 1975, Soviet and such as BYAMBYN RINCHEN (1905–79), DARAMYN TÖMÖR- Eastern European aid, both direct and indirect, reached OCHIR (1921–85), and RENTSENII CHOINOM (1936–79) vast proportions. In 1990 the total value of outstanding suffered verbal attacks, exile, and/or imprisonment for Soviet loans reached 10 billion “transferable rubles,” a implicitly criticizing the regime’s exaggerated Rus- kind of trade counter used within the Soviet bloc; the real sophilia, its denial of Mongolian identity, and its refusal value of this debt in hard currency as well as the actual to honestly confront the crimes of the Great Purge era. significance of Soviet aid has been the subject of deep and Local administration in Mongolia was highly central- continuing controversy between Mongolia and Russia. ized. After 1940 the country was divided into 18 Two-thirds of these loans were directed toward invest- provinces roughly equal in size and without any histori- ment in agriculture, infrastructure, energy, housing, cal identity. They and the capital, ULAANBAATAR, had health, science, and culture. The other third was directed elected local administrations that were strictly controlled to cover Mongolia’s chronic massive trade imbalance with by the centralized party and government apparatus. Rural the Soviet Union. Other forms of aid included the supply administration was merged after 1960 with the negdels, or of whole factories, joint-stock companies for vast new herding collectives, while urban administration was often investments in the transportation and mining sectors, a passive bystander to the actions of the large factories and Soviet technical specialists. While the quality and that reported directly to their relevant ministries and exact value of these investments is controversial, the hence were effectively beyond the reach of local govern- importance of foreign aid for the Mongolian People’s ment. In cases such as the Erdenet Soviet-Mongolian Republic’s development is not in doubt. joint-stock company, the powerful managers were actu- The Mongolian People’s Republic began to plan eco- ally Soviet expatriates. nomic growth with FIVE-YEAR PLANS in 1948. Only with While income disparities in Mongolia were relatively collectivization in 1959 was the entire economy brought low compared to those of many other countries, the rul- under state control. The planning process focused not ing class enjoyed many tightly guarded privileges, such as only on raising the overall national income but on devel- entrance into the No. 2 Clinic attached to the Govern- oping a diversity of new sectors as well as on spreading ment Palace and to a network of special shops accessible industrialization evenly over the whole country. Effi- only by special identification card, exemption from pay- ciency was a secondary concern. At the same time, the ing utilities or rent, and state-paid vacations abroad (i.e., massive Soviet assistance was devoted primarily to devel- in the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe) twice a year. oping raw materials industries, particularly in mining. As a result, the Mongolian economy by 1990 had competi- ECONOMICS AND FINANCE tive mining and animal husbandry sectors along with The Mongolian People’s Republic after 1940 saw the cre- very inefficient light-industrial, construction, mechanized ation of a modern economy in Mongolia. In 1986 tögrögs arable agriculture, and material supply and repair sectors. the gross social product rose from 960 million tögrögs in Factories and construction enterprises in the provinces 1940 to 17.75 billion in 1990. In per capita terms, this were particularly uncompetitive. meant a sixfold increase in social product. The composi- The economic changes and massive foreign aid also tion of the economy also changed. In 1959 the country- fundamentally altered the Mongolian People’s Republic’s side was collectivized, and in the early 1960s a mechanized finances. From 1948 to 1989 direct taxation of the popu- arable agriculture sector was created. Industrialization, lace virtually disappeared, falling from 23 percent of the Mongolian People’s Republic 379 budget to less than 1 percent. Foreign loans and aid, how- Much of the surging new population moved to the ever, jumped from a negligible 4.1 percent to 24 percent. cities. From the 1956 census to that of 1989, the urban Sales taxes, customs revenues, and resale profits on sales percentage increased from 21.6 percent to 57 percent, of goods through state trade organizations remained the which, combined with the total population growth, main source of income, but taxes on industrial profits rose caused Mongolia’s urban population to explode from in importance. Moreover, much of the resale and sales tax 183,000 to 1,166,100. While Ulaanbaatar was the only revenues now amounted to foreign subsidy, as the artifi- significant city in 1956, by 1989 the new industrial-min- cially low prices of imported Soviet goods allowed the ing towns of DARKHAN CITY and ERDENET CITY had sprung government to profit on resale while avoiding consumer up. Heavy investment in housing kept the unplanned discontent. In expenditures, defense and administrative YURT districts around the cities and towns at manageable costs declined from 49 percent of the budget in 1948 to proportions, and in Ulaanbaatar the middle and upper only 13 percent in 1989. In 1948 social and cultural classes were mostly living in high-rise apartments by expenses (education, health, social security, etc.), at 27 1990. percent of the budget, predominated over “material” The constitutions of the Mongolian People’s Republic expenses (agriculture, industry, housing, etc.), with 16 had proclaimed male-female equality since 1924, and the percent of expenditures, but the opposite was true in Mongolian government also saw women’s labor as an 1989: The material sector took 47 percent and the social- important part of the solution to the country’s perennial cultural expenses 39 percent of the budget. labor shortage. The male-female literacy gap was largely With the growth in the economy and massive foreign resolved in the 1950s, and in 1979 women were 50 per- assistance, living standards also saw some improvements. cent of all secondary school graduates and 34 percent of Real per capita income expanded 65 percent from 1965 to those with at least some higher education. In 1992 73 1988. From 1970 to 1990 the percentage of households percent of working-age women were in the labor force with a television rose from 6 percent to 41 percent, while compared to 79 percent of men. In 1987, at the height of that of households with a refrigerator rose from 2 percent the industrial boom, women had an unemployment rate to 35 percent. Meanwhile, fees for utilities and rents in triple that of men, but overall rates were still very low. state-owned apartments remained fixed, becoming in Women’s education, employment, the housing shortage, effect a steadily increasing subsidy for the urban popula- and availability of pensions all stoked a trend toward tion. Despite the universal health care and pension sys- smaller family size, and despite the prohibition on con- tem instituted after collectivization, the quality of health traception and abortion, the total fertility rate dropped care appears to have been quite low. In 1964–65 the gov- from a maximum of 8 in 1963 to 4.5 in 1990. ernment claimed a life expectancy of 65 years, and that infant mortality had dropped to 70 per 1,000 live births. EDUCATION, CULTURE, AND THE ARTS Later figures show that in 1960 the life expectancy was Under the Mongolian People’s Republic Mongolian cul- actually 47 years, which by 1980 had risen to 58; 1990 tural life was pushed firmly in a European direction. The infant mortality was 73 per 1,000 live births. Unhealthy switch from the traditional UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT to habits impeded improvements in public health. Respira- the Cyrillic alphabet was completed by 1950 and ensured tory disorders were by far the leading cause of death, and that the large new cohort of Mongolians would not have by 1990 fewer than half of mothers were breast-feeding direct access to the literary monuments of the past. Official their children. statistics put literacy among those aged nine to 50 rising from 24 percent in 1940 to 60 percent in 1947 and 95 per- SOCIAL CHANGE cent in 1956, a rate that was maintained until 1990. By the The major social change in the Mongolian People’s Repub- mid-1950s the once sharp male-female gap in literacy had lic was the postwar population boom and the advance of been essentially eliminated. Since the rural population urbanization. From around 1947–49 in the eastern and remained largely nomadic, a boarding school for herders’ southern provinces and about five years later in the west- children had to be established in every SUM center. ern provinces, fertility rates showed a dramatic increase Mass media also reached an increasingly large public. related to the creation of special clinics to eliminate vene- By 1970 35 percent of households had a radio and 6 per- real diseases and improve women’s health, the provision of cent a television; the average person saw eight movies per stovepipes to reduce smokiness in yurts, and the inculca- year. In 1985 radios were in 51 percent of households tion of a strongly pronatalist policy. From the late 1940s and televisions in 30 percent, while the average person to 1960 the annual population growth rate jumped from saw 10 movies. Television and radio were owned by the zero to almost 3 percent, where it remained until 1990. state, while the main newspaper (Ünen, “Truth”) was put Mongolia’s population went from 759,200 in the 1944 out by the MPRP. At the mass level Mongolian culture census to 2,044,000 in the 1989 census. This baby boom under the people’s republic focused around a limited resulted in a very youthful population, with more than 55 number of stereotyped socialist-realist themes: the percent of the population 19 or under in 1979. national liberation struggle, the illiterate but wise old 380 Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party herdsman, the unshakeable Soviet-Mongolian friendship, Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party Beginning the antifascist war, the peace movement, the unmasking as the Mongolian People’s Party and dedicated to restor- of the spy, the smiles of innocent children, the romantic ing Mongolian independence from the Chinese, the Mon- artist, the girl on a tractor, and the heroine mother. golian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) was From the 1940s, the Mongolians began producing gradually transformed into an imitation of the Soviet their own successful examples of European arts and enter- Communist Party. After 1990, however, the party tainment. This included the full-length feature film changed again into a nonideological party in a democratic (Tsogtu Taiji, 1945), the Mongolian State Circus (opened and market-oriented Mongolia. in 1941), and European style opera, symphonies, and bal- let. A few Western-style popular music groups formed in ORIGINS the 1960s. Meanwhile, the assimilation of Marxism-Lenin- The Mongolian People’s Party began as the union of two ism, while shot through with tendentious dogma, opened conspiratorial groups formed in late 1919 in response to to Mongolian intellectuals in the 1950s many aspects of the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY. The larger group, led by European social science and historiography. The search GENERAL DANZIN, was composed of petty officials in the for national identity was also visible in the developing of theocratic government, and the smaller group, led by the neo-traditional MONGOL ZURAG (Mongolian painting) BODÔ, was composed of several former lamas and other genre, which flourished in the late 1950s and 1960s. commoners (see 1921 REVOLUTION). At the same time, the government and the intelli- Danzin’s and Bodô’s groups came together to found gentsia waged a covert struggle over the issue of national- the Outer Mongolian People’s Party on or around June ism. The CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY began with the 25, 1920. The party’s aims, as expressed in its early docu- Politburo’s aggressive attack on intellectual trends in ments, were to protect the Mongolian religion and 1949, parallel with attacks on GESER and other non-Rus- nation, to restore Mongolian independence, and to con- sian epic heroes in the Soviet Union itself. De-Staliniza- duct reforms to improve the poor commoners’ lives. tion from 1956 to 1963 promised significantly greater From the beginning the party sought Russian help and freedom, but in 1956 intellectuals who had been encour- showed no fear of Soviet Russia. aged to air their criticisms were suddenly slapped down Once the party began organizing on Russian territory, by the Mongolian ruler Tsedenbal, and in 1959 the Buriat Mongols there joined the party, adding to its scholar B. Rinchen was publicly attacked as a nationalist. sophistication and leftist tendencies. From March 1–3, In 1963 Tsedenbal delivered a series of blows against 1921, 26 party members convened at Troitskosavsk (in Chinggis Khan, the frank treatment of the Great Purge in modern KYAKHTA CITY) and elected Danzin party chair- the film Tümenii neg (One in a million), and revisionist man, while approving a manifesto drafted by the Buriat trends in Marxism-Leninism. Later in 1969 he attacked member TSYBEN ZHAMTSARONOVICH ZHAMTSARANO. (This abstract art, professors such as Sh. Gaadamba and meeting was designated the party’s First Congress in TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN who encouraged too much free 1924.) The manifesto called for restoring Outer Mongo- thinking among their students, and in 1979–80 scholars lia’s equality as an independent state with other nations who criticized the overemphasis on Russian and who but also advocated eventual pan-Mongolian unification, used Chinese historical sources. As a result, the 1970s possibly within a progressive, confederated China. Cus- and 1980s were culturally and academically a barren era toms incompatible with the times would be abolished, but in which approved classics were honored but new the party was willing to work with other friendly parties. approaches stifled. Not until the new era of “openness” Buriat and Russian advisers had been calling the began in 1986 did Mongolia’s cultural life return to the party the People’s Revolutionary Party, but Danzin themes first broached in the late 1950s and early 1960s. insisted that the word revolutionary was too controversial, See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; COLLECTIVIZA- although the manifesto spoke of applying the “firm prin- TION AND COLLECTIVE HERDING; ECONOMY, MODERN; LIT- ciples of a revolutionary party.” Only in March 1925, after ERATURE; NAMES, PERSONAL. Mongolia had been declared a people’s republic, did the Further reading: Academy of Sciences, MPR, Infor- party become the People’s Revolutionary Party. mation Mongolia (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990); After the revolutionaries were installed in power, the Tsedendambyn Batbayar, Modern Mongolia: A Concise His- party was still small, numbering only 225 at the begin- tory (Ulaanbaatar: Offset Printing, Mongolian Center for ning of 1922 and 799 a year later. Danzin, the major Scientific and Technical Information, 1996); D. Dash- national leader, resigned his position as party chairman in purev and S. K. Soni, Reign of Terror in Mongolia, December 1921, and the party’s central committee func- 1920–1990 (New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1992); tioned more as a talk shop than a real decision-making Alan J. K. Sanders, Mongolia: Politics, Economics, and Soci- body. Meanwhile, the MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY YOUTH ety (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1987); State Statisti- LEAGUE, organized in fall 1921, functioned as the left- cal Office of the MPR, National Economy of the MPR for 70 wing opposition. Only in July–August 1923, with the Years (Ulaanbaatar: State Statistical Office, 1991). party’s First Congress (later renumbered as the Second), Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party 381 was a formal party constitution adopted. Rapid expansion mally committed the party to careful but intensive anti- brought party membership to around 3,000 at the begin- religious propaganda and voluntary collectivization. ning of 1924. From August 1921 the party center had issued a In August 1924, at the party’s Third Congress, a new weekly journal under many names, finally settling in principle of one-party rule was enforced with executions, April 1925 on Ünen (Truth), imitating the Soviet Union’s subordinating the youth league to the party’s leadership. Pravda. During the 1930s it moved to a daily format. In Under ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO and Dambadorji, the party March 1924 the party began a short educational course finally became the real center of power. When the Com- with 60 students training for one month. A year later it munist International (Comintern), the Moscow-based was expanded into the Central Party School, and by 1927 league of Communist and anticolonial parties, appointed its programs were expanded to three years. By 1941 it a formal representative to the party, the party’s presidium had graduated more than 1,000 students. became Moscow’s chief transmission route for its policies in Mongolia. PARTY LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATION From 1923 to 1928 party congresses had occurred yearly AS A RULING PARTY, 1924–1940 and entertained relatively frank debate. From 1930 to At the Fourth Congress of the Mongolian People’s Revo- 1960 only six congresses were held, each time to ratify lutionary Party (September 1925), the Comintern repre- key decisions a year or two after they had been made. sentatives imposed a new party program. This second From 1961 the party congresses became purely symbolic party program rejected pan-Mongolism, calling instead events, held every five years to coincide with those of the for cooperation first with the Soviet Union and then with Soviet Union and the formulation of the FIVE-YEAR PLANS. people’s parties in Tuva, China, Korea, Japan, and else- Despite the party congresses, at no time did the where. Members were to “totally liquidate the remnants party’s membership actually exercise control over the lead- of the yellow and black [that is, clerical and lay] reac- ership. While the congresses supposedly elected the Cen- tionaries,” remove counterrevolutionaries and exploiters tral Committee, which in turn elected a small standing from government, and struggle for the “real people.” body called either the presidium or (after 1940) the politi- The program also called for the extension of public edu- cal bureau (or Politburo), all elections were decided cation, literacy, clubs, state-owned factories and banks, beforehand by the existing leaders. Before 1929 the party’s farming, cooperatives, hospitals, and an eight-hour titular head was a chairman assisted by a secretary and workday. deputy, elected by the Central Committee. In late 1928 the Dambadorji’s leadership adopted a cautious attitude Comintern replaced them with three equal secretaries to toward implementing this ambitious program, and in weaken the party’s ability to resist its directives. autumn 1928 he was overthrown by the Comintern dele- From 1924 to 1936 no single person dominated the gation. The leftist leaders who came to power in 1928 party, and the party’s real ruling organ, the presidium, was purged members of “exploiting” class backgrounds or the ultimate decision-making body, where top leaders habits from the party, reducing membership from 15,810 hammered out their differences. After the Great Purge, at the beginning of 1929 to 12,019 a year later. The sub- however, Choibalsang exercised unchallenged one-man sequent LEFTIST PERIOD (1929–32) ventured beyond the rule. The new position of general secretary of the Central 1925 program into collectivization and open attacks on Committee was given to his designated successor, YUM- religion. By 1932 the party ranks were swelled to more JAAGIIN TSEDENBAL. After Choibalsang’s death the party than 40,000 in an effort to recruit the poor herders, returned to the collective rule of the Politburo, with women, and other unrepresented groups. With the failure Tsedenbal as first among equals. By 1964, however, of the leftist policies, the NEW TURN POLICY (1932–36) Tsedenbal had ousted his rivals and established another under Prime Minister GENDÜN cut down the party ranks period of one-man rule that lasted until his own dismissal to less than 10,000 by 1933, and local branches were in 1984. After his dismissal JAMBYN BATMÖNKH succeeded temporarily suspended. The following GREAT PURGE of him as general secretary until the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REV- 1937–40 drowned the old party in blood and created a OLUTION. Under Tsedenbal and Batmönkh the party grew new one under MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG (r. 1936–52), the increasingly geriatric. By 1990 50 percent of the Central only party leader of the 1921 generation to survive. Committee members were beyond retirement age, and With the Great Purge and the destruction of the one-third had been members of the Central Committee monasteries (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST), a new uninterruptedly since 1965. party program was needed. The 1940 party program highlighted Mongolia’s “noncapitalist development,” by AS A RULING PARTY, 1940–1990 which Mongolia was, with assistance from the Soviet From 1952 to 1986 the party membership increased from Union, jumping directly from feudalism to socialism. The about 3.5 percent to 4.6 percent of the population. Party 1940 program also affirmed the teachings of Marx- membership was the precondition for advancement into Engels-Lenin-Stalin as “the only true science.” It also for- high managerial positions. The party’s newspaper, Ünen, 382 Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and other journals, the Central Party School, and facili- Workers rose to 26.6 percent of the party in 1961 and ties throughout the country made it a pervasive presence. 32.6 percent in 1981. This growth came at the expense of In all large social organizations (collectives, or negdels, the rural population, which fell to 17.5 percent of mem- factories, universities, cities, etc.) the unit’s regular head bers in 1981 but did not, however, in any sense increase (as a rule a party member, too) worked in tandem with a the real influence of workers on decision making. party secretary, who ran that unit’s party branch. This dual organization secured greater top-down control, THE MPRP IN DEMOCRATIC MONGOLIA although open conflict between the two leaders was not On March 12–14, 1990, the MPRP’s Politburo, including common. general secretary J. Batmönkh, facing serious demon- With collectivization of the herds completed in 1959, strations and no longer supported by the Soviet Union, a fourth program was adopted at the party’s Fifteenth resigned and promised to allow free elections. From Congress (June 1966). This program opened with a thor- May the MPRP renounced its previous state subsidy of oughly mythological description of the party’s history as 30 million tögrögs, became self-financing, and had to inspired by the “Great Socialist Revolution of October,” adapt from being a selective vanguard party to drum- led by the “outstanding revolutionary GENERAL SÜKHE- ming up mass support. Nevertheless it still had BAATUR,” assisted by the “victorious proletariat of the formidable financial and institutional advantages in the Soviet Union,” guided by meetings with “the great revo- July 1990 elections and won an overwhelming majority. lutionary Lenin,” following the “Marxist-Leninist general Despite this victory, the MPRP formed a coalition gov- line,” and so on. The current task was “developing the ernment with the new democratic parties, both to material-technical base of socialism”; hence, economic deflect anger at the inevitable economic crisis caused by development and increasing social services were accorded the rupture in Soviet aid and to keep Western donor the primary position. This program served the party until countries interested in Mongolia. In June 1992 a rela- 1990. tively conservative MPRP slate won 71 of 76 seats in the To build its prestige in the Soviet bloc, the MPRP new unicameral legislature under the 1992 CONSTITU- encouraged the study of Marxism-Leninism and increased TION. To the consternation of more liberal party leaders, the number of workers in the party. The party founders, the MPRP’s victory was so crushing that no coalition Danzin and Bodô, were already dead when the first work was feasible. of Marxism-Leninism, the Communist Manifesto (1925), Ideologically, the party’s think tanks, all trained in was translated into Mongolian by the Buriat Ishidorji. Marxism-Leninism, proposed a variety of new models, Only in 1946 was a Marxist-Leninist section organized in ranging from the “Asian tiger” model of export-led the ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, and in 1955 an Institute of development under authoritarian government, to the Party History was attached to the MPRP’s Central Com- Indian Congress Party’s tradition of extended one-party mittee. The first large body of Marxist works translated leadership within democratic forms, to appropriating into Mongolian, Joseph Stalin’s collected works, was com- the ancient Indian Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna’s pleted in 1954 but fell out of favor with de-Stalinization in idea of the “Middle Way” to argue for moderated 1963. Lenin’s complete works were translated only in democratization. 1967, in language often unreadably literal. The party’s new electoral base was the conservative From around 1950 to 1970 a new group of intellec- three western provinces (BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE, KHOWD tual Marxists emerged, including DARAMYN TÖMÖR-OCHIR, PROVINCE, and UWS PROVINCE) and to a lesser degree the L. Tsend, Ts. Lookhuuz, and Sh. Agwaandondow, who Khalkha countryside, while its weakness was in the cities. approached the party’s history and contemporary social The party’s campaign strategy was to welcome multiparty issues from a fresh reading of the Marxist classics. As democracy and PRIVATIZATION but to picture itself as more with the “revisionist” movement in Eastern Europe experienced, more responsible, and more patriotic than emerging at the same time, such approaches soon carried its young urban rivals. In 1993, however, the party’s old them outside party orthodoxy, and they were all exiled or guard overreached. Having rejected incumbent president imprisoned by Tsedenbal. From then on Marxism-Lenin- P. Ochirbat (b. 1942) as candidate for his relatively liberal ism was restricted to approved party formulas. line, the party could not stop his victory on the Demo- The effort to turn the MPRP into a party of workers, cratic Coalition ticket. Finally, in 1996, after a lackluster as befitted a communist party, had similarly superficial response to a serious outbreak of wildfires, the MPRP results. In 1925 the closest the capital ULAANBAATAR’s 421 government was swept out of power by the Democratic party members had to a worker were two artisans. In Coalition in June. 1941 the party’s membership was 47.5 percent white-col- Four years out of power completed the MPRP’s sepa- lar workers, 46.0 percent herders and farmers, and only ration from government. In 1997 the MPRP regained the 6.5 percent workers, a percentage that changed little by presidency with the defeat of P. Ochirbat by N. Bagabandi 1951. Under the rule of Tsedenbal (r. 1952–84), there (b. 1950). The internal conflicts in the Democratic Coali- was a concerted effort to proletarianize the membership. tion along with the accusations of corruption and massive Mongolian plateau 383 ZUD (winter disasters) all gave the MPRP a sweeping vic- Mongolian plateau While no longer a political or tory in the parliament in 2000, carrying even the city and ethnographic unity, the Mongolian plateau is a distinct youth vote. Bagabandi was reelected president a year later. geographic and environmental area. Including the inde- The MPRP has, however, continued the policy of privati- pendent State of Mongolia and neighboring areas of zation and the generally pro-Western foreign policy. Transbaikalia and Inner Mongolia, the plateau occupies See also MONGOLIA, STATE OF; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S the eastern part of the great Eurasian steppe zone, just PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS OF; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; southeast of the geographical heart of Asia. MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY, SEVENTH Traditionally Mongolia was the area between the CONGRESS OF; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. ALTAI RANGE and GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE in the west and east and between the Yin Shan Mountains and LAKE BAIKAL to the south and north. Today the independent Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party, Seventh State of Mongolia occupies the heart of this region. The Congress of At the Seventh Congress (October plateau’s southern and eastern reaches are the tradi- 23–December 11, 1928), Moscow’s Communist Interna- tional HULUN BUIR, SHILIIN GOL, and ULAANCHAB regions tional (Comintern) delegation mobilized radical students of Inner Mongolia in China, while its northeastern sec- and young rural delegates to overthrow the DAMBADORJI tion includes the BURIAT REPUBLIC and Aga steppe in leadership. Russia’s Transbaikal region. The Tuvan basin and the In August 1927 the Buriat Comintern agent Matvei Russian Altay in Siberia and ALASHAN in Inner Mongolia Innokent’evich Amagaev (1897–1939) began denouncing also share links to this plateau. Defined in this way, the the Mongolian party chief Dambadorji as a rightist with Mongolian plateau occupies more than 3.3 million dangerous plans for relations with China and Japan. Stu- square kilometers (1.27 million square miles). dents returning from Moscow found the leadership ignor- ing their proposals. The khödöö, or “countryside,” faction TOPOGRAPHY of officials, led by Badarakhu (Ö. Badrakh, 1895–1941) of The Mongolian plateau can be divided into two large the DÖRBÖD and GENDÜN, resented the ULAANBAATAR-bred zones: the mountains to the north and west and the plains multilingual officials (in 1925 96 of Ulaanbaatar’s 421 to the south and east. The mountains consist of several party members knew a foreign language) who held sway ranges: the ALTAI RANGE, the KHANGAI RANGE, and the in Dambadorji’s khota, or “city,” faction and charged them KHENTII RANGE in Mongolia proper, the Tannu Ola (Tagna with preferring old feudals to poor and oppressed rural Uul) and the Sayan defining the northwestern Tuvan herders. basin, and the Khamar-Daban, Ulan-Burgasy, Barguzin, From spring 1928 the Comintern issued increasingly Yablonovyy, Daur, Onon, Mogotuy, and other ranges in the serious threats to abandon the Mongolians unless they Transbaikal region. The Altai and Khangai Ranges are by changed course. Fearing international isolation, the party far the highest, with some perpetually snowcapped peaks presidium was already coming to heel by July. On over 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) high. They and the Sayan September 22, 1928, Amagaev and a Czech lawyer, define several high basins: the Tuvan basin in Russia’s ^ Bohumír Smeral, led a Comintern delegation to Mongolia Tuvan Republic, the Darkhad basin in far northern Mon- for the upcoming congress. Now the presidium hoped golia, and the GREAT LAKES BASIN of western Mongolia. The only to appease the Comintern. Even before the congress Khentii and the Transbaikal Ranges define a series of val- began, Dambadorji was admitting errors. leys running southwest to northeast. Around Lake Baikal The actual congress thus was somewhat anticlimactic the relief is sharp, with high mountains and deep valleys, despite the delegates’ frequently raucous behavior. The but in the Khentii and eastern Transbaikalia the slopes are well-coached delegates hammered home the theme that gentler. The mountains have relatively higher rainfall and the Dambadorji regime had talked left and walked right. are mostly wooded, while the large basins are mostly The final resolutions called for a comprehensive intensifi- desert steppe. cation of class struggle, vast new programs of social and The plains are generally over 1,000 meters (3,300 cultural construction, and direct entry into socialism. feet) above sea level in the southwest but slope down to Behind the scenes the Comintern delegation selected all little more than 500 meters (1,600 feet) above sea level in the new leaders of Mongolia. The party chairmanship was the northeast. The southwest, consisting of the GOBI abolished, and three equal secretaries were selected: DESERT of southern Mongolia and Ulaanchab and the Gendün, Badarakhu, and the Moscow-educated student Alashan Deserts of far southwestern Inner Mongolia, is Eldebwachir (B. Eldew-Ochir, 1905–37). To appease the broken by many isolated massifs, while Mongolia’s eastern traditionalists, AMUR and Choibalsang were retained in plain, extending into Hulun Buir, eastern Shiliin Gol, and the government. The congress thus initiated the disas- the Aga steppe in Russia, is largely flat. The Helan Shan trous LEFTIST PERIOD of 1929–32. and Yin Shan Mountains separate the Gobi and Alashan See also CHOIBALSANG, MARSHAL; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S Deserts from the Huang (Yellow) River valley, while the REVOLUTIONARY PARTY; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. Greater Khinggan Range separates the eastern plains from 384 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League Manchuria. To the south and west the plains are mostly Before 1000 C.E. the plateau was dominated by Tur- sandy or gravelly gobi, while the north and east are grassy kic peoples. Today Turks are significant only in the north- steppe with water-logged basins. A line of terrain less than west in Russia’s Tuvan and Altay Autonomous Republics 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) above sea level running roughly and in Mongolia’s westernmost province, Bayan-Ölgii. along the southern border of Mongolia proper divides the These three areas together cover 308,800 square kilome- Gobi into north-flowing (Inner Mongolia) and south- ters (119,230 square miles) and have a population of flowing (Mongolia) drainage areas. almost 594,000, of which 356,000, or 60 percent are TUVANS, Khakas, Altays, Kazakhs, and other Turkic peo- SURFACE WATER ples (1989 figures). The balance of the population The Khentii and Khangai separate the Arctic and Pacific includes Russians in Tuva and the Altay Republic and drainage basins to the north and northeast from the Cen- ethnic Mongols in Bayan-Ölgii. tral Asian blind drainage basin. Within this vast basin the China’s Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, which Altai and its southern spurs separate the Great Lakes Basin includes the southern part of the plateau as well as the and the Valley of the Lakes to the northeast from the Züng- ORDOS plateau, the CHAKHAR area, and much of western har (Junggar) Basin to the southwest. Western Mongolia Manchuria, covers 1,183,000 square kilometers (456,760 contains many lakes fed by streams flowing from the square miles) and had in 1990 a population of Khangai and the Altai. Some are fresh, but most, such as 21,626,000, of which only 16 percent were Mongols. LAKE UWS, are salt. Smaller salt lakes fed by groundwater Counting only those areas within the Mongolian plateau and small rivers dot the Gobi. The largest are Alashan’s in the strict sense, the population was about 2,343,000, Gashuun (Gaxun) and Sogoo (Sogo) Lakes, fed by the Ruo of whom 473,000, or 20 percent, were Mongols or allied River flowing north from the Tibetan plateau. nationalities (Daurs, EWENKIS, etc.). Several districts Hulun Buir, the Aga steppe, and northeastern Mon- along the frontier of Mongolia, however, such as the golia are drained by the ONON RIVER, KHERLEN RIVER BARGA, ÜJÜMÜCHIN, Abaga (Abag), and Sönid, have Mon- (Kelüren), Khalkha River, and Hailar River, which even- gol majorities. tually flow into the Amur River and the Pacific Ocean. In Transbaikalia the Buriat Republic and the Chita These rivers generally carry only small volumes of water. region together have an area of 782,800 square kilome- The Hulun Buir steppe is named from two freshwater ters (302,240 square miles) and a total population lakes, the Buir Nuur (covering 615 square kilometers, or 2,314,200 (1989). Of these, 310,400, or 13 percent, are 237 square miles) and the Hulun Nuur (Khölön, or Dalai, Buriat Mongols. Buriatia and Chita can also be seen as covering 2,210 square kilometers, or 853 square miles). the southwestern extension of the east Siberian uplands. These lakes lie at 583 and 539 meters (1,913 and 1,768 While certain rural districts, particularly Chita’s AGA feet) above sea level, respectively, and both average about BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA and Buriatia’s Kizhinga and eight meters (26 feet) in depth. Kurumkan districts, have Buriat majorities, the popula- Lake Baikal’s drainage basin covers north-central tion overall is fairly urbanized. Mongolia and western Transbaikalia. This area includes The differing ethnic percentages between Mongolia the largest rivers of Mongolia and Buriatia, particularly and the neighboring Chinese and Russian areas also cor- the SELENGE RIVER and its tributaries. The much smaller respond to differences of population density. The most Barguzin (Buriat, Bargazhan) and Upper Angara flow into barren area is the Gobi, where densities drop to 0.6 (1.6 the central and northern Baikal. LAKE KHÖWSGÖL, the per square mile) in Alashan and even below 0.3 persons Selenge’s ultimate source, is the deepest lake of Mongolia per square kilometer (0.8 per square mile) in Mongolia’s proper, while Baikal is the deepest lake in the world. The SOUTH GOBI PROVINCE. Mongolia as a whole in 1989 had shores of Lake Baikal, at 456 meters (1,496 feet) above 1.3 people per square kilometer (3.4 per square mile), sea level, are the lowest area of the Mongolian plateau. and Tuva and the Altay Republic 1.9 (4.9 per square The Tuvan and Darkhad basins are drained by the Yenisey mile). The bordering area of Inner Mongolia (excluding River and its affluents and the Russian Altai (the Altay Alashan) had 3.9 persons per square kilometer (10.1 per Republic, or Gorno-Altay) by affluents of the Ob’ River, square mile), and Transbaikalia had 3.0 persons per all flowing ultimately into the Arctic. square kilometer (7.8 per square mile). See also CLIMATE; DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; POLITICAL AND ETHNIC GEOGRAPHY FAUNA; FLORA; FOSSIL RECORD; INNER MONGOLIA Politically, the Mongolian plateau today is divided AUTONOMOUS REGION; MONGOLIA, STATE OF. between Mongolia, Russia, and China. Mongolia, with an Further reading: Academy of Sciences, MPR, Infor- area of 1,566,500 square kilometers (604,830 square mation Mongolia (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990), 6–33. miles), had a population in the 1989 census of 2,044,000 people, which ethnically was more than 90 percent Mon- gol. The largest minority is the KAZAKHS of far western Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League The Mon- BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE. golian Revolutionary Youth League, founded in August Mongolian sources on the Mongol Empire 385 1921, functioned as a virtual left-wing opposition party tive, the upper age limit of league enrollment was raised in 1921–24 and as the shock troops of the antireligious from 25 to 35, while the percentage of party members campaign in 1929–32, before being tamed as the feeder admitted as students declined from 40.2 percent in the organ for the ruling MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY 1940s to a negligible 3.4 percent in 1976–80. By the PARTY. The All-Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League 1980s the youth league’s membership reached 280,000, was organized on August 25, 1921, by several Irkutsk- more than three times that of the party, and included trained Russian-language interpreters, including then more than half the young herders and the overwhelming deputy commander in chief Choibalsang. Membership majority of working-class youth. was restricted to those aged 15 to 25. The youth league The Young Pioneers was founded on May 8, 1925, as immediately won a reputation as a radical force, cutting a branch of the league for children under 15. In 1930 its off married women’s hair ornaments as a feudal custom, membership hardly exceeded 800, but with the final sub- arresting counterrevolutionaries, trying practitioners of ordination of the youth league, its membership expanded feudal customs such as wife beating, and so on. At the to almost 6,300 in 1940, and by 1975 it was more than same time the youth league’s Beijing-opera style theater 250,000. performances were very popular. Politically, the league, The Youth League lent its facilities to the movement through Choibalsang, was linked to his mentors Prime that became the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION. After Minister BODÔ and GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR, but only the declaring its independence from the party, the Youth former received the blame for the less popular actions. League won nine seats in the 1990 elections for the Soviet encouragement nourished the league against multiparty Great People’s Khural. Torn by dissension over the more conservative Mongolian People’s Party (later its future course, the Youth League soon disintegrated. A renamed the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party). conservative faction allied to the MPRP has won title to Moscow’s chief “Mongolia hand,” the Siberian party boss its extensive facilities. B. Z. Shumiatskii, sent a youth league delegation to See also CHOIBALSANG, MARSHAL; DAMBA, DASHIIN; Moscow’s “Congress of the Toilers of the Far East” (Jan- TSEDENBAL, YUMJAAGIIN; ZORIG, SANJAASÜRENGIIN. uary 1922). By June 1923 the Communist International of Youth, working through a former army trainer, Alexei Mongolian script See UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. G. Starkov (alias “Zorigtu,” b. 1899), was demanding that the Mongolian People’s Party recognize the league’s inde- pendence as a separate political body. The party leaders, Mongolian sources on the Mongol Empire While such as GENERAL DANZIN, tried to calm the league by cul- providing little information on later reigns, Mongolian tivating its leaders, including Babasang (1899–1924) and chronicles are the source, directly or indirectly, for most BUYANNEMEKHÜ. In 1924 ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO exe- of our knowledge of the history of CHINGGIS KHAN. Mon- cuted Babasang, who had become unpopular in the golian history writing, like Mongolian writing itself, league ranks, and used the execution to emphasize the begins with the MONGOL EMPIRE. During the 13th century youth league’s subordination to the party. As the party at least two separate chronicles covering Chinggis Khan moved left, the Soviet Union no longer supported the and ÖGEDEI KHAN were written. One, the SECRET HISTORY league’s independence and recalled Starkov. OF THE MONGOLS, was probably written in 1252. The During the LEFTIST PERIOD (1929–32), however, the other, now found only in a Chinese translation titled youth league again became important as the frontline of SHENGWU QINZHENG LU (Campaigns led by the lawgiving attack on the old society. The league formed ideological warrior), seems to be the text of the Mongolian-language brigades to attack the “feudals,” transfer livestock to the Veritable Records (shilu) of Chinggis Khan and then poor, and carry on collectivization. More important, the Ögedei Khan, written by Sarman (also written Sarban) youth league, which once again became semi-indepen- (1288) and by Sarman and Uru’udai (1290), respectively. dent, criticized “feudals” and “opportunists” within the Of these two texts, the Secret History was an “insider” party on the basis of both their customs and their habits account that emphasized the role of Chinggis Khan’s fam- and on their connections. The league, which numbered ily and his companions (NÖKÖR). The only source to give 8,000 in 1930, expanded to 27,000 in 1932. This number, a connected account of Chinggis’s youth before his first barely half that of the party, shows that far from forming a battle with JAMUGHA at Dalan Baljud, it nevertheless con- broader stratum from which the party drew selected tains numerous obvious inaccuracies, particularly con- members, the league was still functioning something like nected with the biographies of nökörs, such as MUQALI, a rival, more radical, party. SHIGI QUTUQU, and SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR. Its chronology of The conservative NEW TURN POLICY, formulated in the conquests outside Mongolia is particularly confused. response to the insurrections against the leftist policy, The Veritable Records, by contrast, was more of an official reduced the youth league to only 6,100 members. From history that omitted both discreditable events and the 1940 the youth league was gradually reduced to a feeder stories of the companions and family members. For the for the party. As party membership became more selec- latter part of Chinggis Khan’s reign and that of Ögedei’s, 386 Mongolic language family however, it supplies valuable evidence on affairs in North Mongolic language family In addition to Mongolian, China in a terse, annalistic style. the national language of Mongolia, the Mongolic lan- The YUAN DYNASTY’s Hanlin and Historiography guage family includes a number of regional and local Academy, staffed by Mongols, kept the Secret History and minority languages in Russia and China and one, the Veritable Records, and “outsiders” were not permitted Mogholi, in Afghanistan. All the living Mongolic lan- to see either. The records were, however, transmitted to guages are closely related and clearly derive from Middle the Mongol rulers of Iran. There, GHAZAN KHAN Mongolian, the language of the 13th-century MONGOL (1295–1304) allowed RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH to use EMPIRE. the Altan debter (Golden record), “which is always kept in the khans’ treasury by great officers,” for his COM- LANGUAGES, DIALECTS, AND CLASSIFICATION PENDIUM OF CHRONICLES. This Altan debter’s exact identity The Mongolic languages can be divided into two groups: is unclear, but certainly the Veritable Records formed 1) the New Mongolian languages including MONGOLIAN Rashid-ud-Din’s primary source on Chinggis Khan. LANGUAGE proper, Kalmyk-Oirat, Buriat, and the East Histories of Chinggis Khan’s companions were also Mongolian dialects of eastern Inner Mongolia; and 2) the composed in the 13th century. Both Rashid-ud-Din and peripheral languages, including Daur in Manchuria, the YUAN SHI incorporate, for example, parallel texts on Dongxiang, Tu, Eastern Yogur, and Bao’an in northwest BO’ORCHU, Chagha’an, Sübe’etei, and others that have China, and Mogholi in Afghanistan. Historically, the New obviously been translated from Mongolian. Mongolian- Mongolian languages have been in continuous contact, language historical writing continued in the 14th century making dialectal distinctions fuzzy. Thus, distinguishing in the Mongol Yuan dynasty of China. Veritable records languages from dialects among the New Mongolian were composed for the successors of QUBILAI KHAN, even- speeches is somewhat arbitrary. Since the “peripheral” tually covering 13 reigns. Except as translated into Chi- languages lost contact with the main body of Mongolian nese and incorporated in the Yuan shi’s basic annals, speakers after the fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th however, they have not survived. century, they are now clearly distinct both from Mongo- Scribes such as Tatar-Tong’a and Shigi Qutuqu had lian and from one another. been recording Chinggis Khan’s judgments (JASAQ) and Within Russia and Mongolia the New Mongolian issuing decrees (JARLIQ) since 1204, yet only fragments of dialects are written using three separate Cyrillic scripts: Mongol imperial archives have survived. The oldest docu- Kalmyk, Buriat (based on the Khori dialect), and Mongo- ment written in Mongolian, found near Nerchinsk and lian (based on the KHALKHA dialect). These dialect divi- called the “Stone of Chinggis Khan,” dates to around 1226 sions correspond roughly, but not exactly, to the political and records a 335-fathom bow shot by Chinggis’s nephew divisions of the Buriat and Kalmyk Republics of Russia Yisüngge. Throughout the Mongol Empire, a number of and independent Mongolia. In China all New Mongolian decrees granting tax exemptions to religious institutions dialects have been classified as Mongolian, yet Barga- and meritorious ministers have been found. Due to their Buriat–type dialects exist in northeastern Inner Mongolia importance for their possessor, such exemption decrees and Kalmyk-Oirat–type dialects in Xinjiang, Gansu, and were carefully preserved, both written on paper and Qinghai (Kökenuur). Moreover, the dialects of eastern inscribed on stone, in the territory of all four successor Inner Mongolia and Manchuria form a family at least as states of the empire and occur both in Mongolian and in divergent from Khalkha as are Buriat or Kalmyk. For his- translation into the other languages of the empire—Chi- torical reasons, however, this East Mongolian dialect fam- nese, Persian, Tibetan, and Russian. (Later jarliqs from the ily has never had a separate written language. Throughout western khanates are in Turkish.) While useful for pre- China, with the partial exception of Xinjiang, standard serving Mongol chancellery formulas, they are not of Inner Mongolian is the dominant dialect. Standard Inner tremendous independent historical value. Other stone Mongolian is written in the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT inscriptions include several Sino-Mongolian bilingual and based on the CHAKHAR dialect, one easily intercom- inscriptions from 1335 to 1362 recording the achieve- prehensible with Khalkha. ments of civil officials of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, and Using 1989–90 census figures and a very loose defi- the famous hexalingual (Sanskrit, Tibetan, SQUARE SCRIPT nition of language competence, Mongolia, Inner Mongo- Mongolian, Uighur, Chinese, and Tangut) inscription at lia, and Manchuria have up to 5 million Mongolian Juyongguan Pass, north of Beijing, glorifying the Yuan speakers; Kalmykia and western Mongolia and Xinjiang, emperors as bodhisattvas. While offering insight into Gansu, and Qinghai in China have up to 510,000 Confucian and Buddhist influence on Mongolian royal Kalmyk-Oirat speakers; and southern Siberia, northeast ideology, they supply little new historical data. Mongolia, and northeast Inner Mongolia have almost See also LITERATURE. 475,000 Barga-Buriat speakers. A definition of speakers Further reading: Shugdaryn Bira, Mongolian Histori- based on language regularly spoken in most social con- cal Writings from 1200 to 1700, trans. John R. Krueger texts would show rather smaller numbers, particularly for (Belingham: Western Washington University, 2002). Buriat. Present-Day Distribution of the Mongols and Related Peoples 0 500 miles 0 500 km C Volgograd LI Tomsk B L. Baikal PU RUSSIA RE Chita 13 T Astrakhan 1 I IA Irkutsk 2 R I MA U UBLIC B I N KAZAKHSTAN ALTAY A N REP TUV REPUBLIC 3 CHU Aral 4 Caspia Sea Ulaanbataar RIA L. Balkhash MONGOLIA n Sea UZ 8 5 B 9 A EK LI N. KOREA I TUR Ürümqi O ST KM EN NG 6 O AN IS 10 M TA KYRGYZSTAN 11 R N NE Beijing S. KOREA IN TAJIKISTAN XINJIANG II R. 11 w) ll o e IRAN AFGHANISTAN Xining (Y 12 ng Kabul III H ua VI IVIV 7 Shanghai VI QINGHAI V 12 PAKISTAN PAKISTAN INDIA . TIBET CHINA )R ze Numbered Areas 11. Subei Mongol Autonomous County gt 12. Haixi Mongol and Tibetan n Chita Expatriate Mongol cultural center 1. Ust'-Orda Buriat Autonomous Area (Ya Autonomous Prefecture ng 2. Aga Buriat Autonomous Area C ha Groups of Mongolian descent 13. Kalmyk Republic 3. Dörbed Mongol Autonomous County NE 4. Front Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County PAL International boundary 5. Fuxin Mongol Autonomous County “Peripheral” Mongolic languauges Republic or province boundary 6. Kharachin Left-Flank Mongol Autonomous County I. Daurs 7. Henan Mongol Autonomous County II. Yogurs Autonomous district or county 8. Khobogsair Mongol Autonomous County III. Tu (Monguors) 9. Borotala Mongol Autonomous Prefecture IV. Bao' an Hazara 10. Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Prefecture* V. Dongxiang BURMA VIETNAM *pre-1958 frontiers VI. Mogholis Mongolian autonomous regions 388 Mongolic language family The “peripheral” languages can be divided into two baruun); 3) retrogressive assimilation of first-syllable -i- isolates, Daur and Mogholi, and the four languages of the or “breaking of the -i-” (e.g., chidör, “hobble,” to chödör); Gansu-Qinghai subfamily. Daur is spoken primarily in 4) palatalization of back vowels when followed by -i-, northeast Inner Mongolia and near neighboring Qiqihar forming a long or short secondary front vowel (e.g., city; an estimated 95 percent of the nationality’s 121,357 sayin, “good,” and mori(n), “horse,” to Kalmyk sään (1990 census) speak the language. Mogholi was spoken and mörn); and 5) transformation of q- and often k- and in the Herat and Ghorat areas of Afghanistan by a few medial -b- into spirants (e.g., qa’aqu, “to close,” to thousand persons, and it is unclear if it survived the wars khaakh). The loss of the initial h- and elimination of all - following the Communist coup d’état of 1978. Of the u diphthongs are the chief diagnostic features that sepa- Gansu-Qinghai family, Dongxiang (Santa) in western rate the New Mongolian language from both Middle Gansu is the largest “peripheral” language, with more Mongolian and the peripheral languages. In many than 95 percent of the nationality’s 373,900 (1990 cen- respects the East Mongolian dialects are the most pro- sus) members speaking the language. About 60 percent of gressive, particularly in palatalization. In Fuxin (Mong- the 191,600 Tu (Monguor) people living around Xining goljin) dialect spirantization proceeds to the actual city speak the Tu language. By contrast, less than 30 per- elimination of intervocalic -k-/-q- (e.g., jakidal, “letter,” cent of the 12,300 Yogurs speak Eastern Yogur (a some- to jeedel, and ekilekü to iileh). what larger percentage speak the Turkic Western Yogur). SCRIPTS Many of the 12,200 Bao’an in western Gansu speak Chi- nese, but since a certain number of Tu speak Bao’an, the Kitan and Middle Mongolian are the two earliest attested total number of speakers is perhaps 10,000. Mongolic languages. Kitan inscriptions from the 11th and 12th centuries are still imperfectly deciphered. Middle HISTORY Mongolian, the lineal ancestor of the extant Mongolic The prehistory of the Mongolic family is related to the languages, is, however, quite well known through works question of its affiliation with the larger ALTAIC LANGUAGE in the Uighur-Mongolian script and SQUARE SCRIPT pre- FAMILY, including the Turkic and Manchu-Tungusic lan- served from 1226 on, glossaries of Mongolian words into guages. Many distinguished linguists, such as Nicholas Chinese, Turkish, Persian, Armenian, and other lan- Poppe and Gustav Ramstedt, have considered all these lan- guages, and phonetic transcriptions prepared in the MING guages to be part of one genetic family. In recent years the DYNASTY (around 1400). theory that the Altaic family was formed through conver- From 1600 on writing revived among the Mongo- gence due to prolonged contact has gained currency. If this lians. A classical language was formed, which to a certain is the case, one must posit several strata of both Turkic- extent concealed the ongoing transformation of Middle Mongolic contact and Mongolic-Manchu-Tungusic contact, Mongolian into modern Mongolian. Writing appears with loanwords generally moving west to east. The still among the Kalmyk-Oirats in the CLEAR SCRIPT in the 17th imperfectly deciphered Kitan stands out among the Mon- century, among the BURIATS in the Uighur-Mongolian golic languages by being phonologically progressive yet script in the 18th century, and among the Daurs in the lacking many Turkic words found in Middle Mongolian. Manchu script in the 19th century. Linguistic description The history of the main body of Mongolic languages of Kalmyk, Buriat, and Mongolian dates to the 19th cen- can be divided into a hypothetical Ancient Mongolian, tury. The other Mongolic languages were not written or formed on the Mongolian steppe before the 12th century; described until the 20th century. Middle Mongolian, recorded in the 13th to 16th centuries; See also BAO’AN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; DAUR LAN- and New Mongolian, which includes modern Mongolian GUAGE AND PEOPLE; DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; (in the narrow sense), Barga-Buriat, Kalmyk-Oirat, and the KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS; MOGHOLI LAN- East Mongolian dialects. The progression from Ancient GUAGE AND PEOPLE; ROURAN; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; Mongolian to Middle Mongolian was marked by transfor- XIANBI; XIONGNU; YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. mation of a reconstructed initial p- to initial h- (e.g., recon- Further reading: György Kara, “Late Medieval Turkic structed pon, “year,” to attested hon) and the disappearance Elements in Mongolian,” in De Dunhuang à Istanbul: Hom- of intervocalic -g- and -gh- (e.g., segül, “tail,” and baraghun, mage à James Russel Hamilton, ed. Louis Bazin and Peter “right,” to se’ül and bara’un). Middle Mongolian still Zieme (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2001), 73–119; Juna retained traces of natural gender (jirin as feminine “two” Janhunen, The Mongolic Languages (London: Routledge, versus qoyar, feminine past in -bi versus -bai/-bei, etc.), 2003); Hans Nugteren, “On the Classification of the which have been lost in all extant Mongolic languages. ‘Peripheral’ Mongolic Languages,” in Historical and Lin- The phonetic evolution of Middle Mongolian into guistic Interaction between Inner-Asia and Europe, ed. Árpád New Mongolian saw the following processes: 1) the dis- Berta and Edina Horváth (Szeged, Hungary: University of appearance of the initial h- (e.g., hon to on); 2) the merg- Szeged, 1997), 207–216; Nicholas Poppe, Introduction to ing of the diphthongs produced by the disappearance of Mongolian Comparative Studies (Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugri- -g-/-gh- into long vowels (se’ül to süül and bara’un to lainen Suera, 1955). Mongol tribe 389 Mongol-Oirat Code (Mongghol-Oirad tsaaji) The (1934; rpt., Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Mongol-Oirat Code was issued around September 20 1965). (fifth day of the eighth moon), 1640, at a great assembly called by the Zasagtu Khan Subadai of the KHALKHA Mon- Mongol tribe At the time of the rise of Chinggis Khan, gols. Other participants included the Khalkha Tüshiyetü the term Mongol meant only one particularly fractious khan Gömbö-Dorji and the Oirat rulers Erdeni Baatur and warlike tribe nomadizing along the ONON RIVER and Khung-Taiji (r. 1634–53), TÖRÖ-BAIKU GÜÜSHI KHAN, and KHERLEN RIVER in northeastern Mongolia. After CHINGGIS KHOO-ÖRLÖG. The INCARNATE LAMA Manjushri Khutugtu KHAN founded his empire, this tribe gave its name to the of the Sa-skya order was also present. other peoples of the plateau, while the tribes’ common The purpose of the assembly was to unify the speech came to be called the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. This Khalkhas and OIRATS, after decades, even centuries, of entry describes the Mongol tribe proper, before the rise of animosity. The first provision of the 120 provisions in the Chinggis Khan. code therefore prescribed collective action by all the sig- natories against any person who “destroys this state THE EARLY MONGOLS IN CHINESE RECORDS (törö),” provisions that worked against Lubsang-Rinchin The origin of the Mongols may be the SHIWEI, a people or Taiji (see KHOTOGHOID) but failed to resolve the war group of peoples found in Chinese records in northern between GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN (1678–97) and Manchuria from the fifth century on. During the time of Chakhundorji (r. 1655–99). Further provisions estab- China’s Tang dynasty (618–906), a tribe of the Shiwei lished the requirement of notification of the approach of called the Mengwu appear east of the GREATER KHINGGAN an enemy, return of fugitives from other nobles, respect RANGE, perhaps the first appearance of the name Mongol. and provisions due officials, and the postroad system. Many etymologies of this word have been attempted by Family law is also detailed, specifying the authority of Mongols as well as by foreigners, but none has proved fathers and mothers over sons, daughters-in-law, and convincing. slaves and prescribing amounts of bridewealth and dowry The Mongols, now called Menggu in Chinese, reap- and penalties for breaking engagements, elopements, and pear in 1084 as one of the more distant tribes paying trib- other offenses. The interest of the confederation as a ute to the Kitan Liao dynasty. Chinese writers linked whole in marriage was clearly expressed in the rules them to the Shiwei and described them as originally hav- specifying that every 40 households must marry out four ing lived purely by hunting. Like other people in girls per year and that any girl unmarried by age 20 must Manchuria, they were said to have dressed in fish skins. be reported to the authorities. After these coherent sec- As the Mongols crossed the Greater Khinggan Range tions followed a series of almost random provisions. going west, they became not just hunters but pastoralists Notable are the provisions enforcing respect for the Bud- and often traded with the neighboring peoples, including dhist clergy and prohibiting either inviting shamans to the dynasties in North China. The KITANS and after them practice or offering funerary sacrifices. The code also the Jurchen, however, prohibited the export of iron, and specifies rules for collective hunts parallel to those for the Mongols had to make do with stirrups of wood and war. Capital punishment was levied only for crimes of arrows of bone. war: failing to report or assist against an enemy invasion The Menggu were not the exclusive ancestors of the or abandonment of one’s prince in battle. While flogging, Mongols. Clans that later joined the Mongol tribe appear- confinement, and mutilation were occasionally pre- ing independently in Chinese records include the Jajirad scribed, the vast majority of punishments were CATTLE (first reported in 1093) and the QONGGIRAD (first fines reckoned in “nines.” reported in 1129). As the nucleus of the Mongols moved Among the Khalkha the war with Galdan and the onto the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU, Chinese observers lumped 1709 proclamation of the KHALKHA JIRUM (Khalkha regula- them as TATARS (Dadan). tions) voided the code, yet among the Oirats it long After the fall of the Kitans in 1125 and the rise of the remained in force. Galdan added provisions in 1678 Jurchens’ JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), the Mongols became strengthening the requirements of collective responsibil- a leading steppe tribe. From 1139 to 1146 the Mongols ity, while Dondug-Dashi (1741–61) of the Volga KALMYKS leagued with malcontents within the Jin frontiers and added a wide variety of provisions. Further modified by repeatedly defeated the Jin forces, capturing numerous the Zinzili Decrees of 1822, the code remained in force forts and frontier towns. The Jin dynasty secured peace among the Volga Kalmyks until the abolition of the nobil- only in 1147 by giving the Mongols generous gifts of CAT- ity’s authority in 1892. TLE, SHEEP, grain and beans, and various silk stuffs. See also ALTAN KHAN, CODE OF. Mongol oral histories told of the powerful Mongol Further reading: John R. Krueger, “New Materials on khans who threatened the Jin. Qabul Khan, his cousin Oirat Law and History, Part One: The Jinjil Decrees,” Hambaghai Khan, and Qabul’s son Qutula Khan ruled in Central Asiatic Journal 16 (1972): 194–205; Valentin A. succession until about 1164, when Qutula died in battle Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles of Mongol Law with the Tatars, a tribe allied with the Jin. Earlier, the 390 Mongol tribe Mongolian Plateau during the Rise of Chinggis Khan Jin dynasty earthen rampart aR . Önggüd Tribal entity or clan n Le y R. 0 300 miles se n i Kis Ye 0 300 km hte m i Angara R. Telengit Kyrgyz . ji n ) R Ob’ (Ima r) R Barghu Buriat u . rgh k al a B ai (B in z rgu ) ke ad Ba rga La um Ba hik R. Tubas ) -T h u( ) R. em c ri arg an d Range A -K Lake B On ra Kem Shishkhid R. ( . on eR Khöwsgöl ho l On i Jaj Ergün t gho) R. R. (K Oirats ( K il Tayichi’ud a k n ilo id Ke Lake Uws Kh ri i rk Qorqonaq Yubur Deli’ün Boldaq Me Qo Irty Naiman (Oyirad) )R . sh (Er d) ar ail jigi . R rad c hi eR gan ng (Q Bor s) Sele lar a ( H ai g gi R. Hulun R. n lja) n rqa Baljuna (U (Kölön) Qon Kh z Qatagin g Lake Ul TaLake Bu ing an n tar e ga Tuu ldu s Sanchi'ud U¨ rün i R Tam ir R. l (T u Black Qa Kh d ’ula) R. alk Kh gü ) R. ya R üren Buir a (Q . an (Kel Lake alqa) R. Ki Ordu-Baligh Forest A’uruq rle n ge Khe (ruins) Kita Ködö’e Aral (to Ji ns n) r K e re y i d Besh-Baligh te rt se ea Uighurs e i D ob Gr Linhuang Qara-Qocho G (to Jin) (Turpan) Hami (Qamil) Huanzhou Önggüd (to Jin) (to Jin) Heshui (to Xia) Jingzhou (to Jin) Tatars had captured first Hambaghai Khan and then to Mongolian rules of exogamy, had to marry among the Qabul Khan’s eldest son, Ökin Barqaq, and handed them Dürlükin moiety. The interrelations of the 15 or so over to be nailed to a wooden mule by the Jin rulers. known Dürlükin clans are less clear, but they were called Under these blows the early Mongol Khanate disinte- the Negüs lineage and sought wives among the Niru’un. grated. The Chinese envoy Zhao Gong described the Jin The long genealogy in the Secret History of the Mongols rulers as mounting yearly expeditions against the Mon- includes only the Niru’un Mongols, not the Dürlükin gols, which they called “thinning the ranks.” From 1160 clans. to 1190 the victories of the Jin and their tribal allies filled The Mongol lineages practiced ancestor worship, and the North China markets with Mongol slaves. Even so, participation in the sacrifices was tantamount to member- the Mongol rulers regularly paid tribute to the Jin ship in the tribe. Exclusion from participation in the sac- dynasty, really a form of state-subsidized trade (see TRIB- rificial meat, whether due to suspicion of illegitimacy or UTE SYSTEM). Chinggis Khan discontinued this tribute to intraclan feuds, marked the creation of a new lineage only in 1210. fragment. Many Negüs clans—for example, the Qonggirad, SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE MONGOL TRIBE Olqunu’ud, Ikires, Qongqotad, and Arulad—were free Thanks to the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS and people, building their fortunes on marriage alliances with RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH’s COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES, particular ruling lineages. Such marriage allies called the internal structure of the Mongol tribe is relatively each other QUDA (affines). A long poem in the Secret His- well understood. The clans in the Mongol tribe belonged tory painted an idealized portrait of the Qonggirad people to two moieties, the Niru’un and the Dürlükin. The Dür- putting their trust not in war but in their beautiful lükin were ordinary Mongols, while the Niru’un (back- daughters, who they would give to the khans in marriage, bone) were the rulers. The 20 or so Niru’un clans and in the wealth of their sons, who would receive the belonged to one lineage, the Kiyad, and thus, according daughters of khans. Mongol zurag 391 Many Negüs lineages, however, lost their freedom Chinggis’s inner circle came to consist solely of his imme- and became servants of the Kiyad. This could happen diate family and his “companions” (NÖKÖR) from Negüs through poverty, in which families would sell their chil- lineages, who gave him complete loyalty. The old Borjigid dren, or through conquest. Generations serving a differ- aristocracy turned to Jamugha, chief of the Jajirad lin- ent clan weakened the subjects’ original lineage identity, eage, who was proclaimed gür khan (universal khan) by partially incorporating them into the new clan. The an alliance of the Tayichi’ud and other Kiyad (in the recurring pattern in which sharpshooting, lineage-proud, broad sense) clans together with several free Negüs clans. Kiyad falconers subjugated herding men of unclear lin- From 1201 on, under repeated blows from Chinggis eage and took their beautiful women may reflect actual Khan, the coalition crumbled. The free Negüs clans allied events but must be read principally as an ideology of con- with Chinggis, and the Kiyad clans were either crushed quest justifying Kiyad rule. or fled for refuge with other peoples on the Mongolian The same legends reflected the ruling Kiyad lineages’ plateau. With Chinggis’s reunification of the Mongolian belief in its heaven-destined right to rule. The first plateau in 1204, the remaining Kiyad clans submitted. ancestor of all the Kiyad was a bluish wolf “having a des- After Chinggis Khan’s reunification of the Mongols, tiny from Heaven above.” Later, a Kiyad widow, ALAN the name Mongol came to be applied to all the tribes and GHO’A, gave birth to three sons fathered by a man from khanates of the Mongolian plateau. The bilateral organi- heaven. Of these, the youngest, Bodonchar, while seem- zation of Niru’un and Dürlükin and the aristocratic con- ingly a fool, showed his superior destiny through con- cept of collective Borjigid rule were transformed into a quest. Finally, Bodonchar’s fourth-generation descendant monarchic idea of Chinggis and his descendants alone as Qaidu demonstrated his right to rule by conquering the the heavenly destined rulers, yet ideas such as the impor- JALAYIR, who had attacked the Mongols. His descendants, tance of lineage, the quda-relation, and the link of war the BORJIGID in the narrow sense, monopolized the posi- and hunting to rule continued as a legacy of the Mongol tion of khan. Again, such stories were charters of rule for tribe into the new empire. particular lineages over the Mongols. See also FALCONRY. CHINGGIS KHAN’S RISE Mongol zurag Mongol zurag is a style of modern AND THE MONGOL TRIBE Mongolian painting using the traditional mineral-paint Qaidu’s great-grandson was Qabul Khan, the first figure medium for nonreligious, frequently folkloric themes. in Mongol oral history whose existence can be surmised The medium of Mongol zurag is taken from traditional from non-Mongol sources. At the time of Qabul Khan Tibeto-Mongolian thangka paintings and consists of min- and his successors, the ruling Borjigid lineage had fur- eral paints or crushed lac (scale bugs) suspended in an ther divided into several sublineages. Of these, the animal-fat size, similar to European gouache. The paint- TAYICHI’UD lineage of Hambaghai Khan was more inde- ings are done on cotton scrolls. Precursors to Mongol pendent. The clans of Qabul Khan’s descendants zurag include Buddhist paintings of processions and included the Yürkin, the Changshi’ud, and the Kiyad (in sacred places and folk art, including manuscript illustra- the narrow sense). This last was headed by YISÜGEI tions, furniture, and playing cards. “BUSYBODY” SHARAB’s BA’ATUR, the grandson of Qabul Khan and the father of scenes of Mongolian life in the 1910s were the first major Chinggis Khan. The khans of the Mongol tribe were examples of nonreligious art painted in mineral paints on elected at assemblies (QURILTAI), and the position was a cotton medium. not hereditary, although only Qaidu’s descendants were After the 1921 REVOLUTION painters such as Sharab eligible. and Sonamtsering (Sonomtseren) began to use the min- After the Jin and Tatar destruction of the first Mon- eral paints on a cotton medium for portraits in a strongly gol khanate, the Tayichi’ud became the dominant group. photographic and European-influenced style. Much of Other groups with an uncertain claim to membership in the painting of this era has not survived. In the two the Borjigid, such as the Jajirad clan of JAMUGHA, as- decades after 1940, oil painting done in the socialist-real- cended to positions of importance. (The Borjigid claimed ist style dominated Mongolian art, yet the painting Old that the father of the Jajirad ancestor was not Bodonchar Hero (1942) by D. Manibadar used mineral paints for an but really his Uriyangkhan slave boy.) approved folkloric theme, in this case recalling Mongo- The descendants of Qabul Khan thus at first wel- lia’s heroic traditions during WORLD WAR II. comed the rise of Chinggis Khan, beginning in the mid- The real flourishing of Mongol zurag began in the 1180s. As Jin and Tatar pressure diminished, Chinggis late 1950s, with the great success of the Old Fiddler Khan reasserted Borjigid supremacy against both Tayi- (1958) by ÜRJINGIIN YADAMSÜREN (1905–87). In the chi’ud cousins and the Jajirads. Over the next 15 years, 1960s the genre’s basic themes and styles were estab- however, Chinggis Khan’s strict discipline alienated his lished. Themes included the collective farm life (with or senior relatives. Chinggis crushed some allied clans, such without signs of modern progress), scenes of the 1921 as the Yürkin, while others deserted his camp. Eventually, Revolution, emblematic figures of the Mongolian past, 392 Monguor and scenes of old Mongolian life. Religious themes such and the nobility suspected him deeply. When Bela as E. Pürewjal’s Geser Khan En Route (1960) and M. ordered a kingdomwide mobilization in February 1241, Khaidaw’s White Old Man (1961) were frowned on. The the nobility blamed him for provoking the war and pictures of CAMELS (1968, 1971) by D. Sengetsokhio (b. refused to cooperate. Shiban’s vanguard soon reached 1917) are perhaps the most popular and widely repro- Pest (Budapest east of the Danube), but Sübe’etei ordered duced examples of Mongol zurag. While some, such as a feigned retreat to lure the Hungarians out. Bela took the Ts. Minjuur’s (b. 1910) Nomadizing (1967) and P. Tseren- bait, and the Hungarian nobility rallied to what now dorj’s (b. 1910) Wedding Customs (1967), used shading seemed a winning cause. in ways relatively close to European realistic painting, After two days the Mongols camped on the wooded most followed Yadamsüren in using flat swaths of bright high ground east of the Sajó River at Muhi (downstream but cool colors. Many works, such as D. Damdinsüren’s from modern Miskolc), while Bela penned his troops in a (b. 1909) 1966 Games and Tsam in Khüriye and Ts. corral of carts on the western bank. The numbers, double Dawaakhüü’s Festivities at a Cooperative (1979), ignore that of the Mongols, and the quality of the Hungarian perspective and follow the layout of older Buddhist cavalry worried the Mongols, and before the battle Batu painters; others, such as B. Gombosüren’s (b. 1930) The went to a hilltop alone to plead with heaven for victory. New Masters of the State Have Come (1963) and Ts. Jam- Sübe’etei planned for Batu, assisted by the commander sran’s Mongol Woman (1968), boldly display geometric Boraldai, to assault the bridge over the Sajó, while he perspective. A few examples, such as Damdinsüren’s would cross the river downstream and surprise the Mother’s Glory and D. Urtnasan’s Mandukhai the Wise enemy from the rear. After midnight Shiban led the Mon- Queen (1982), explicitly exploit Buddhist iconographic gol vanguard to attack the bridge defended by Bela’s forms for secular national topics. Urtnasan’s Mandukhai brother Koloman (Kálmán). Hungarian valor matched is also notable for its black-ground nagtang iconic tech- Mongol expectations, and Batu lost more than 30 of his nique traditionally used for fierce protector deities ba’aturs (heavily armed vanguards) before retreating. (dogshid). Eventually Mongol catapults firing explosive bombs dis- Since 1989 young Mongol zurag painters have oriented the defenders, and the Mongols took the bridge. turned to overtly religious and nationalist topics. The Meanwhile, high water delayed the building of FIRE CULT, the OBOO (sacred cairn), scenes from the Sübe’etei’s pontoon bridge downstream, and his force did SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, images of CHINGGIS not arrive until around 7:00 A.M. The Hungarians with- KHAN, and shamans have all joined the themes of live- drew into their corral, and as the Mongols showered the stock, countryside life, and emblematic Mongol figures. corral with arrows and explosive bombs, the general At the same time Mongol zurag has become less strictly Boroldai stormed the royal pavilion. The Mongols delib- representational and more symbolic. erately left their circle open and first isolated stragglers, See also BUDDHIST FINE ARTS; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; and then the whole body fled westward while Mongol THEOCRATIC PERIOD. scouts hunted them down as they ran. The king and Further reading: N. Tsultem, Development of the Koloman escaped, but Koloman later died of his wounds. Mongolian National Style Painting “Mongol Zurag” in Brief The spoils included a good part of the royal treasure as (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing House, 1986). well as the seal and the king’s tent, which Batu later used to entertain European envoys. Batu and the princes were Monguor See TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. dismayed with their losses and advocated retiring, but Sübe’etei insisted the Mongols press their advantage to the Danube. morin huur See HORSE-HEAD FIDDLE. See also CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS; MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. Muhi, Battle of While hard fought, the Battle of Muhi on April 11, 1241, ended in total victory for the Mongols Mukhali See MUQALI. over the Hungarian army. The Mongols crossed the Carpathians into the Hungarian plain in winter 1240–41 under the direction of the Mongol general SÜBE’ETEI Mulahidah See ISMA‘ILIS. BA’ATUR. CHINGGIS KHAN’s grandson BATU (d. 1255), with his brother Shiban in the vanguard, advanced through the Muqali (1170–1223) One of Chinggis Khan’s earliest Veretski Pass (between modern Mukacheve and Stryy), nökörs, or companions, and his regent in North China while his cousin Büri (son of CHA’ADAI) attacked the Sax- Muqali belonged to the JALAYIR clan, which for many gen- ons of Transylvania and Böchek (son of TOLUI) ravaged erations had been hereditary servants of the aristocratic Wallachia and the Banat. BORJIGID rulers of the Mongols. His father, Gü’ün-U’a, was King Bela IV (1235–70) of Hungary had been a servant of the Yürkin branch of the Borjigid but attempting to expand royal power since his coronation, deserted them for CHINGGIS KHAN’s Kiyad branch. Gü’ün- music 393 U’a gave his son Muqali to the young Chinggis as a per- Muqali’s chief problem lay in his small numbers. sonal slave. Along with BO’ORCHU and other “companions” Chinggis Khan had taken the bulk of the Mongol cavalry (NÖKÖR), Muqali shared in the hardships of Chinggis west to conquer KHORAZM, leaving Muqali few resources Khan’s rise to power. At Chinggis Khan’s coronation in to hold North China, a problem masked from his enemies 1206 Muqali and Bo’orchu received command of the left only by his cavalry’s extraordinary mobility, accurate and right wings of the army, respectively, and they were intelligence, and awesome reputation. Even so, due to the made one of the “four steeds” (along with Boroghul and small size of his troops he could not attempt more than Chila’un). occasional booty hunting expeditions in the Jin strongholds During the conquest of the JIN DYNASTY in North of Shaanxi and Henan. China, Muqali commanded the charge that brought vic- Muqali died in 1223. His son Bo’al (sometimes erro- tory in Chinggis’s decisive battle with the Jin at neously written Boro) and later descendants succeeded to Huan’erzui (February 1212). In 1214 he commanded the the title of prince of state and commanded forces in the Mongol forces that subdued the Jin armies in Liaoning, or completion of the conquest of North China, but they did southern Manchuria. After three years of campaigning he not have anything comparable to Muqali’s viceregal posi- became more familiar with Chinese ways of warfare and tion. His later descendants became strong proponents of developed a staff in which surrendered locals of Kitan Confucian principles of rule and opponents of exploita- ethnicity played a major role. In 1217, as Chinggis Khan tive government practices. was leaving North China to deal with unrest in Mongolia See also HUAN’ERZUI, BATTLE OF; MANCHURIA AND THE and Turkestan, he appointed Muqali his viceroy of the MONGOL EMPIRE; MASSACRES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. North China plain, granting him the Chinese titles Further reading: Igor de Rachewiltz, “Muqali, Bôl, “prince of state” (Chinese, guo wang, Mongolian, gui ong) Tas, An-t’ung,” in In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Per- and “grand preceptor” (taishi) and allowing him to use sonalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), the nine-tailed banner, which he himself had raised in ed. Igor de Rachewiltz, et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras- 1206. The core of the viceroy’s TAMMACHI, or garrison sowitz, 1993), 3–12. army, was his own Jalayir clan and four other clans, the QONGGIRAD, Ikires, MANGGHUD, and Uru’ud, totaling music Mongolia’s richly diverse musical traditions about 13,000 men. The Önggüd tribe, numbering 10,000 form one of the most distinctive and appealing parts of its and ruled by Chinggis’s daughter ALAQAI BEKI as regent, folk culture. While there have been ensembles in the was also under his command. Around this core locally past, traditionally instruments were performed solo or to recruited armies, Han (ethnic Chinese), Tangut, and accompany a singer. Mongolian music uses pentatonic Kitan, were attached to the Mongol tribes. scale forms and is generally monophonic. Monastic musi- Over the course of the next seven years, Muqali waged cians used a traditional Tibetan notation by the 18th cen- a brutal but increasingly effective campaign to crush all tury, but lay musicians have used European notation only remaining resistance in North China’s Shanxi, Hebei, and since the 20th century. Shandong provinces. Early on in his campaign in Liaon- ing, he had come to accept the Chinese practice of SONGS enrolling defeated generals and their soldiers into his Singing is the main musical art of the Mongols and is force, yet he also made liberal use of the Mongol practice divided into two types, the long song (urtyn duu; Kalmyk, of wholesale massacre when confronted by stubborn ut dun) and the short song (bogino duu), although there resistance. By this time the Jin Empire had been driven are many intermediate forms. The first category is called south of the Huang (Yellow) River and no longer dared the long song due to the extreme length of word and openly challenge Mongol armies in the Hebei plain yet melodic phrases, which are drawn out with an abundance held fortresses in Shandong and Shaanxi provinces. The of ornamentation, such as glissandos, tones of indefinite Jin and the SONG DYNASTY in South China also engineered pitch, and trills, and with no regular beat. Singers in a defections among generals who had surrendered to the single song may cover a range of up to three octaves Mongols. Within his base of Shanxi and Hebei provinces, through the use of a powerful falsetto. In the classic Muqali dealt with the local chiefs and bandits resisting KHALKHA style wide intervals of thirds and fourths are the chaos of the Mongol invasions with the time-tested often used in succession, and the melodic contours have techniques of counterinsurgency: concentrating the rural been compared to hills with a short, profusely orna- population in fortified villages, destroying all life and mented ascent and a long rolling descent. Among the property outside these strategic hamlets, and rewarding OIRATS and KALMYKS long songs are somewhat less “long” strongmen who surrendered with ranks and titles. Under than among the Khalkha and INNER MONGOLIANS. The his rule Mongol tribal and tammachi garrisons and high- long song is usually accompanied by a fiddle (khuur) or ranking surrendered commanders, such as YAN SHI, less often a transverse flute (limbe). ZHANG ROU, and the Shii family (see SHII TIANZE), ruled Short songs have a much less unusual signing style, their districts as virtually private kingdoms. and the lyrics are often important. Time is usually duple 394 music or quadruple, rarely triple, a feature that fits the mostly used for accompanying singers but sometimes are played disyllabic nature of Mongolian PROSODY. While the long solo. songs are sung impassively, short songs are sometimes The most common fiddle has a box-shaped body and sung with vivid facial expressions and mime. This is par- two horsehair strings tuned in fifths. It was called a khili ticularly true of the khariltsaa duu, or dialogue songs, khuur, “bow fiddle,” in Inner Mongolia, but due to the which may be sung by several people but more often by horse head commonly carved on its scroll it is now one singer under different voices for the different parts. known as the HORSE-HEAD FIDDLE. The ikil of western Short songs may be accompanied but are, of course, fre- Mongolia’s Oirats is a version of the khili khuur without a quently sung alone. horse-head scroll. The other main type, the tube-bodied Mongolian songs cover virtually every topic: reli- fiddle, is different in virtually every regard: It has vertical, gious exhortation, recalling ancient heroes, praise and not horizontal, tuning pegs and four silk strings (also blessing of horses, mountains, and other beauties, tuned in fifths) in two harmonizing pairs. The strings thwarted love, lullabies, mothers’ and fathers’ kindness, pass not over a bridge but through a high metal ring. The and comic songs of promiscuous lamas or frustrated sex- bow has two strings that pass between the strings and are ual desire. Dialogue songs and songs with comic topics thus attached to the fiddle. Finally, it is played kneeling, are always short songs, but long songs can have many while the horse-head fiddle is played sitting. The instru- topics. The Mongols, in classifying their long songs, tra- ment is called a dörben chikhi-tei khuur, “four-eared fid- ditionally adopted the Tibetan distinction of “state songs” dle,” in Inner Mongolia and a khuuchir in Khalkha. (töriin duu, from Tibetan rgyal-po’i glu, king’s songs) and Mongolian lutes occur in three forms, the towshuur, “popular songs” (tügeemel or jiriin duu, from Tibetan which is more like the horse-head fiddle but plucked, the ’bangs-kyi glu, commoners’ songs). The most important of KAZAKHS’ two-string dombra, with a triangular body and the “state songs” is Tümnii ekh, “Beginning of Ten-Thou- movable frets, and the three-string fretless shanz or shu- sand,” which opens any nair, “feast,” or athletic NAADAM draga with an oval body. These instruments are used games and calls on the listeners to remember the pre- especially among the Oirats of western Mongolia, Xin- ciousness of human birth and devotedly to serve the jiang, and Kalmykia, where they accompany dances. The church and state. After the 1920s, the words were rewrit- dombra (Kalmyk, dombr) is used only by the Kalmyks ten to emphasize devotion to the Mongolian Peoples’s among the Mongolian-speaking people, and the towshuur Republic and its great hero GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR. Some- also accompanies epic singing among western Mongolia’s times the “state songs” were divided into (Buddhist) Oirats. The shanz is a Chinese instrument (Chinese, sanx- church and state subcategories. The famous THROAT ian; Japanese, shamisen) adapted by the western Mongo- SINGING was traditionally sung only in northwestern lian Oirats but also used in ULAANBAATAR and Inner Mongolia and had rather low status. Songs were tradi- Mongolia. tionally sung alone; choral singing was introduced in Mongolian wind instruments occur in two types: the political songs only from the first half of the 20th century. transverse flute, or limbe, used among the Mongols and Inner Mongolians, and the vertical flute, or tsuur, used INSTRUMENTS among the Oirats, TUVANS (were it is called shuur), and Traditional Mongolian lay instruments include the fol- lowing categories: 1) bowl-, box-, and tube-bodied fid- dles; 2) lutes; 3) flutes and pipes; and 4) zithers and dulcimers. Buddhist services are accompanied by percus- sion instruments and shawms. The most important of these instruments is undoubtedly the fiddle. Lutes and flutes are more widely distributed, but zithers and dul- cimers were traditionally more urban and sometimes used orchestrally. In the middle ages shawms were used in non-Buddhist music. Most Mongolian fiddles are spike fiddles, that is, the neck extends through the box and is fixed through the box’s lower edge. A virtually obsolete two-string fiddle, the “ladle-fiddle” (shanagan khuur), was, however, carved from one piece of wood like the Kazakh qobiz fiddle. Tra- ditionally, the front of the sound box is made of skin, not wood, and horse or matar (crocodile) heads are carved on the scroll, as they are in Tibet. The instrument is fingered Lamas performing in a yurt during the White Moon (lunar by pushing the string with the finger, nail, or knuckle, new year) services, Bandida Gegeen Monastery, Shiliin Khot, not by pressing it against the neck. Fiddles are generally 1987 (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) Myangad 395 Kazakhs (sibizghi) and occasionally among the ORDOS feathers as it played, a qobuz, or Kazakh-style bowl-bod- Mongols. The limbe has six finger holes and other holes ied lute, and a fiddle with a carved dragon head, presum- that affect the timbre. By contrast the tsuur is a simple ably a predecessor of Mongolian string instruments. tube with four holes used to amplify the overtones of Traditional Mongolian music was influenced by the throat singing. introduction of Buddhist music from Tibet in the 16th The Mongolian zither, or yatga, is formed of a rectan- century and Chinese Beijing opera in the 19th century. gular box with a convex cover and movable bridges. Tibetan lhamo-style opera was also performed in Alashan Strings were traditionally made of goat gut, horsehair, or and the Gobi (see DANZIN-RABJAI). In 1914, Mongolia’s silk. The instrument is similar enough to the Chinese newly independent theocratic government formed a mili- zheng and Japanese koto that Mongolian players can play tary brass band with Russian aid. on the latter, if necessary, although the Mongolian exam- From the first years after the 1921 REVOLUTION, ples are constructed slightly differently. Strings range Mongolian folk music was recognized by urban artists from 12 to six, and they are plucked with a plectrum and government officials as a great cultural repository. while the left hand may press the strings to produce a At the same time, European classical music was intro- glissando. The yoochin, or dulcimer (from Chinese duced into Mongolia from the 1940s on. Milestones yangqin), has a trapezoidal body and brass strings and is were the European-style opera (Uchirtai gurwan tolgoi, played with wooden hammers. It is played while sitting at Three fateful hills, 1942) by B. Damdinsüren and B. F. a table. Both these instruments were patronized primarily Smirnov, the symphony (Minii nutag My homeland, by the court and demanded too much specialized training 1955) by L. Mördorj (1919–97) and the ballet (Gan- to be played well by countryside musicians. khuyag, 1957) by S. Gonchigsumlaa. The Mongolian Of the many Buddhist instruments used in ritual, the State Circus opened in 1941. Western popular music only ones used in other musical contexts are the shawms, began to be performed in the late 1960s, with estrad or bishgüür, the great copper trumpets (büree and ükher music, a combination of jazz and folk rock, played by büree), the latter up to nine feet long, and the drums and the two approved bands, Soyol Erdene (“Culture Jewel”) gongs. The büree (Middle Mongolian, büriye) was used in and Bayan Mongol (“Rich Mongolia”). From then on the Mongol army in the 16th century to give the signal Mongolian music can be seen as having four trends: for battle. Buddhist chant is distinctive for its strongly amateur folk music, professional folk music, European rhythmic character, which influenced Mongolian prosody classical music, and popular music. and perhaps indirectly Mongolian songs. The chanting Professional folk music has been institutionalized in proceeds on distinct notes, but the orchestral music, Mongolia since 1951 in the State Folk Song and Dance while often impressive, has no recognizable melody. This Ensemble. In this process instruments were selected and music is, however, played according to notation. One often modified to give them a stronger, more stable monastery in central Khalkha used gür (Tibetan, mgur), sound. The yatga and yoochin were revived in a new sym- or religious long songs, for certain services, and these had phonic context, combining fiddles of various sizes, great a written notation dating back to the late 18th century. temple trumpets, flutes, and other instruments. Thus, the context of folk music has completely changed, losing its HISTORY earlier religious, ethnic, and political context while gain- While Mongolian music undoubtedly has a long history, ing in virtuosity. most of it cannot be traced due to lack of documentation. See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; LITERATURE. In particular, while instrumental forms such as the “ladle Further reading: Carole Pegg, Mongolian Music, fiddle” have sometimes been traced back to the XIONGNU Dance, and Oral Narrative (Seattle: University of Wash- (Huns) of the second century B.C.E., and the Mongol ington Press, 2001); Henning Haslund-Christensen, ed., khans are recorded as having played a lute-type instru- Music of the Mongols, Part I, Eastern Mongolia (Stock- ment, the more central singing art cannot be documented. holm: Trycheri aktiebologet Thule, 1943). Under the MONGOL EMPIRE, CHINGGIS KHAN (1206–26) Recordings: Altai-Khangai, Gone with the Wind (Win- adopted for his court the music of the Tangut XIA DY- dow to Europe, 1988); Badma Khanda, In a Song—My NASTY (1038–1227), while his son ÖGEDEI KHAN allowed People’s Soul (Badma Seseg Records, 2000); Tsahan: Mas- court musicians of the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) terpieces of Kalmyk Traditional Music (OOO “Kailas,” to be gathered to preserve their music. QUBILAI KHAN 2001); White Moon: Traditional and Popular Music from (1260–94) expanded the court music, incorporating that Mongolia (Pan Records, 1992). of the Chinese SONG DYNASTY as well as foreign instru- ments. These included a wind organ with 90 pipes played with a bellows, a “wooden peacock” that waved peacock Myangad See MINGGHAD. N naadam (nadom, nadamu) The naadam (Uighur-Mon- golian, nagadum), or “games,” of modern Mongolia and personal subjects, and with athletes from Khalkha’s two eastern aimags took place annually. Inner Mongolia is the modern form of the ancient Mon- golia summer festival. MODERN TIMES In 1912, after the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian inde- ORIGINS pendence, the danshug games were moved to the last The Mongolian calendar from the 13th century had both lunar month of summer (July–August) and held annually winter (the WHITE MONTH, or lunar new year) and sum- for all the subjects of the state, not just the Khalkha. The mer (KOUMISS aspersions and the great QURILTAI) celebra- danshug games thus became the great celebration of the tions. While WRESTLING, HORSE RACING, and ARCHERY new nation, at which all the local nobility gathered to were all popular games, no texts directly link games at express devotion to the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, the new this time to the celebrations. head of state. At least since the 17th century communal summer In April 1922, after the 1921 REVOLUTION, the new religious ceremonies have always concluded with com- government limited the religious danshug ceremony petitions of the “three manly games” (eriin gurwan before eliminating the public ceremony altogether in naadam). Such summer ceremonies include aspersions 1923. Naadams connected with minor religious holidays of koumiss at the opening of the mare-milking season, continued until the destruction of Buddhism in the 1930s. OBOO (cairn) worship, and the DANSHUG ritual, in which In 1922 GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR ordered that army games lay patrons present a mandala to INCARNATE LAMAs. All be held on July 11, the anniversary of the revolution’s vic- these rituals were carried out by both large and small tory. The purely secular meaning attached to the games groups. and the fixing of their date according to the European cal- The largest of these was the great triennial danshug endar were new; previously, the religious rituals occurred for the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU held in Khüriye (modern either on a fixed lunar date or more usually on an astro- ULAANBAATAR) by all four AIMAGs (provinces) of the logically determined date. After 1924 the country’s KHALKHA. Called the “Danshug Games of the Seven BAN- national holiday was fixed for July 11, and the army NERS [of Khalkha]” (Dologan khoshigun-u danshug games became the “National Holiday Naadam” (ulsyn ikh nagadum/Doloon Khoshuuny danshig naadam), it was bayar naadam), celebrating the success of the 1921 Revo- first celebrated in 1697 and became a major event in lution and the achievements of the new state. The rivalry Khalkha life. The “three manly games” on this occasion, between the clerical and lay estates continued and became and especially wrestling, became the focus of intense more dangerous; after a lama won the 1937 wrestling rivalries between localities and especially between the competition in the midst of the antireligious campaign, he clerical and lay estates. At these vast games as many as was arrested and sentenced to 15 years in prison. 1,012 wrestlers and 3,000 horses took part. Another dan- In the postwar period wrestling and archery events shug supported by the GREAT SHABI, or the Jibzundamba’s were moved from the fields to stadiums built outside the 396 Naiman 397 major cities and towns. (Mongolian cross-country horse River in the west and bordered the Zunghar (Junggar) racing still necessarily takes place in the fields). During basin and the UIGHURS to the south and the Siberian Kyr- the Communist period the “three manly games” them- gyz (in the modern Minusinsk basin) to the north. selves were carried on in a traditional manner, but the Due to the barrier of the Altai, the Naiman Khanate attendant opening ceremonies in the capital resembled was often divided in two, each half ruled by a brother. In Soviet political celebrations, with parades of military the early history of the Naiman, RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL- units and weapons. Representatives of social organiza- ULLAH speaks of rivalry between two brothers, Narqiz- tions held red banners and portraits of Marx, Lenin, and Tayang and Anyat Khan. At other times, however, the two Sükhebaatur as they marched past government and party halves were united. Around 1160 the Naiman seem to leaders on the reviewing stand next to the tomb of have reached the apogee of their power with the united Sükhebaatur and MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG. rule of Inancha Bilge Khan. He divided the realm between Since the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION the review his two sons, Buyruq Khan and Tayang Khan, but by in the capital at the tomb of Sükhebaatar and Choibal- 1204 Tayang Khan ruled both sides of the Altai again. sang has continued, but only the color guard, equipped with new, traditional-looking uniforms, parades. The CULTURE white (or peaceful) horsehair standard is now placed in The Naiman were nomadic and similar in customs to the the stadium for the wrestlers to salute before and after Mongols, but their khanate had a higher level of organi- matches. (A black, or warlike, standard also exists and zation. Unlike the Mongols, the Naiman had a single rul- would presumably be used in time of war.) Actors re-cre- ing dynasty, frontier guards, a throne, and a seal kept in ate personalities in Mongolia’s premodern history. Per- 1204 by a Uighur scribe, TATAR-TONG’A. The court was sonal attendance is no longer compulsory, and many presumably literate. Thus, the Naiman despised Ching- Mongolians in the capital prefer to watch the games on gis’s Mongols as bad-smelling savages unfit to rule the television. Smaller naadams are held in provincial and MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. sum (district) centers; the small ones involve more than The religious beliefs of the Naiman varied. Episodes 100 athletes and the large ones about 1,000. of the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS show the Naiman In Inner Mongolia naadams are celebrated on a vari- rulers as practicing rainmaking and other shamanistic rit- ety of regional and local occasions in July or August, uals. Rashid-ud-Din reports that one khan was able to although there is no regular all-regional naadam. In Buri- milk both female demons and wild animals of the waste- atia an annual sur-kharbaan (archery) festival has been lands. Nevertheless, Tayang Khan’s son Küchülüg, was held on the first Sunday in July in ULAN-UDE since 1924, raised a Christian, and WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK reported that although wrestling and horse racing are also practiced. the Naiman were Christian. A Syriac rock inscription and Smaller sur-kharbaans are held locally as well. Since 1990 cross in KHOWD PROVINCE (Mönkhkhairkhan Sum), while the games among the Buriats and Kalmyks have been not yet professionally deciphered, testifies to early Chris- called after their epic heroes, thus Geseriad among the tian activity in Naiman territory. Buriats and Jangghariad among the Kalmyks. The Kalmyks add javelin throwing and the Daurs field hockey HISTORY to the three manly games. At the time of the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN, the rivalry of See also CALENDAR AND DATING SYSTEMS; REVOLUTION- the KEREYID and Naiman Khanates was a constant of ARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Mongolian political life. Under Inancha Bilge Khan the Further reading: Iwona Kabzi´nska-Stawarz, Games of Naiman dominated the Kereyid, but after his death the the Mongolian Shepherds (Warsaw: Institute of the History balance switched the other way. Against the Kereyid, the of Material Culture, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1991); Naiman cemented marriage alliances with the Merkid to Henry Serruys, Kumiss Ceremonies and Horse Races: Three the north. When the Kereyid khan Toghril, or ONG KHAN Mongolian Texts (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1974). backed Chinggis Khan (Temüjin) as khan of the Mon- gols, the Naiman supported Chinggis’s rival, JAMUGHA. In Naiman The Naiman was probably the most powerful 1202 Ong Khan and Chinggis Khan together attacked Mongolian khanate during the rise of Chinggis Khan. Buyruq Khan and drove him west. Ong Khan and Ching- The word Naiman means eight in Mongolian, referring to gis fell out, however, and Buyruq Khan’s Naiman, under the number of clans, or lineages, contained in it. Despite the general Kögse’ü-Sabraq, rallied the remains of the this name, virtually all the names and titles found among tribe and defeated Ong Khan. Kögse’ü-Sabraq joined his the Naiman indicate that they spoke a Turkish language. people to those of Tayang Khan, reunifying most of the The Naiman appear to be the same as the Nianbage Naiman. In 1204, after Chinggis conquered the Kereyid, or Nianba’en found as a distant tribe in Kitan records of Tayang Khan, egged on by his wife and stepmother, the 11th century. They became a major tribe in the 12th Gürbesü, attacked the Mongols, but was defeated and century, straddling the ALTAI RANGE. At its height it killed at the Battle of Keltegei cliffs, and Chinggis Khan stretched from QARA-QORUM in the east past the Irtysh took Gürbesü as a concubine. 398 names, personal Tayang’s son Küchülüg fled to join his uncle Buyruq firmness (batu), stability (toqto’a), bulls (buqa, for men), in the western steppes, but in 1206 Mongol troops cap- iron (temür), steel (bolad), black (qara), hardness (berke), tured Buyruq. Küchülüg found refuge among the QARA- and so on. The number nine (yisü) is particularly common KHITAI. Küchülüg gathered the remnants of the Naiman and can be found in many forms (yisügei, yisüder, yisüngge, tribe and with their help usurped the Qara-Khitai throne, yisülün, yisünjin, yisüi, etc.) and compounds (yisü-buqa, ruling until his capture and execution by the Mongols in nine-bulls, yisü-möngke, nine-eternity, yisün-to’a, ninth- 1218. number, yisün-temür, ninth-iron, etc.) Such names were often combined with suffixes used only for personal THE NAIMAN IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE names, such as -dai, -ge/gei, and -der for boys and -jin, - After the conquest a few Naiman men achieved high tani, and -lun for girls. (The -jin in CHINGGIS KHAN’s origi- positions: the JARGHUCHI (judge) Qadaq under GÜYÜG nal name, Temüjin, is not the feminine suffix but a Khan, the Il-Khanid general KED-BUQA, and the warlord derivation from the occupational suffix -chin in Temürchin, Chagha’an-Temür of the late Yuan. Naiman women were “blacksmith.”) Apart from those formed by feminine suf- considered beautiful, and the imperial family often took fixes, girls were frequently given male names. Checheg, them as wives. One, TÖREGENE, actually became regent of “Flower,” is one of the few distinctive girls names. the empire in 1242–46. In the YUAN DYNASTY class struc- Other names were based on either conquests or clan ture among the Mongols in the East, the Naiman were names. Thus, we find Mongols named Qashi (Hexi, or not included within the ranks of Mongols but combined the XIA DYNASTY), Qurumsi (KHORAZM), Asudai (OSSETES, with the Muslim, Uighur, Tangut, and other peoples in or Alans), Orus (Russia), and Majar (Magyar, or Hun- the second-rank SEMUREN, or “various sorts,” category. gary). Clan names could be combined with the -dai suffix Eventually, the bulk of the Naiman seem to have for boys’ or -jin for girls’ names to form personal names: moved into the Jochid BLUE HORDE in present-day Kazakh- Mangghudai, Targhudai, Eljigidei, Baya’ujin, Mong- stan. The Naiman clan, or lineage, thus came to form an gholjin, and so on. Frequently, such clan-based personal important clan among the descendants (in whole or part) names were not from the person’s own clan. Thus, of that horde: the Kazakhs, Bashkir (Bashkort), and Kyrgyz. Targhudai was actually a TAYICHI’UD, and Mangghudai In the Northern Yuan (1368–1634) the Naiman were one of actually a Tatar, and so on. the eight OTOGs (camp district) of the CHAKHAR. After 1636 One finds a number of degrading or inauspicious this otog was made a banner in southeastern Inner Mongo- names among the Mongols of this time, such as Sorqaq- lia (see JUU UDA). The Naiman clan name is found there and tani, “Pox girl,” obviously an attempt to fool the small- elsewhere in southeastern Inner Mongolia, as well as pox spirit into thinking it had already afflicted her. Other among the KHALKHAs of west-central Mongolia. names appear to express frustration, such as the not- uncommon girls’ name Oghul-qaimish (Turkish, [We] names, personal Mongolian personal names have Were Searching for a Boy), while the name Jochi, gone through two “naming revolutions.” In the first, tra- “Guest,” indicated doubts about the child’s paternity. ditional Mongolian names were replaced by Tibetan Others such as Bujir-Ebügen (Filthy Old Man) or the names, while in the second, Tibetan names were replaced later Ghazan (Persian, “Kettle”) and Kharbanda (Persian, by new Mongolian names rather different from those “Muleteer”) are more likely to be the result of the prac- before the first naming revolution. tice noted by MUHAMMAD ABU-‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA of Generally, the Mongols, unlike the Chinese, have Mongol mothers naming their children after the first only one personal name, which remains the same thing they saw after childbirth. This may also account for throughout their lives. While clan organization remained some of the conquest and clan names: A subject of the important among the Mongols into the 17th century (and conquered people or a member of the Mongol clan may among the Buriat Mongols even today), CLAN NAMES were have appeared in the camp just at the time of birth. not linked with the personal name in a family name sys- The Mongols at this time frequently used purely tem. While the personal name of the living ruler was not Turkish names (Jelme, Qutlugh, Arghun, Abishqa, originally tabooed, as in China, the names of deceased Oghul-Qaimish, etc.). Later, as the Mongols spread out to rulers were tabooed for several generations. Even today, Eurasia, names in other languages became common, people feel very uncomfortable speaking their parents’ either because the word for that thing had entered the name in their hearing, and in the past this prohibition MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE (such as Ghazan or Kharbanda, was even stronger. above, or toghus, peacock) or from a desire to use a pres- tigious foreign language. This later practice was con- TWELFTH TO FOURTEENTH CENTURIES nected with the adoption of foreign religions. The most common category of Mongol names were those Before and during the imperial expansion, Christian of auspicious or (for boys) manly things, such as the num- names were found among the KEREYID and ÖNGGÜD ber nine (yisü), gold (altan), eternity (möngke), excess tribes. Occasional Chinese names were already in use (hüle’ü), blue (köke), white (chagha’an), health (esen), among the Önggüds and UIGHURS, and later some Mongo- names, personal 399 lian parents requested Chinese Taoist priests and Bud- At the same time, the conquest of the Mongolian dhist monks to bestow a name. From the 1250s Sanskrit, peoples by the Manchu and the Russian Empires resulted Uighur, and Tibetan Buddhist names (Manggala, Ananda, in a limited influence from these languages. In eastern Gamala, Wachir, Irinchin, Dorji, etc.) granted by Tibetan Inner Mongolia Manchu names with the adjectival suffix- teachers became common in the royal family and the aris- ngga based on desired moral qualities became common: tocratic clans. In the west some Mongols took Islamic Saichungga, Khafungga, Khuturingga. After 1911 such names after they converted, although many kept their names were no longer given. Among the non-Buddhist Mongolian names. western BURIATS Russian names became dominant in the After the 1368 expulsion of the Mongols from China, 19th century, although often pronounced in strange ways: the Sanskrit names in the imperial family soon disap- Roman became Armaan, and Vasilii became Bashiila or peared. Christian names appeared occasionally before Bashil. disappearing. Turkish names also declined, leaving pri- marily the auspicious Mongolian names similar to those MODERN NAMES in the early empire, although “nine” (yisü) and “bull” The Communist overthrow of Buddhism in the 20th cen- (buqa) names become rare after 1500. tury resulted in a second naming revolution, which replaced Tibetan names with new Mongolian ones. Mon- SEVENTEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES golian names became more frequent in the 1930s and With the beginning of the SECOND CONVERSION to Bud- 1940s but were still the minority. A local study of names dhism in 1575, however, a naming revolution took place in KHOWD PROVINCE found that of those born before in Mongolia. From 1635 on the vast majority of Mongols 1950, only 35 percent had Mongolian names and 52 per- had Buddhist names, usually Tibetan but sometimes San- cent Tibetan and Sanskrit ones (the rest were unclassified skrit or from the traditional Mongolian Buddhist termi- local names). By 1972 in the capital, ULAANBAATAR, about nology. A number of Mongolian-language names survived, 85 percent of kindergarten children had Mongolian particularly with more pacific elements designating peace names, with the remainder being Tibetan and Sanskrit. (Engkhe, Amur), happiness (Jirgal), long life (Nasu), and Percentages of Mongolian names in the countryside blessing (Ölzei, Kheshig). remained lower: A local study of children named from Buddhist names were granted according to several 1978 to 1995 in SÜKHEBAATUR PROVINCE found 65 percent different principles. The most common for laymen are with Mongolian names. The most common purely mas- based on the Tibetan or Sanskrit names of powerful culine elements are Bat (Firm), Baatar (Hero), Bayar deities: Damdin/Damrin (Hayagriva), Dulma/Dari (Tara), (Joy), Sükh (Axe), and Bold (Steel), while the most com- Gombo (Mahakala), Chagdur/Shagdur (Vajrapani), Jam- mon purely feminine elements are Tsetseg (Flower), srang (Beg-tshe), Jamyang (Manjushri), etc. Another type Tuyaa (Ray), Chimeg (Ornament), Bolor (Crystal), and of Buddhist name derives from the Tibetan days of the Naran (Sun). Elements found in both boys’ and girls’ week, themselves named after the Sun, Moon, and five names include Mönkh (Eternal), Erdene (Jewel), Enkh visible planets (Nima, Dawa, Migmar, Lhagba, Pürbü, (Peace), and Jargal (Happiness). The Tibetan element Basang, Bimba). Another astrological scheme divides the maa functions as a feminine adjective, so that while Soy- months’ days into five classes, each under an element: olt, “Cultured,” is a boy’s name, Soyolmaa is a girl’s. Dorji (power bolt), Rinchin (jewel), Badma (lotus), and This second naming revolution began even earlier Sangjai (Buddha). (For some reason the fourth class, Liji, in eastern Inner Mongolia, where Mongolian names was never used.) The suffixes -jab (Tibetan, skyabs, “pro- increased after 1911, becoming dominant after 1945. tecting”) and -sürüng (Tibetan, -srung, “guarding”) were While many elements are similar to those in Mongolia commonly added to these Buddhist names. Finally, some proper, Inner Mongolian boys’ names more frequently names, particularly for monks, were based on Tibetan use adjectives ending in -tu: Gereltü (Shining), Chogtu words for desired qualities or aspects of the religion: Lub- (Glorious), Bayartu (Joyous), Chenggeltü (Rejoicing). sang, “good intellect,” Agwang, “powerful in speech,” Inner Mongolians rarely use the -maa ending, however. Danzin “instruction keeper,” Dashi/Rashi, “blessed.” A In addition to those in use in Mongolia, Tana, “Pearl,” number of Buddhist terms exist in multiple forms trans- and -khuwar (from Chinese huar, “flower”) are also mitted from Old Uighur, Tibetan, and Sanskrit: thus, common feminine elements. From 1900 to 1945 Inner Wachir/Ochir, Dorji, and Bazar all mean “power bolt,” Mongolians frequently bore two names, a Chinese name while Erdeni, Rinchin, and Radna all mean “jewel.” and a Mongolian name, which often had no connection A distinctive type of Mongolian name that flourished in sound or meaning. This practice, extremely confusing in this period and is still common in the countryside is for historians, was replaced after 1945 by using Chinese the avoidance name, designed to avert misfortune from characters to render the sound of the Mongolian names. the boy child: Nergüi, “No Name,” Enebish, “Not This,” Outside Mongolia proper Russian and Chinese Terbish, “Not That,” Muu’Ökhin, “Bad Girl,” Khorkhoi, names have become common. Among the Buriats perhaps “Worm,” Gölgöö, “Puppy.” half of younger adults have Russian personal names. In 400 Natsugdorji Kalmykia, as among other Oirat peoples, there are many heavy drinker, and on July 13, 1937, he was found in a unusual non-Mongolian, non-Buddhist names, some- coma on the streets of Ulaanbaatar and died without times borrowed from the neighboring Turkic peoples. In regaining consciousness. Inner Mongolia perhaps 10 percent of younger adults, Only a few works by Natsugdorji before his stay in mostly from eastern Inner Mongolia, have Chinese Germany are extant, although a now-lost play, Monggol- names. These names, however, tend to use a distinctive un ügeigüü ail-un khöbegün (Son of a Mongolian proletar- and rather narrow range of Chinese characters. ian family, 1924) won an award. In Germany Natsugdorji See also PATRONYMICS. wrote several poems whose theme is summed up in the Further reading: Wonsoo Yu, “Names of the Darig- widely quoted final lines to “Traveling to a Far Land to anga Sum Children,” Han-Mong kongdong haksul yo˘n’gu 4 Learn”: “From lands that geese cannot attain by wing / (1995): 93–181. The child of man returns, in his bosom jewels enfolding.” His first prose sketch, “May Day in a Capitalist Country,” expressed his admiration of the working-class movement Natsugdorji (Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj) (1906–1937) in Germany and his shame that supposedly revolutionary The founder and most widely read author of modern Mongo- Mongolia could not muster the same spirit. lian literature Natsugdorji’s main period of productivity came from Born in Darkhan Zasag banner (modern Bayandelger 1929 to his death. His poems generally follow traditional Sum, Central province) to the heavily indebted TAIJI alliterative structure and a relatively strict isosyllabic (petty noble) Dashidorji, Natsugdorji lost his mother, PROSODY. The rhythm and phrasing of his poem “My Pagma, in his seventh year. His father, a scribe, had the Homeland” (Minii nutag, 1932), a staple of patriotic edu- boy tutored by a colleague from his ninth year. As a cation to the present, strongly recall traditional praise young teenager Natsugdorji served as a clerk in the army songs. During his imprisonment in 1932, he wrote on ministry. After the 1921 REVOLUTION he became the pri- candy wrappers poems of longing for his wife, for the vate secretary of GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR and in April 1922 beauties of nature, and for freedom. Other poems he an assistant in the Party Central Committee. From 1923 wrote for programmatic purposes such as promoting to 1925 Natsugdorji served as secretary first in the Cen- hygiene and modern medicine. Natsugdorji’s stories are tral Committee and then in the party’s Military Commis- more sketches than plot-driven narratives. His famous sion, an extraordinary responsibility for one still under “Young Old-Timer” (Khuuchin khüü, 1930) painted a 20. Simultaneously, he helped found youth organizations: schematic yet vivid picture of the isolation and change- the Revolutionary Youth League in 1921 and the Young lessness of the steppe, while “Tears of the Reverend Pioneers in 1925. He participated in the league’s shii jüjig Lama” (Lambuguain nulims) presents a sympathetic por- (Beijing opera–style plays) productions and wrote the trait of a lama from the countryside arriving at GANDAN- lyrics of the Pioneers’ anthem “Song of the Pioneers.” TEGCHINLING MONASTERY and falling desperately in love In 1925 he left government to study, first at with a fickle Chinese prostitute. Later poems and stories Leningrad’s Military-Political Academy (1925–1926) and written during the New Turn period show a more roman- then at the University of Berlin’s journalism school and tic attitude toward the herders’ life. The opera Three Fate- Leipzig University (1926–29), where he studied with the ful Hills (Uchirtai gurwan tolgoi), presented in beautiful German Mongolist Erich Haenisch. Natsugdorji’s wife, verse strongly reminiscent of folk poetry, has the com- Pagmadulma, entered the Leipzig Higher School for mon revolutionary theme of a young couple’s love Women. In 1929 the new leftist government recalled all thwarted by tyrannical lords. Its originally tragic ending students studying outside the Soviet Union. Natsugdorji was rewritten after Natsugdorji’s death to accord with on his return was excluded from the revolutionary “Writ- revolutionary optimism. ers’ Circle” as a disenfranchised taiji but did work in a See also LITERATURE; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. succession of journalistic and research positions. He translated several books and stories from German origi- Nauruz See NAWROZ. nals or translations, including MARCO POLO’s travels, the Mongolian history by the czarist adviser to Mongolia Ivan Ya. Korostovets, and “Gold Bug” by Edgar Allan Poe. He Nawroz (Nauruz) (d. 1297) Mongol commander in the was imprisoned in 1932 for celebrating the lunar new Middle Eastern Il-Khanate who engineered Ghazan Khan’s year (Tsagaan Sar) and was released only after almost a rise and converted him to Islam year with the advent of the NEW TURN POLICY. Meanwhile, As the son of ARGHUN AQA, the governor of Khorasan his marriage to Pagmadulma collapsed, and he married a (eastern Iran), Nawroz enjoyed a youth of wealth and Soviet German woman, Nina Chistikova. In 1935 Nina power, which nourished his unpredictably violent and Chistikova was deported to Leningrad (St. Petersburg) obstinate personality. He shared with his wife, Abagha with their daughter, Anandaa-Shir for overstaying her Khan’s daughter Toghanchuq, a deep Muslim faith, and visa. In 1936 Natsugdorji was again imprisoned. He was a they were very close. In 1289 Nawroz, afraid of being “New Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party” Case 401 implicated in the fall of the vizier BUQA, rose in rebellion lacked coordination with Qubilai’s foreign enemy, QAIDU. with his tümen (10,000) of QARA’UNAS against Arghun’s Once the court detected the planned rebellion in son and viceroy in Khorasan, GHAZAN KHAN (1271–1304). May–June 1287, Qubilai set out personally with his Chi- After crossing the Amu Dar’ya to join QAIDU’s forces, nese and Ossetian guards under a Jurchen general, Li Nawroz invaded Khorasan in 1291; his subsequent three Ting (d. 1304), while a larger Mongolian force under Öz- years of pillage devastated the region. Temür (1242–95) was being mobilized. The two sides In winter 1294–95, at Toghanchuq’s urging, Nawroz clashed on July 14, and Nayan’s 60,000 green soldiers returned to his allegiance to Ghazan. During Ghazan’s bid soon withdrew behind their carts despite their advantage for the throne from that May on, Ghazan relied implicitly in numbers. That night Li Ting began a bombardment on Nawroz’s skillful use of guile and disinformation, first and attacked, putting the rebels to flight. Öz-Temür and to disarm Baidu’s suspicions and then to sow treason and Li Ting then pursued Nayan, who was eventually cap- fear in his camp. Once Ghazan accepted Nawroz’s urgings tured and executed. Meanwhile, on July 24 the rebel to convert to Islam, Nawroz arranged vital support from prince Shigtür invaded the Chinese districts in Liaoning the Islamic clergy and even contacted the Il-Khans’ Egyp- but was defeated within a month. tian enemy. By October 4 GHAZAN KHAN had entered the Widespread but uncoordinated risings of Nayan’s capital, Tabriz, where, at Nawroz’s instigation, he pro- supporters continued until winter 1288–89 but were claimed the destruction of all Buddhist temples, churches, ruthlessly repressed. As a result of the rising, Qubilai and synagogues. approved the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat Ghazan made Nawroz nominally chief commander on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal and vizier of the empire, but to remove him from court princes. Continuing famine was addressed with tax dispatched him east to Khorasan to deal with a renewed remissions and special grain transports. invasion there. In summer 1296 Nawroz returned to See also MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. court without authorization to see Toghanchuq, who died in July. Over the objections of his old commanders, Nei-Ren-Dang Case See “NEW INNER MONGOLIAN PEO- Ghazan pardoned this disobedience and allowed Nawroz PLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY” CASE. to return to Khorasan again. In March 1297 rivals at court used Nawroz’s earlier contacts with MAMLUK EGYPT to charge him with treason, and on March 17 Ghazan “New Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary ordered Nawroz’s family executed. Nawroz fled to Herat, Party” Case (Nei-Ren-Dang Case) From 1968 to whose ruler handed him over to Ghazan’s men for execu- 1969 opponents of Mongol autonomy in Inner Mongolia tion on April 14, 1297. After 1335 Nawroz’s clansmen implicated hundreds of thousands of persons and killed ruling the Ja’un-i Ghurban tribe again achieved influence at least 22,900, the vast majority ethnic Mongols, for in Khorasan. involvement in a fabricated “New Inner Mongolian Peo- ple’s Revolutionary Party” (abbreviated in Chinese as Nei- Ren-Dang) Case. Nayan’s Rebellion The rebellion of Nayan in 1287 In spring 1946 the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), expressed the dissatisfaction of the Mongol princes and led in Inner Mongolia by ULANFU, took over a strong pan- the Manchurian and eastern Inner Mongolian popula- Mongolist nationalist movement in eastern Inner Mongo- tions under the long reign of QUBILAI KHAN. Quickly sup- lia led by the Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary presed, it led to the extension of provincial rule to Party (IMPRP). Created with Soviet and Mongolian aid in Manchuria. 1925, this party had revived in August 1945 after Japan’s Nayan was a fourth-generation descendant of Bel- surrender. While the IMPRP’s leaders agreed to Commu- gütei, CHINGGIS KHAN’s half-brother (some sources con- nist demands to dissolve the party, the last grassroots fuse him with another Prince Nayan, the descendant of cells were, in fact, disbanded only in fall 1947. From Chinggis’s brother Temüge Odchigin). The older genera- 1949 Inner Mongolia’s CCP propagandists attacked the tion of the descendants of Chinggis Khan’s four brothers IMPRP’s legacy, even though former IMPRP leaders held who held appanages in Manchuria and eastern Mongolia high governmental positions. In 1956 Ulanfu had to reas- had given vital support to Qubilai Khan in 1260, but sure former IMPRP members that they need not give fur- their children felt both neglected and threatened by the ther “confessions” of their errors. advance of bureaucratization. Nayan, who instigated the In 1966 Ulanfu was dismissed as part of the Cultural revolt, was about 30 years old, a freehanded and popular Revolution in China. After a year of violent political strug- prince whose support included virtually all the fraternal gle, a new leadership imported from Beijing under the lines and Manchuria’s native Jurchen and “Water Tatars,” military man Teng Haiqing was installed in Inner Mongo- who had suffered famine in 1287. lia on November 1, 1967, with a mission to cleanse Inner Despite widespread support, Nayan’s Rebellion was Mongolia of supposed traitors and class enemies. Mean- crippled by early detection and timid leadership and while, Han (ethnic Chinese) cadres, particularly new 402 New Policies immigrants, hoped to secure their advance by destroying was tried and sentenced to prison for 15 years, although Mongol autonomy. Old members of the IMPRP had, of the judges noted with dissatisfaction that he was by no course, already been “struggled” (targeted in public ses- means the principal culprit. sions of verbal and physical abuse), often to death, but in The “New IMPRP” Case radicalized Inner Mongolian winter 1967–68 an ambitious Mongol writer and Cultural youth, causing many to reject their elders’ Chinese Com- Revolution activist, Ulaanbagana, began charging that a munist loyalism. The absence of any serious reckoning “New IMPRP” still existed as a secret pervasive Soviet- among the Chinese leadership and the public with this Mongolian spy organization. In April 1968 Teng Haiqing legacy of injustice is still a deeply held grievance. arrested eight top Mongols as alleged ringleaders. On See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; April 25, 1968, after 18 hours of unbearable interrogation, INNER MONGOLIANS; KHAFUNGGA. Batu, the vice president of Inner Mongolia University, con- Further reading: William R. Jankowiak, “The Last fessed the existence of the “New IMPRP,” although he Hurrah? Political Protest in Inner Mongolia,” Australian quickly retracted his confession and refused to sign it. Journal of Chinese Affairs 19/20 (1988): 269–288; W. From April 26 the anti-“New IMPRP” campaign was Woody, Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia: Extracts from begun. an Unpublished History, trans. Michael Schoenhals (Stock- By June victims were regularly giving interrogators holm, Stockholm Center for Pacific Asian Studies, 1993). hundreds of names, and an entire fictitious party struc- ture with organizational charts, a seal, a flag, and so on was “uncovered.” In HULUN BUIR interrogators uprooted a New Policies The New Policies (Chinese, Xin zheng, “United Nationalities Party,” and in ALASHAN’s Ejene ban- Mongolian, Shine zasag), initiated in 1901, were a com- ner a “TORGHUD People’s Party.” While persecutors prehensive effort by the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) to included Mongols such as Teng Haiqing’s deputy Wu Tao modernize society and government. In Inner Asia the and Ulaanbagana, the basic ethnic thrust of the persecu- New Policies’ emphasis on assimilating the frontier raised tion is undeniable. In the local military units every ethnic violent opposition. Mongol officer above regimental level was implicated, By 1901 China’s final dynasty, the Qing, had been and in the Orochen Autonomous Banner literally every repeatedly humiliated. Following the dynasty’s defeat in single Orochen man, woman, and child was implicated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), the European powers an “antiparty renegade clique.” In the more than 90 per- scrambled for spheres of influence, while the fiasco of the cent Mongol Tug Commune in Ordos’s Üüshin banner, 1900 anti-foreign Boxer movement led to the Boxer Pro- 1,926 of 2,961 members, or 71 percent of the adults, were tocols that imposed a massive indemnity and humiliating accused; 270 were maimed in some way, 116 made into sanctions on China’s government. In response, the dowa- partial or total invalids, and 49 killed. Although more ger empress Cixi (1835–1908) finally supported a com- than 70,000 victims were targeted in ULAANCHAB, where prehensive reform program modeled on Meiji Japan. the Mongol population was less than 40,000, the Han tar- Avoiding direct confrontation with foreign powers, gets were associated with Mongols and were supportive the Qing used indirect means to strengthen the dynasty’s of Ulanfu’s autonomy policy. The final death toll, accord- Mongolian and Tibetan borderlands against Russian and ing to official accounts, was 22,900 killed and 170,000 British encroachment. The centerpiece was state-directed injured or crippled. Official figures on those arrested agricultural colonization of the steppe (see CHINESE COLO- range from 346,000 to 750,000. NIZATION), which would finance modernizing agencies In October 1968 China’s premier, Zhou Enlai, asked and lead to the integration of these areas as provinces. Teng to investigate possible abuses, but this casual inter- In April 1902 the Qing government appointed the vention had no effect. A meeting in Beijing on February Manchu bannerman Yigu (d. 1926) the new commis- 4, 1969, attended by Zhou Enlai and all the other top sioner for colonization in central and western Inner Mon- leaders except Mao Zedong himself, completely vindi- golia. Yigu demanded that banners open vast new areas cated Teng Haiqing and Wu Tao’s approach. for cultivation and canceled the numerous deals private Nevertheless, on May 22, after Mao had criticized land developers (dishang) had previously made with the excessive persecutions in general terms, Teng Haiqing Mongolian banners, appropriating the traditional rents was forced to make a confession of having committed and fees for the provincial and local governments as a abuses. In July Inner Mongolia was partitioned, removing means of financing New Policies reforms. The Mongolian the east and west from Teng’s jurisdiction. Finally, in banners thus lost both control over and financial benefit December Teng, Wu Tao, and the other leaders were dis- from colonization. missed, and Inner Mongolia was put under a new Han In CHAKHAR, where the banner chiefs were appointed armyman from Beijing. Only on April 20, 1978, however, officials, the policy was pushed through with little overt was the “New IMPRP” Case officially acknowledged to opposition. The dukes and princes of ORDOS (Yekhe Juu) have been fabricated. To the present none of the top lead- and ULAANCHAB leagues were less amenable. By 1903 the ers responsible has been punished. In 1987 Ulaanbagana court had appointed Yigu head of the LIFAN YUAN (Court New Schools movements 403 of Dependencies) and jiangjun (general in chief) of Episode and Its Repercussions,” in Opuscula Altaica, ed. Suiyuan (see AMBAN) to increase his authority, and he Edward H. Kaplan and Donald W. Whisenhunt (Belling- replaced the stubborn prince of Khanggin (Hanggin) with ham: Western Washington University Press, 1994), the more pliable grand duke of Üüshin (Uxin) as the 349–370; Mei-hua Lan, “Chinese ‘New Administration’ in head of Yekhe Jun league. In 1908, however, Yigu was Mongolia,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Land- impeached and dismissed for abuse of authority. Still, locked Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. 613,000 hectares (1,513,000 acres) of land had been Elleman (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 39–58; G. opened for cultivation. In Jirim (for eastern Inner Mon- Navaangnamjil, “A Brief Biography of the Determined golia) the Manchurian provincial authorities opened Hero Togtokh,” in Mongolian Heroes of the Twentieth Cen- 4,540,000 shang (the amount of land plowed in a day) tury, trans. Urgunge Onon (New York: AMS Press, 1976), from 1903 to 1911. 43–76. HULUN BUIR, in Russia’s sphere of influence, was a par- ticularly sensitive area. The local banner administration New Schools movements The New Schools move- was not considered secure and in 1908 was placed under ments among the BURIATS, KALMYKS, and INNER MONGO- the Chinese circuit intendant of the railway town Hailar. LIANS created a new intelligentsia in each of these regions Chinese troops also replaced the border guards. Climate in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. defeated colonization attempts, but mines were opened. The new schools used Russian or Chinese in the cur- KHALKHA (Outer Mongolia) was in a similarly strate- riculum and exposed Mongolian students to elementary gic situation along Russia’s Siberian frontier, and the geographical and scientific knowledge. Unlike the old court proposed in 1906 to convert it, too, into a Chinese banner schools (see EDUCATION, TRADITIONAL), they province. The ambans in Outer Mongolia all protested the taught the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE with a view to compre- risks and likely futility of such a procedure. In November hension, not just penmanship. The movement opened 1909 Sandô (b. 1875) was appointed the new “Manchu” new horizons professionally and intellectually and pre- amban in Khüriye (actually he was a Mongol bannerman pared students for higher schools in St. Petersburg, from Hangzhou; see EIGHT BANNERS). Urged by the central Tokyo, and Beijing. The initiative for these new schools government, in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) and came not from obstructive Russian or Chinese officials, KYAKHTA he expanded the garrison with a new army but from Mongol philanthropists, usually of the nobility training office and created offices to sponsor moderniza- or local leadership. tion. His colleagues in ULIASTAI CITY and KHOWD CITY did the same. They also began prospecting for minerals and FORERUNNERS preparing for vast colonization schemes to lay the essen- Russian- or Chinese-language education was available in tial economic foundation for assimilation and forestall certain Mongol areas in the 19th century, but was limited Russian advances. More than 5 million hectares (13 mil- in approach and accessibility. By 1890 most of the six lion acres) were set aside for colonization. public schools among the Transbaikal Buriats, such as Opposition to the New Policies was immediate and the Russo-Mongolian Military Academy in Troitskosavsk widespread at both official and popular levels. In 1906 (in modern KYAKHTA), where DORZHI BANZAROVICH BAN- the court rebuked the Ulaanchab league captain general ZAROV studied, served the Buriat Cossacks. While that for open insubordination. In Ordos “circles” (DUGUILANG) school taught both Mongolian and Russian, arithmetic, expressed popular protest against the New Policies. and geography, graduates were required to use their Revolts broke out in Jalaid, Monggoljin (modern Fuxin), skills in Cossack units. Among the Kalmyks the Buzava Front Gorlos, and Jüüngar (Jungar) banner. All were sup- Cossacks developed a Russian- and Kalmyk-language pressed, although one rebel leader, Togtakhu Taiji school system with Buddhist instruction in 1838. Most (1863–1922), found asylum with his band in Russia. In Russian schooling for the Buriats and Kalmyks, however, April 1910 a riot broke out in Khüriye that led to the was intended to Christianize the students and was looting of Chinese shops. From 1900 the EIGHTH JIBZUN- unpopular. DAMBA KHUTUGTU had secretly been in contact with the For most Inner Mongolians Chinese-language instruc- Russian administration, and in fall 1911, with the Qing tion was legally forbidden until 1910. Only the CHAKHAR, facing revolts in China, the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU over- HÖHHOT TÜMED, and HULUN BUIR bannermen could learn threw the ambans and restored Mongolian independence. Chinese as members of the EIGHT BANNERS system (an In January banner troops in Hulun Buir converged on institution something like the Cossacks of the Russian Hailar and overthrew Chinese rule, announcing alle- Empire). Until the NEW POLICIES of 1901 even these Chi- giance to independent Mongolia. nese schools had a purely Confucian curriculum. See also 1911 RESTORATION. Further reading: Roger DesForges, Hsi-liang and the PIONEERING SCHOOLS Chinese National Revolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Sakhar Khamnaev, taisha (Uighur-Mongolian, TAISHI) of University Press, 1973); Sechin Jagchid, “The Yigu the Barguzin Buriats, founded the first Buriat secular 404 New School movements school for non-Cossacks in 1844. Khamnaev, who was an ALASHAN combined had only four public elementary able writer of both Russian and Buriat and was familiar schools (excluding traditional scribal schools). with all the schools in St. Petersburg, attended personally The rapid progress of Soviet education after 1920 in to the school’s difficulties and paid the tuitions of deserv- Buriatia and Kalmykia and of Japanese and Chinese Com- ing poor students. In 1884 Aga Buriat leaders cooperated munist education in Inner Mongolia after 1931 was built to open a gymnasium (high school) in Chita later on the achievement of early pioneers. The movement also attended by many Buriat scholars. The Buriat court influenced Mongolia proper after its independence in physician Pëtr A. Badmaev (1856–1920) tried to found a 1911. The first public school opened by the theocratic gymnasium for Buriat students in St. Petersburg in 1895, government in 1912 was staffed entirely by Buriats (see but the school disbanded rather than accept required THEOCRATIC PERIOD). In the 1920s hundreds of nationalist Christian doctrine classes. Inner Mongolian students, graduates of the new schools, In Inner Mongolia Prince Güngsangnorbu (Prince went to Mongolia, where they staffed new schools and Güng) of KHARACHIN Right Banner (1871–1931) privately other cultural institutions. funded from his own princely budget three schools: Despite the generosity of the pioneering upper-class Chongzheng Academy for boys (1902), Shouzheng Mili- educators, many of the graduates of the new schools tary Academy (1903), and Yuzheng Girls Academy turned against their mentors. By 1905 the younger Buriat (1903). All three academies used Mongolian and Chinese intelligentsia was breaking with the old taisha class and and had distinguished Chinese and Japanese academics arguing for democratic socialism. In 1923 many of the and educators on the teaching staff. In 1906 five gradu- younger Mongols in Beijing’s Mongolian and Tibetan ates were sent to Japan for further education. Later, in School joined the Communist movement and the Inner 1912, Prince Güng founded the Mongolian-Tibetan Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party and denounced School in Beijing as a publicly funded school offering a the school’s founder Prince Güng as a reactionary. modern secondary education in Chinese to Inner Mongo- lian students. From 1906 to 1915 other local leaders, NEW SCHOOLS AND BUDDHISM such as Prince Amurlinggui of KHORCHIN Left-Flank Rear While the Buriat New Schools movement was associated banner (Horqin Zuoyi Houqi), the Jasag Lama Agwang- with the idea of reforming Buddhism, that in Inner Mon- baldan of Khüriye (Hure) banner and Yue Shan, adjutant golia kept its distance from Buddhism and often became in Kheshigten (Hexigten) banner, founded similar violently anticlerical. Buriat and Kalmyk educators, both schools in their banners with free tuition. Meanwhile, the religious and lay, shared their hostility to the Russian Chakhar, Höhhot Tümed, and Daur schools modernized Orthodoxy officially imposed by the czarist government. their curricula. Buddhism was thus a bulwark of national identity, to be reformed but not destroyed. The writer TSYBEN ZHAMT- ACHIEVEMENTS SARANOVICH ZHAMTSARANO proposed in 1905 that the In Russia Buriat and Kalmyk education expanded monasteries promote general education with a fund greatly after 1890. By 1914 68 schools operated in formed from the confiscation of the lamas’ religiously Kalmyk lands, 37 among the Buzava Kalmyks of the dubious private property. From 1917 the Buddhist cleric Don Cossack horde, and 31 under the Ministry of Edu- AGWANG DORZHIEV cooperated in monastic reforms with cation among the larger body of Kalmyks. In the latter the liberal Buriat Mikhail N. Bogdanov (1878–1920) and schools Buddhist religious instruction was substituted the socialist ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO. for Christian, and Kalmyk was used for instruction only In Inner Mongolia the author INJANNASHI (1837–92), from 1911. In 1911 the eastern Buriats had 64 schools, while not involved in education, had a tremendous 36 under the Ministry of Education and 28 under the impact on educators with his attacks on the narrow- Russian Orthodox Church. Total enrollment among the minded hypocrisy of the lamas. Still, he proposed in Transbaikal Buriats was 2,082, of which 18 percent were place of narrow sectarianism not secularism, but a kind girls. Despite this enrollment, female literacy remained of Confucian-Buddhist spirituality. The schoolteacher very low. Rinchinkhorlo (1904–63) from Khüriye banner pub- In Inner Mongolia by 1931, the three eastern leagues, lished Inner Mongolia’s first novella in 1940, about two Jirim, JUU UDA, and Josotu, maintained 137 lower elemen- boys sucked into the monasteries, one of whom escaped tary schools and 19 higher elementary schools. Chakhar and found deliverance in a secular Chinese-Mongolian had 12 lower elementary schools, and Hulun Buir had six school. In it he emphasized that he was not against reli- lower and one higher elementary school. The Höhhot gion, but asked only that it be voluntarily adopted. Tümed had five lower and one higher elementary school. However, from the 1920s on most “Young Mongols” There were also several normal schools, including the believed Buddhism and the Qing regime had cut off the Northeastern Mongol Banners Middle School, founded in Mongols from the world, reduced their population, and 1929 by the Daur educator MERSE. Inner Mongolia’s west- weakened their fighting ardor, thus causing the decline ern leagues of ULAANCHAB, SHILIIN GOL, ORDOS, and of the Mongols from the glory days of CHINGGIS KHAN. New Turn policy 405 The new schools spread this anticlerical ideology widely. See also RELIGION. Further reading: Sechin Jagchid, “Prince Gungsang- norbu and Inner Mongolian Modernization,” in Essays in Mongolian Studies (Provo, Utah: David M. Kennedy Cen- ter for International Studies, Brigham Young University, 1988), 207–233. New Turn policy The New Turn policy (Shine ergilte- yin bodolga / shine ergiltiin bodlogo), adopted from 1932 to 1936, reversed the leftist policies of 1929–32 and advocated growth in privately owned herds, religious tol- eration, and budgetary retrenchment. Mongolia’s leaders under the New Turn policy: (left to right) With the bloody insurrection of April 1932 against Commander in Chief Demid, Prime Minister Gendün, and the Mongolian government, the Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party chairman Lubsang- intervened personally to change Mongolia’s far-left sharab (From Tsedendambyn Batbayar, Modern Mongolia: A course. At the Third Plenum of the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S Concise History [1996]) REVOLUTIONARY PARTY’s Central Committee in June 1932, the policies of the LEFTIST PERIOD were repudiated as mechanical imitations of Soviet policies that were com- 42,000 in 1932 to only 7,976 in 1934, while the youth pletely unsuited to nomadic Mongolia. Two of the three league, which had been the main center of offensive anti- party secretaries, the uneducated Dörböd Badarakhu (Ö. clericalism, was thoroughly reorganized. Badrakh, 1895–1941) and the Soviet-educated Shijiye (J. In the economy the more than 800 collectives were Shijee, 1901–41), were blamed for the debacle, while the immediately disbanded. The Mongolian state budget was third, GENDÜN (P. Genden, 1892–1937), was promoted to reduced from a projected 39 million tögrögs in 1932 to prime minister. In 1933–34 several remaining leftists, 33 million (1933), while the total livestock tax was including Lhümbe (J. Lhümbe, 1902–34) and the reduced from 4.3 million in 1931 to 1.8 million in 1933. 1930–32 prime minister, Jigjedjab (Ts. Jigjidjaw, The Soviet Union also assisted in reviving the Mongolian 1894–1933), were executed as Japanese spies in the fabri- economy. Certain Mongolian commercial debts were can- cated LHÜMBE CASE. celed, others were bundled into long-term loans, and spe- Under the New Turn policy Mongolia returned to the cial attention was paid to moving imported consumer situation before 1929, when a troika of strong govern- goods from the Russian border into the countryside. Even ment, military, and party leaders ruled the country. so, 10 million tögrögs of income had to be covered by Gendün was the prime minister, MARSHAL DEMID was the loans from the Soviet Union. As a result of these reforms, commander in chief, and Lubsangsharab (D. Luwsan- livestock numbers, which had dropped from about 24 sharaw, 1900–40) was the party chief. In contrast to the million in 1930 to 16.2 million in 1932, reached 22.6 leftist period, the government dominated the party, and million by 1935. Gendün was Mongolia’s undisputed maximum leader. Culturally, the Latinization campaign that finally got Moscow’s Communist International no longer supervised underway in 1932 was hastily abandoned. Writers and Mongolia, and Gendün dealt directly with Stalin and his grammarians such as Shagja (S. Shagj, 1886–1938) con- entourage. centrated rather on reforming and developing the The campaign against Buddhism was reversed, UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT so that it could be the writing imprisoned lamas were released, and publicity given to system for a modern nation. Several large-scale cultural freedom of religion. Those officials, including Gendün projects, such as an only partially completed history of himself, who were personally religious no longer hid the Mongolia, TSYBEN ZHAMTSARANOVICH ZHAMTSARANO’s fact. In one year 27,000 lamas returned to the monaster- ethnography of Mongolia, and the atlas of the Russian ies. Strictly religious articles were made tax exempt, geographer Andrei Dmitrievich Simukov (1902–42), all although heavy taxes were still maintained on other combined modern scholarship with a respect for Mongo- monastic property. Gifts to the monasteries were again lia’s heritage. allowed. Qualified amnesties were also given to the While Stalin fully supported economic liberalization, remaining participants in antigovernment insurrections, he believed the lamas formed a state within a state that and several thousand emigrés were enticed to return. A must not be tolerated a moment longer than necessary. In purge and voluntary withdrawals dropped the Mongolian November 1934 he began urging Gendün to eliminate People’s Revolutionary Party’s membership from a high of them. In January 1935 occurred the first of many clashes 406 Noin-Ula on Mongolia’s disputed frontier with Japanese-occupied Qasar to guard their thresholds. Jebke brought a small Manchuria. Faced with Gendün and his allies’ apparent child, Boroghul, of the Üüshin lineage, also subject to the insouciance, Stalin came to believe that the Mongolian Yürkin, to be raised by Chinggis Khan’s mother. leaders were not genuinely interested in stopping Japan. From early in his career Chinggis Khan used his While direct threats during winter 1935–36 forced the nökörs for tasks both personal and public. They served Mongolians to comply, Stalin had MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG as quiver bearers, stewards, cup bearers, cooks, shep- appointed head of the new Interior Ministry in February herds, YURT keepers, and grooms as well as envoys, com- 1936, and in the next month Gendün was dismissed. Mil- manders, and advisers. Chinggis grouped them into itarization, the GREAT PURGE, and the destruction of Bud- several lists of four, such as the “four steeds” (Bo’orchu, dhism followed. Muqali, Boroghul, Chila’un), who were his supreme See also REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. commanders and supervised the imperial guard (KESHIG), and the “four dogs” (Qubilai Noyan, Jelme, JEBE, SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR), who commanded his crack Noin-Ula See NOYON UUL. troops. From the “four foundlings” (Güchü, Kököchü, Shigi SHIGI QUTUQU, Boroghul), raised from infancy by nökör (nöker) Nökörs (modern Mongolian nökhör), or Chinggis’s mother, and his four councillors (Üsün, Ghu- “companions,” were the Mongol khans’ most intimate nan, Kökö-Chos, and Degei) he assigned advisers to servants, eating and drinking at their table and guarding counsel his brothers and sons. their lives in battle. Their politicomilitary role resembled The ranks of nökörs were not restricted to Mongols, the “house carls” in early medieval English society and and among those to whom Chinggis Khan declared his the “companions of the Prophet” in early Islam. (The undying fidelity in the BALJUNA COVENANT (1203) were spelling nöker is a western dialect form). In the MONGOL Muslims, KITANS from North China, UIGHURS, and TRIBE before the rise of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, Tanguts. After his conquest of North China, local defec- 1206–27), leaders from branches of the BORJIGID lineage tors such as Liu Bolin, Shimo Ming’an, and even a one- (TAYICHI’UD, Yürkin, Changshi’ud, and Chinggis’s own time hostage, Nianhe Zhongshan, joined the khan’s inner Kiyad) fought for preeminence. While these leaders circle (see SHIMO MING’AN AND XIANDEBU). In his cam- expected the support of their near kin, they sought to paign against KHORAZM, however, Chinggis was unable to draw to themselves unrelated able young men who would recruit nökörs. give them loyal service. Most is known about the nökörs After Chinggis Khan the striking upward mobility of in the rise of Chinggis Khan, and a vital theme in all the the early empire disappeared as the nökörs of Chinggis’s accounts of his rise derived from Mongol sources is how time formed aristocratic families. Only princes such as the khan found such companions and won their loyalty. QAIDU, who had no firm base of support, had to rely on Nökörs were most often of low birth. The rival ruling able men from a wide variety of families, thus reproduc- clans of the Mongols all had lineages subject for genera- ing the situation of Chinggis’s rise. In later Mongolian tions to their rule. Leaders often took outstanding young history, too, the solidification of princely privilege and men of these subjects as nökörs. Early in Chinggis’s the decline of military activity after 1700 resulted in the career, for example, an old man of the Uriyangkhan, disappearance of the nökör as an institution. In the 20th which had been subject to Chinggis’s family for several century nökör came to be used to mean “comrade” in a generations, gave his son Jelme as a personal slave to variety of nationalist and communist movements. Chinggis, to saddle his horses and open his door. Jelme later saved his lord Chinggis’s life by taking care of him nomadism See ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM. when he was wounded in a battle with the Tayichi’ud. Once when Jelme was slaughtering an ox for Chinggis’s table, he helped rescue Chinggis’s boy, TOLUI, from a Tatar Nomonhan See KHALKHYN GOL, BATTLE OF. who snuck into the camp to kill him. In 1206 Chinggis Khan made Jelme a commander of a thousand and DAR- Noqai (Noghay, Nogay) (d. 1299) Commander and QAN (immune to taxes and punishments). Other nökörs, elder statesman in the Golden Horde who challenged the such as BO’ORCHU, came from independent but nonruling authority of its khans tribal groups, joining Chinggis of their own free will. Junior cousin of the GOLDEN HORDE khans, Noqai com- Some, such as Chila’un of the Suldus, whose clan was manded Berke Khan’s (1257–66) forces against the Mon- subject to the Tayichi’ud, became disaffected with their gols’ Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE in 1262–63 and 1265 and lords and fled to join Chinggis. When a leader defeated a raided Thrace in 1264. Under Berke’s successor, Mengü- rival clan, the rival group’s subject peoples could some- Temür Khan (Möngke-Temür, 1267–80), Noqai, holding times become nökörs of the victorious leader. Thus, the steppe between the Dnieper and the Danube, began Gü’ün-U’a of JALAYIR, subject to the Yürkin clan, gave his independent foreign relations, sending envoys to MAMLUK son MUQALI to Chinggis and Jebke to Chinggis’s brother EGYPT, forming marriage alliances with Byzantium and the Northern Yuan dynasty 407 Il-Khanate, and raiding Bulgaria and Serbia. With Mengü- THE RETURN TO MONGOLIA Temür’s death he began openly to oppose the khan’s poli- The early history of the Northern Yuan is known almost cies. From 1284 he supported peace with the YUAN DYNASTY entirely from records of the rival Ming dynasty and Il-Khanate despite Töle-Bugha Khan’s (1287–91) war (1368–1644). As the Ming armies converged on the Yuan policy. In Russia he supported his own candidates and poli- capital, DAIDU, in September 1368, the Mongol emperor cies among the rival prince, coming into open conflict with Toghan-Temür (posthumous titles Shundi or Uqa’atu, the khan’s court on the Volga. In 1291 Noqai assisted the 1333–70) and his court fled out the northern gate and prince Toqto’a in overthrowing Töle-Bugha. established a temporary capital in Inner Mongolia at RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH presents Noqai first as a Yingchang (on Dalai Nuur Lake, near modern Shiliin Khot/ brave general but later as a wily old politician. He self-con- Xilinhot). Toghan-Temür’s sons Ayushiridara (posthumous sciously promoted Mongol ways. In 1272, when Byzantine title Biligtü, 1370–78) and Toghus-Temür (posthumous envoys presented rich brocades, Noqai slyly asked if they title Uskhal, 1378–88) were both almost captured by could ward off lightning bolts, prevent headache, or pro- Ming armies in 1370 and 1388, respectively, and fled far- mote good health before praising the practicality of the dog ther north. skins his people wore. (Noqai means “dog.”) Indeed, The Northern Yuan rulers held tenaciously to their Noqai’s subjects, including many Russians, Vlachs (Roma- title of emperor (or great KHAN) of the Great Yuan (Dai nians), and OSSETES (Alans), began to adopt “Tatar” (Mon- Yuwan khaan). For at least part of this period, the Yuan gol) dress and “Tatar” language. khans also retained a Chinese-style court organization. In Noqai’s religious beliefs apparently followed his the 15th century the old Yuan’s high titles appear repeat- diplomatic needs; in a letter to Egypt in 1270–71 he edly: the three honorific ranks TAISHI (grand preceptor), claimed to have converted to Islam, yet in 1288 he pre- taifu or taiwei (grand mentor), taibao (grand guardian), sented Buddhist relics to the Il-Khan Arghun. One of and the offices of right and left grand councillor Noqai’s wives, Yailaq, regularly visited a Franciscan con- (chingsang) and director (zhiyuan) of the Bureau of Mili- vent in Qirim (Staryy Krym) and was baptized a Catholic. tary Affairs. Chinese-style titles of nobility, such as Esen’s After Toqto’a ascended the throne, Noqai married his rank of “prince of Huai,” were also given by the Yuan daughter Qiyat to Yailaq (no relation to Noqai’s wife), a court. At least through the mid-15th century the Yuan Buddhist and son of the QONGGIRAD tribe commander proclaimed Chinese reign titles (nianhao). Salji’udai. Noqai’s daughter Qiyat, after her marriage, As the title customarily granted the most honored converted to Islam (Noqai had evidently not raised her as official, taishi became the usual title for the regent who a Muslim), keeping her faith despite bullying from her ruled in the name of the emperor, equivalent to the Buddhist in-laws. beglerbegi in the later GOLDEN HORDE (see KESHIG). From Noqai and Salji’udai soon had bad relations, and Toq- the time of CHINGGIS KHAN the OIRATS had been QUDA to’a sided with his commander against the overmighty (marriage allies) to the khans. Eventually, the position of Noqai. Noqai refused Toqto’a’s invitations to attend the taishi and quda of the khan came to be a prerogative of court on the Volga, and in winter 1298–99 Toqto’a’s and the Oirats, so that in the later 15th century even taishis of Noqai’s armies met on the Dnieper but turned back with- non-Oirat origin were treated as Oirats. Given the power out fighting. The following year Noqai attacked Toqto’a, of the taishis, the Chinese soon designated the Yuan who after several battles emerged victorious; Noqai died khans “little princes” (xiao wangzi), an eloquent expres- in the final battle. sion of their degraded status. Noqai’s son Jöge escaped to Bulgaria, where he briefly The most important remaining sign of the khans’ became czar. In the mid-14th century Muhammad Khoja authority was the seal. Mongol legends speak of Toghan- Beg, son of Yailaq of the Qonggirad, patronized a Kho- Temür bringing it in his sleeve out of Daidu. Chinese razmian Turkish poet. He may perhaps have been the son records show that usurpers captured the seal several times; of Noqai’s daughter Qiyat and her Qonggirad husband whether it was the same one each time is unknown. In Yailaq. In any case, the oft-assumed linkage between 1442 a Mongol envoy berated the Koreans: “You have sub- Noqai and the later Nogay people of the Manghit (see mitted to the . . . Great Ming who has ascended the throne MANGGHUD) clan is very uncertain. in a city built by men, while you despise the Mongol See also BYZANTIUM AND BULGARIA; GOLDEN HORDE. emperor to whom heaven has bestowed the jade seal.” Evi- dently, the legend that Chinggis Khan was born with a jade seal in his hand was already current. Northern Yuan dynasty Established with the flight of the Mongol great khans from China, the Northern Yuan THE MONGOL-OIRAT CONFLICT emperors from 1368 to 1634 maintained their claim to In 1388 Yisüder, a descendant of Qubilai Khan’s brother Chinggisid legitimacy, yet were only sporadically able to ARIQ-BÖKE, murdered the emperor Toghus-Temür, initiat- make that claim effective. (On the Northern Yuan dynasty’s ing a complex period of usurpation and conflict. On one relations with China, see MING DYNASTY.) side stood the Oirats in the northwest, first under 408 Northern Yuan dynasty Möngke-Temür (fl. 1400) and by 1403 under three chiefs, thrown by his own chingsang (grand councillor) of the Mahmud (d. 1417), Taiping (d. 1426), and Batu-Bolod. right, Alag. The Oirats drew to their side the descendants of Ariq- From Esen’s death to 1481 the Oirats ceded power Böke and other princes who had been relegated to Mon- among the Mongols to taishis of obscure origin. Bolai golia during the Yuan. Against them stood Arugtai (d. Taishi (fl. 1457–66) seems to have inherited Esen’s titles 1434) of the Asud, active from 1403 on in HULUN BUIR. and men but belonged to the KHARACHIN, descendants of The Asud (OSSETES) had been an important unit in the the YUAN DYNASTY’s Qipchaq KOUMISS brewers. After a Mongol imperial guard in the Yuan, and Arugtai appar- period of domination by Muulikhai Ong, a descendant of ently spoke for the old Yuan court. Chinggis’s half-brother Belgütei and closely allied to the Another force was the line of ÖGEDEI KHAN, which Three Guards, there appeared three taishis, Beg-Arslan (d. under the Yuan had lived in China’s Gansu area but were 1479), Ismayil (d. 1486), and Iburai (perhaps from expelled along with the Yuan. The khan Guilichi (mur- Ibrahim, d. 1533), all active in the Ordos (Huang [Yel- dered 1408), reigning with Arugtai as his commander in low] River bend) area. Most Mongolian sources call them 1400, had his base in southwest Inner Mongolia at Ejene Uighurs, and Beg-Arslan and Ismayil certainly had ties to (see ALASHAN) and was apparently an Ögedeid. Farther to the Uighur oasis-city of Hami. The Uighur otogs (camp the west were the Chinggisid khans of MOGHULISTAN, districts; see OTOG) among the TÜMED and Ordos along based in modern Xinjiang, and TIMUR and his dynasty the Huang (Yellow) River seem to have been the power beyond them. Arugtai’s new khan after Guilichi, Bun- base for these western adventurers. yashiri (Öljeitü, r. 1408–12), came from Temür’s court in The importance of the Huang (Yellow) River bend Samarqand in 1405, whence he had fled in opposition to increased when the EIGHT WHITE YURTS, or the shrine of the Oirats. Chinggis Khan, moved there around 1450. Perhaps from Under Yongle (1402–24) the Ming dynasty intervened Adai’s reign on (1426–38), khans were crowned before aggressively against any overpowerful leader, exacerbating the shrine. The Chinggisid ruler of the shrine, the jinong, the Mongol-Oirat conflict. In 1409 Bunyashiri and Arugtai a title first seen in 1452, became under Bayan-Möngke crushed a Ming army, so that in 1410 Yongle attacked the Bolkhu Jinong (fl. 1470–79) an important figure. The two on the KHERLEN RIVER. In 1412 Mahmud of the Oirats death of the Oirat taishi Toghoon at the height of his killed Bunyashiri, enthroning an Ariq-Bökid, Dalbag power in 1438 was turned into an illustration of the (1412–14). Arugtai appealed to the Yongle emperor, who shrine’s power. In the Mongolian chronicle ALTAN TOBCHI in 1414 defeated Mahmud. With Mahmud’s death in 1417 (c. 1655), Toghoon decided to become great khan before Arugtai became dominant again, and Yongle campaigned the Eight White Yurts but was supernaturally slain, thus against him in 1422 and 1423, ending when news of Aru- proving that only descendants of Chinggis could be gai’s defeat by the Oirats arrived. From Yongle’s death, khans. however, Mahmud’s son Toghoon Taishi (d. 1438) built up power without interruption. In 1433 Arugtai was RELIGION AND CULTURE IN THE EARLY pushed east of the GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE, where he NORTHERN YUAN subjugated the Ming-allied Mongols in the THREE GUARDS. Despite later Mongolian stories that the “TWO CUSTOMS” Finally, after a great defeat in 1434, Arugtai fled west to of religion and state were lost in 1368, “state preceptors” the Muna Uula Mountain (west of Baotou), where (guoshi/güüshi) or Buddhist chaplains were active from at Toghoon killed him. Arugtai’s khan, Adai (1426–38), least 1407 to 1452. Tibetan monks were particularly another Ögedeid based in Ejene, made a last stand there active among the Chigil Mongols in the Ming guards of before succumbing. western Gansu. Hami, which had close ties to the Oirats, Toghoon died in the very year of his final victory kept a significant Buddhist population until the 1470s. over Adai. His son ESEN Taishi (r. 1438–54) brought the At the same time, Islam had a significant presence, par- Oirats to the height of their power. In the west he drove ticularly among the Oirats. Both Esen Taishi and Bun- back the Moghulistan rulers, while to the east he yashiri Öljeitü Khan converted to Islam, one to marry destroyed the Three Guards and the Jurchen. In 1449 he the sister of a Moghul khan and the other during his stay captured the Ming emperor, bringing about a wholesale at Temür’s court in Samarqand. Finally, both Mar-Hasia, collapse of the Ming defense line. The Three Guards who held high office under the khans from 1388 to streamed south to the Shara Mören (Xar Moron) valley, 1403, and the khan Mar-Körgis (c. 1455–65/7) have Syr- while they and fragments of virtually every other Mon- iac names that attest to some continuing Christian cul- golian group poured into the Huang (Yellow) River tural influence. bend and ORDOS. Esen ruled as the taishi for the khan No works of literature survive from the earlier Togtoo-Bukha (reign name Taisung, 1443–52), but after Northern Yuan, but a few letters testify that the Yuan punishing his restive Chinggisid khan in winter khans preserved the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. The sur- 1451–52, Esen took the title khan himself, the first non- vival of 13th-14th century manuscripts into the 17th cen- Chinggisid to do so. Esen was, however, soon over- tury also demonstrates that Buddhist translations the Mongolia in the Northern Yuan, ca. 1550–1600 0 300 miles 0 300 km An ga ra Solon R. Siberian Ewenki r R. Buriats Amu Ekhired Ob’ R . Solon Bu Oirats (Daur (Torghud) Lake lag . Baikal And ) R ad r rga ne Ir t y Khamnigan Ewenki) sh R do Yen R.) Ba . i se y Tuvans Ergü Ewenki oo R. g ri ( on hin Kho e an Range Kh ren (Nen Khan K a– Oirats R. ng A hö khi n l –k–– in o i Mts . oid rch an) Ra n Mu Khorc l t (Khoid) h–a–– On a o t ogh K–– Kho-Mingg u ingg i ) Na u K h Kh (Mu 38 tii h an 15 . ga Za g– n K i en Khobogsair R nR _ t o–– Fuyu Oir wkh ai _ k ats a a n Kh (D n Kazakhs n lkh _a_n Borotala O––– Kherle Guard he a er g R örb . u rc Kh _ h t öd) e Erdeni Zuu J v Ra by __g e (Qara-Qorum) n– ar ng F–i––– en ea ed __n kh e I l i R. Ili-Baligh a ixi r v–e–– ch ex _i_y a O e – Ch r n Besh-Baligh Ha G (B irats S–– in ing Ju (an _U_r aat r t u ch O–t–o–––– Tain ard Tianshan ud) se K hu Gu M ts. Turpan e ou D C ha alka Barköl Mt. g Kh––––– bi bü khar n zh Aksu Hami o iye Kheshigten G h Jia gs Shenyang D a l a n Te r Y ün Döyin Guard igün M c h in t s. Ejene Tümed ara Bulunggir R. Chigil Ordos Kh (Etzina) Guihua Xuanfu Guard KOREA Shazhou t s. Datong Beijing iM Seoul Khotan Ib ura Bo Gulf Suzhou Ordos Yellow Uighurs Ganzhou (before 1475) Taiyuan Yulin Unwalled Ming borders Kökenuur Yan’an Great Wall (Ming border with the Mongols) Tümed M I N G D Y N A S T Y Yellow Sea Lanzhou Willow Palisade (Ming border with the Jurchen) Huang ( Yellow Ewenki Tribal entity ) R. Xi’an Underlined labels The Six Tümens ______________ Capital 410 Northern Yuan dynasty SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS and other works, includ- ruling the Tümed, and Bayaskhal (1510–72), ruling the ing were still read and copied. Kharachin. Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the new Dayan Khanid aris- DAYAN KHANID RESTORATION tocracy, and intra-Chinggisid rebellion or civil war From around 1480 MANDUKHAI SECHEN KHATUN (fl. remained unknown until the reign of LIGDAN KHAN 1473–1501), the widow and regent of the Great Khan (1604–34). Manduul, ruled with a boy said to be son of the jinong Against China the Northern Yuan fielded a purely Bokhu, who had died in exile. Mandukhai and this boy, cavalry army. The troops along the border of China at BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?), presided over least were generally well armored, with mail, helmets, a revival of the Chinggisid legacy. and horse armor of iron. Weapons consisted of bows, At first the new rulers operated with the taishi sys- swords, and halberds. One Chinese border official spoke tem. After driving Ismayil Taishi out of Ordos in 1483, of the Mongols fighting in three-man teams, with a hal- Dayan Khan and Mandukhai appointed taishis to rule the berdier in the center, a bowman on the right, and a Huang (Yellow) River Mongols: Qorqada’un (fl. 1490–91, swordsman on the left. When crossing the Great Wall, probably Esen’s son) and then Iburai (d. 1533). The khan which was mostly made of rammed earth, a vanguard of and khatun themselves generally stayed among the up to 1,000 men would also carry pickaxes to break CHAKHAR to the east. In 1508 Dayan Khan appointed his down the wall. The walls of small towns were scaled with own second son jinong. When Iburai killed him and hooks on poles. The Northern Yuan army, unlike that of revolted, Dayan Khan crushed the southwestern Mongols the empire, had no artillery and could not take large at Dalan Terigün in 1510. Making his third son, Barsu- towns (see MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE). Bolod (1484–1521), jinong at the Eight White Yurts, As in the MONGOL EMPIRE campaigns began in late Dayan Khan abolished the position of taishi along with autumn, after the HORSES had been put into training. The other Yuan court titles such as chingsang. khan or taiji prepared large campaigns by sending around Dayan Khan reorganized his Mongols into the SIX to his people over several months a messenger with a TÜMENS, which functioned both as military units and as baton to call an assembly. As in the Mongol Empire, fail- tribal administrative bodies. The Ariq-Bökids and Ögedeids ure to arrive at the rendezvous was a grave offense. At the had disappeared, and the tribes ruled by descendants of rendezvous a horsehair standard was set up, to which a Chinggis Khan’s brothers were allied. Geographically, prisoner would be sacrificed at the beginning and end of Dayan Khan’s rule was concentrated in Inner Mongolia. In the campaign. Soldiers appeared at the rendezvous with Mongolia proper the ONON RIVER–KHERLEN RIVER region their families, oxen, and yurts, which would be left was settled by the northern Khalkha and the KHANGAI behind at a base camp. Advance was in the form of a V, RANGE region by the Uriyangkhan. Under Dayan Khan like a wild geese formation, with the khan in front. Large these two groups were attached to the South Khalkha of horns, or büriye, like those later used in monasteries, eastern Inner Mongolia’s Shara Mören (Xar Moron) valley were used to signal the advance. As in the empire, booty and the Döyin Uriyangkhan of the Three Guards, respec- was handed up through the taijis to the khan, who then tively. After the northern Uriyangkhan chiefs turned hos- distributed it according to the soldiers’ merits. tile, they were conquered in 1538 and mostly annexed by The tactics of the Mongol cavalry were similar to those the northern Khalkha. of the empire period: feigned retreat, ambush, misdirec- tion, and so on. Traditional tactics used to defeat a strong POLITICAL AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION enemy included blowing the büriye horns and stampeding During Dayan Khan’s life he enforced requisitions on the cattle to disorganize enemy ranks or using weather stones Six Tümens through noyad (officials; see NOYAN), yet (jada) to make snowstorms. At the Battle of Dalan Terigün granted his own sons, or TAIJI, and their subjects immu- in 1510, the Three Western Tümens put their forces in the nity. Thus, the tümens all hoped to receive a taiji. By 1540 “bow-key” formation, so that Dayan Khan formed his men new regional circles of Chinggisid taijis, descended from into 61 “butting bull” formations, although the meaning of Dayan Khan, and local tabunangs, or sons-in-law (mar- these terms can only be guessed at. riage allies) of the taijis had emerged in all the former Dayan Khanid domains. The title “Great Khan of the RELIGION AND CULTURE Great Yuan” and control over the Chakhar descended by The decentralized peace of the Dayan Khanid restoration primogeniture, but the great khans soon had only sym- was based on religious and cultural unity created by the bolic control over the other Six Tümens. The title jinong, Chinggisid cults. Under Dayan Khan two different with titular authority over the Three Western Tümens, shrines, that of Chinggis Khan in Ordos (the Eight White descended by primogeniture from Dayan Khan’s second Yurts) and that of Eshi Khatun (The First Lady, i.e., Qubi- son, Barsu-Bolod, but the jinong, too, lost power to collat- lai Khan’s mother SORQAQTANI BEKI) in Chakhar, formed eral lines. Daraisun Küdeng Khan (1548–57) had to grant the center of the right and left Three Tümens, respec- titles of “khan” to his powerful cousins Altan (1508–82), tively. The Yuan khan guarded the Eshi Khatun shrine, North Khangai province 411 while the jinong guarded the Eight White Yurts. The khan now made attempts to centralize authority, appointing his himself, however, had to be enthroned before the Eight officials over the tümens (confederations) and forming an White Yurts, thus necessitating accord with the jinong. elite military band to coerce opposition. He also began to One or both shrines might accompany the Mongols to oppose the dGe-lugs-pa (“Yellow Hat”) order that had war on major campaigns. dominated the Second Conversion, promoting instead the The Chinggisid revival among the Mongols was older orders of Yuan times. The result was a massive expressed in a few surviving literary works, particularly rebellion of the Mongols in 1628. Ligdan defeated their the recently rediscovered Chinggis Khaghan-u altan tobchi combined armies at Zhaocheng in west-central Inner (Golden summary of Chinggis Khan), which described Mongolia, but in 1632 he fled a large Manchu punitive the life of Chinggis Khan in legends that emphasized his expedition. Reaching Ordos, he deposed the jinong and sole claim to sovereignty. Legends about the fall of the took the Eight White Yurts with him to Kökenuur, thus Yuan and the struggle of the Chinggisids against the Oirat attacking the other pillar of the Dayan Khanid restora- usurpers were probably also written at this time and tion. Ligdan died in 1634, and his sons surrendered to formed the bulk of the later 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES. the Manchus in 1635, ending the Northern Yuan. The ritual text Bogda Chinggis Khaghan-u takil-un sudur Further reading: Carney T. Fisher, “Smallpox, Sales- oro-shi-ba (Sutra of the offerings to Holy Chinggis) men, and Sectarians: Ming-Mongol Relations in the Jia- describes how the Yuan khan should present the animal jing Reign (1522–67),” Ming Studies 25 (1988): 1–23; M. and liquor offerings of the Chakhar to the Chinggis Khan Honda, “On the Genealogy of the Early Northern Yuan,” shrine. The introductory Buddhist formulas show, how- Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher 30 (1958): 232–248; Hidehiro ever, that Buddhism still had some influence. Okada, “The Chakhar Shrine of Eshi Khatun,” in Aspects of Altaic Civilization III, ed. Denis Sinor (Bloomington: RENAISSANCE AND FALL OF THE Indiana University, 1990): 176–186; Hidehiro Okada, NORTHERN YUAN “The Khan as the Sun, the Jinong as the Moon,” in From 1540 on a series of smallpox epidemics and Altaica Berolinensia: The Concept of Sovereignty in the droughts struck the Mongols near the frontier, causing Altaic World, ed. Barbara Kellner-Heinkele (Wiesbaden: serious hardship. These disasters stimulated the Mongols’ Otto Harrassowitz, 1993): 185–190; Dmitrii Pokotilov, need for trade and, lacking that, plunder from China. In History of the Eastern Mongols during the Ming Dynasty 1571 Ming China finally opened trade and tribute rela- from 1368 to 1634 (1947; rprt., Philadelphia: Porcupine tions with the Three Western Tümens (Ordos, Tümed, Press, 1976); Henry Serruys, Mongols and Ming China: and Yüngshiyebü/Kharachin). Through the tribute and Customs and History (London: Variorum Reprints, 1987). horse markets, Altan Khan’s capital, Guihua (modern HÖHHOT), became the conduit for Chinese trade not only North Hangay See NORTH KHANGAI. locally but for the caravan trade through the northern Khalkha lands, the Oirats, and to the Central Asian oases (see TRIBUTE SYSTEM). North Khangai province (North Hangay, Arhangai, The large-scale SECOND CONVERSION to Buddhism, Archangaj, Ara Khangai) One of the original provinces begun in the Three Western Tümens from 1575 on, built created in the administrative reform of 1931, North on the decentralized amity of the Chinggisids and the Khangai lies in west-central Mongolia. Made up almost revival of caravan trade. Tümen Jasagtu Khan (b. 1539, r. entirely of KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Sain 1558–92) appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of the Noyan province, two BANNERS (appanages) of ÖÖLÖDS Karma-pa order. In 1580 the northern Khalkha also pro- were also included in its territory, although they have claimed their leading Dayan-Khanid prince a khan, and been assimilated to the Khalkhas. The province’s area is in 1585–86 this prince, ABATAI KHAN, also joined the Bud- 55,300 square kilometers (21,350 square miles). It covers dhist conversion. The conversion sparked large-scale lit- the northern slopes of the KHANGAI RANGE and is watered erary works, such as the CHAGHAN TEÜKE (White History) by the headwaters of the ORKHON RIVER, Tamir River, and and the JEWEL TRANSLUCENT, and legal works (see ALTAN others. The population has grown from 60,300 in 1956 to KHAN, CODE OF). 97,500 in 2000. North Khangai had 2,216,100 head of The rise of Nurhachi (b. 1558, r. 1616–26) in livestock in 2000, the third-highest in the country. In Manchuria eventually destroyed the Northern Yuan. 2000 the number of HORSES (273,500 head) and horned From 1612 to 1615 Nurhachi made marriage alliances CATTLE (428,600 head) was the highest in the country. with the princes of KHORCHIN and Jarud Mongols in east- About half the horned cattle are yaks or khainag (yak-cat- ern Inner Mongolia, and in 1624 the southern Khalkha tle crossbreeds). Although sown acreage was among (north of modern Chifeng) and Khorchin made a formal Mongolia’s highest in 1990, arable agriculture has col- alliance with the Manchus. Resenting this suborning of lapsed almost completely since then. The territory of his nominal subjects, the Chakhar great khan Ligdan North Khangai was the center of the TÜRK EMPIRES and unsuccessfully attacked the Khorchin in 1625. Ligdan the UIGHUR EMPIRE. The province’s capital, Tsetserleg, was 412 noyan originally the monastery town Zaya-yin Khüriye, headed During the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) the sovereign by the Khalkha Zaya Panditas. Its population in 2000 was rulers in Beijing entrusted rule in Mongolia to the 18,500. The town is one of Mongolia’s wettest (350.5 mil- descendants of Chinggis Khan, who were thus called limeters, or 13.80 inches, annually), with one of the most noyan. Since this Mongolian ruling class was now purely equable climates. hereditary and Mongolia was mostly at peace, noyan in See also DANZIN, GENERAL; DEMID, MARSHAL. this epoch acquired the connotation of “nobleman.” After 1921 the word daruga/darga, “boss,” “head,” replaced the noyan (noyon) The word noyan has throughout Mongo- aristocratic noyan as the term for officials. lian history signified those not of the ruling lineage who See also SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; are entrusted by the sovereign, or KHAN, with higher office. SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD. Its specific designation at any one time flows from the par- ticular character of Mongolian authority at the time. In the Noyon Uul (Noin-Ula) Located in Batsümber Sum MONGOL EMPIRE the commanders of the decimal units (Central province) north of ULAANBAATAR, Noyon Uul is (10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s) were all noyan, although the richest known XIONGNU (Hun) grave site. Discovered in practice the title was reserved for the higher ranks. in 1912, the graves were excavated by P. K. Kozlov Noyan (plural noyad) were thus above the ordinary Mon- (1924), S. A. Teploukhov and G. I. Borovka (1924–25), gols but below the uruq (seed), or descendants of CHINGGIS A. D. Simukov (1927), and Ts. Dorjsüren (1954–55). The KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) and his brothers. Since the main site contains 212 graves of varied status from the first task of these noyad was war, noyan acquired the connota- century B.C.E. and the first century C.E. Under the grave tion of “commander,” equivalent to the Arab and Persian mound the largest burial chamber measures 13 meters emir and the Turkish bey/beg. Chinese dictionaries, how- (43 feet) long, 12 meters (39 feet) wide, and 9 meters (30 ever, also gave its equivalent as guanren, “official.” feet) deep. The graves typically have double coffins with Griffon attacking a moose. Felt carpet, from Noyon Uul, first–second centuries (From Mongolian Arts and Crafts [1987]) Noyon Uul 413 bodies oriented to the north, ceramic jugs placed between mentary gold ornaments (unfortunately, all the richer the inner and outer coffin at the northern corners, and tombs have been robbed). Other decorative goods sometimes a bronze cauldron with the remains of a funer- include a silver plaque decorated with the figure of a yak ary horse sacrifice. Other remains include typical Xiongnu in a landscape very different in style from the ANIMAL grave goods: bronze mirrors, iron arrowheads, knives, STYLE. Fragmentary wool cloth, tapestries, and embroi- and bridles. The larger graves also show remains of dery from Syria, Bactria, and Sogdiana as well as abun- embroidered silk coffin linings, hats, boots, felt saddle dant Chinese silk and lacquer ware show the extent of cloths with appliqué patterns of fighting beasts in the Xiongnu foreign relations. ANIMAL STYLE, votive cloth flags, copper pestles, and frag- See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY. O obo See OBOO. summer, on a date determined by astrological calculation, and is intended to ensure seasonable rainfall and fertile oboo (owoo, ovoo, obo) The oboo is a cairn that served livestock. Only adult men are allowed to participate in or as a border marker, a site of sacrifices to the local deities, even watch the ceremony (men are banned from the Daur and a physical manifestation of the link between the land women’s oboos). The deities worshiped include the various and the men who occupy it. tenggeri (gods), the dragons (luu) who control the rains, The oboo (meaning simply heap), situated on a the “master of the land” (gazar-un ezen or sabdag, from mountain or hilltop or at least a rise with auspicious con- Tibetan sa-bdag), or shaman spirits among still shamanic figuration, is an ubiquitous feature of the Mongolian land- peoples such as the BURIATS and Daurs. Buddhist oboo wor- scape today among all the Mongolian peoples: BURIATS, ship also invokes the powerful fierce bodhisattva Vajrapani OIRATS, KALMYKS, UPPER MONGOLS, KHALKHA, INNER MON- (of whom CHINGGIS KHAN was believed to be an emanation GOLIANS, Daurs, Tu, and Yogurs. Some oboos are simply body). Either a lama or a respected lay elder presides over round heaps of stones, but branches and prayer flags (khei the ritual, never a shaman, even if the deity worshiped is a mori) are often stuck into the cairn. In the absence of shaman spirit. A small table is set up by the oboo’s southern stones, oboos can be made almost entirely of branches. side for the offering of prayers. Offerings of sacrificial meat Oboos associated with a strongly Buddhist cult are built in are placed on the oboo, and liquor and water are poured on three stages and have 12 smaller heaps extending out in the stones. Most of the meat is eaten by the members of the cardinal directions around them, in imitation of the the group sponsoring the sacrifice, but the bones are left at continents around the world mountain Sumeru (Mongo- the oboo. Worship opens and closes with a triple clockwise lian, Sümber) of Buddhist cosmology. During sacrifices circumambulation, and athletic competitions follow the ropes are tied from the oboo’s peak to the ground, and ritual. Skulls of beloved HORSES are also placed on the oboo small coloured flags (dartsag) are draped from the ropes. after their death. Since the 18th century at least, virtually every male- The texts used by Mongolian lamas for setting up based social group—BANNERS and SUM, clans (if they Buddhist oboos and performing the offerings were written existed), colleges (AIMAG) of lamas—has had its own by the THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN (1717–66). In them the oboo, which is the sign of its connection to the land. In Mergen Gegeen criticized the blood sacrifices and glut- addition to these large formal oboos, smaller temporary tonous feasting and merrymaking that accompanied the oboos can also have a small-scale cult. Among the Daurs oboo sacrifice, but despite his admonition and that of there also exist women’s oboos to bring rain to the veg- later authors of Buddhist didactic poetry, meat was still etable plots. Travelers passing an oboo are expected to cir- widely used even in lamas’ offerings. cumambulate it clockwise and to add a stone to it. Since the time of the Buriat scholar DORZHI BAN- Regardless of the exact religious complexion of those ZAROVICH BANZAROV (1822–55), the oboo has been inter- performing the ritual, oboo sacrifices are everywhere strik- preted as a remnant of SHAMANISM within Mongolian ingly similar. Formal worship is always performed in the Buddhism. However, not only is the Mongolian oboo 414 Ö’elün Üjin 415 Öchicher (1247–1311) Mongol aristocrat of the Yuan dynasty who overthrew Sangha and commanded the final defeat of Qaidu and Du’a’s partisans A descendant of Boroghul, one of CHINGGIS KHAN’s “Four Steeds,” Öchicher entered the court of QUBILAI KHAN in 1279 as head of a KESHIG shift and from 1281 as head of the Palace Provisions Commission. In 1291, as keshig chief, Öchicher received from one of his guardsmen, an official for the powerful and controversial finance minis- ter SANGHA, incriminating data on Sangha’s sale of offices. Once Sangha was executed, Öchicher received his vast personal estate as a reward. While appointed with HARGHASUN DARQAN to administer Huguang province, Öchicher stayed at the capital, where he personally supervised the keshig guards in digging the Tonghui Canal to DAIDU (modern Beijing). Emperor Temür (1294–1307) treated Öchicher as an elder statesmen and in 1301 dispatched him to QARA-QORUM to assist his brother Prince Gammala (1263–1302) in pacifying the threat from QAIDU KHAN and Du’a Khan. Although Qaidu defeated the Yuan dynasty forces in 1301, he died of wounds, and Du’a (d. 1308) made peace with the Yuan. While he never achieved the final surrender of either Qaidu or Du’a’s successors, Öchicher basically neutral- ized them by skillfully exploiting their divisions and reviving military farms up to the ALTAI RANGE. From 1308 to his death he served, again with Harghasun, as grand councillor in the new Qorum Branch Secretariat adminis- tering the Mongolian heartland. Oboo, Khentii province, 1991 (Courtesy Christopher Ö’elün Üjin (Hö’elün) (fl. 1162–1210) As mother of Atwood) Chinggis Khan, Ö’elün was seen as a paragon of heroic motherhood, raising her sons in great adversity. essentially identical in form and cult to the Tibetan cairn, Ö’elün Üjin (Lady Ö’elün) came from the Olqunu’ud lin- or la-rtse, in fact no known source before the 16th- to eage of the QONGGIRAD clan. Betrothed to a MERKID 17th-century SECOND CONVERSION to Buddhism even tribesman, the Mongol chief YISÜGEI BA’ATUR and his mentions the colorful and now-ubiquitous cult. (Oboos brother kidnapped her and made her Yisügei’s principal are occasionally mentioned, but only as markers.) Thus, wife. Ö’elün bore Yisügei four sons and one daughter. one might suggest that this cult is, like the GESER epic, an The eldest son was Temüjin, the future CHINGGIS KHAN. aspect of imported Tibetan Buddhist culture that, while (While her name is given as Ö’elün in the Chinese tran- in certain tension with stricter Buddhist ideas, has spread scription of the Secret History of the Mongols, earlier even to those Mongolian peoples who rejected Buddhism. sources such as RASHID-UD-DIN indicate that Ö’elün is the In all Mongolian lands oboo worship was suppressed dur- correct spelling.) ing times of Communist antireligious propaganda; how- When Temüjin was nine years old hostile Tatar ever, today it is again one of the most prominent aspects tribesmen poisoned Yisügei, leaving Ö’elün a widow (c. of revived religious practice, as drivers drive around road- 1171). The TAYICHI’UD clan, Yisügei’s rivals for leadership side oboos for quick blessings and local officials once of the whole MONGOL TRIBE, then rallied most of Yisügei’s again participate in the cult. clan followers. Ö’elün was abandoned on the steppe with See also DAUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE; KHOTONG; TU her five children, Yisügei’s minor wife, Sülchigei, her two LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. sons, and a certain number of retainers. The SECRET HIS- Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “Two Mongol Texts TORY OF THE MONGOLS celebrates her subsequent heroism concerning Obo-Worship,” Oriens Extremus 5 (1958): in raising her children all alone, although it exaggerates 23–41. her isolation. Ö’elün identified completely with her husband’s lin- Ocean of Story See SUTRA OF THE WISE AND FOOLISH. eage and passed on to her sons her hatred of the 416 Ögedei Khan Tayichi’ud. As the children got older she tried to stop the sons divided them among themselves. When they rivalry between the two sets of half-brothers, although returned to their father, he berated them for not giving her sons eventually murdered one of Sülchigei’s. Ö’elün him a share, until CHORMAQAN and other of Chinggis’s helped Temüjin by raising orphaned children as “com- quiver bearers placated the emperor’s wrath. Chinggis panions” (NÖKÖR) for him. After Temüjin was crowned as then sent Ögedei against Ghazni. Despite its surrender, Chinggis, she had to defend her second son, Qasar, Ögedei massacred all but the craftsmen. against accusations of disloyalty stemming from TEB Fraternal rivalry emerged over the discussion of the TENGGERI, a shaman (c. 1210). She died soon after. succession. Jochi was widely suspected of being the son of the Merkid man who had kidnaped his mother shortly Ögedei Khan (Ögödei, Ögetei, Ugedey) (b. 1186, after her marriage to the young Chinggis. Even so, the r. 1229–1241) Successor of Chinggis Khan, who expanded emperor had always treated Jochi as his presumptive heir. the empire and reformed administration According to the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, before Under Ögedei Khan the Mongols completed the con- the expedition against Khorazm in 1219, the empress quest of North China and expanded the empire into the Yisüi insisted that the emperor, then in his 50s, designate Middle East, the Qipchaq steppe, and the Russian princi- an heir. An ugly scene followed in which Cha’adai palities (modern European Russia and Ukraine). At the accused Jochi of being a bastard. After the two brawling same time Ögedei created written regulations for many sons were separated, Cha’adai suggested as a compromise of his father’s new institutions and began the process of that Ögedei be chosen. Jochi agreed, and Chinggis con- adapting Mongol rule to sedentary institutions and ideas firmed their choice, making Ögedei his successor. in North China and Turkestan. His generosity and flexi- Chinggis died in August 1227, and Jochi had died a bility established a new model for Mongol emperors, one year or two earlier, removing any possible source of con- that would compete with his father’s legacy of severity flict. Cha’adai continued to support his younger brother’s and rigor. claim; the alliance of the Ögedeid and Cha’adaid families EARLY LIFE AND CORONATION Ögedei was the third son of BÖRTE ÜJIN (Lady Börte), CHINGGIS KHAN’s principal wife, and participated in the turbulent events of his father’s rise. At age 17 he experi- enced the disastrous defeat of Qalaqaljid Sands (1203). Wounded and lost on the battlefield, he was rescued by one of Chinggis Khan’s companions (NÖKÖR), Boroghul. Although already married, in 1204 his father gave him TÖREGENE, the wife of a defeated MERKID chief. Töregene bore him five sons, and despite her plain appearance she was extremely able. She eventually came to have great influence on her husband. After Chinggis was proclaimed emperor in 1206, Ögedei received four or five 1,000s (the sources differ) of the JALAYIR, Besüd, Suldus, and Qongqotan clans as his appanage. The Jalayir commander, Ilügei, had been Ögedei’s tutor, and he, his son Danishmand, and his younger brother Eljidei formed Ögedei’s intimate circle. Ögedei’s territory occupied the Emil and Qobaq Rivers (Emin and Hobok, near modern Tacheng). Chinggis Khan allowed his three elder sons, JOCHI, CHA’ADAI, and Ögedei, to campaign independently for the first time in November 1211 against the JIN DYNASTY in North China. In autumn 1213 Chinggis sent the three elder sons to ravage the land south through Hebei province and then north through Shanxi before linking up with their father at Yanjing (modern Beijing). During the campaign against KHORAZM Ögedei and Cha’adai butchered the people of Otrar after a five-month siege (winter 1219–20), before joining Jochi to besiege the capital of Urganch, slaughtering the entire population Ögedei Khan (1229–1241). Anonymous court painter in 1221. Only the artisans were spared, and the three (Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei) Ögedei Khan 417 was a constant of Mongolian politics for the next eight The campaign against the Qipchaqs and their allies decades. Ögedei’s younger brother TOLUI held the regency was the largest. To it Ögedei assigned many princes of the until 1229, when a great QURILTAI met at Ködö’e Aral on imperial family, including his own sons GÜYÜG and the KHERLEN RIVER. After ritually declining three times, Qadan, BATU (d. 1255), the son of Jochi, who held the Ögedei was proclaimed Qa’an, or “Great KHAN” of the empire’s northwestern area as his appanage, and Tolui’s Mongols, on September 13, 1229. son Möngke. Expert guidance was provided by Chinggis’s famous general SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR. Facing a divided MILITARY EXPANSION enemy, the Mongols swept all before them. By 1240 the Unlike his father or his younger brother Tolui, Ögedei Turkish Qipchaq tribes of the Caspian–Black Sea steppe, took relatively little personal interest in campaigning. the BULGHARS and their capital (in modern Tatarstan), the After his coronation, he participated personally in only various Russian principalities, the Qipchaqs of CRIMEA, two seasons of campaigning. Depending on the extraordi- and the Ossetian (Alan) capital of Magas had all fallen. nary commanders nurtured by Chinggis Khan, however, Despite these spectacular successes, the Mongol camp he presided over conquests far beyond what his father suffered dissension. At several points Batu, head of the had achieved. Ögedei participated in the campaigns Jochid line, had been stymied by tough resistance, and against the rump Jin dynasty. At the end of summer 1230, Ögedei’s son Güyüg and Cha’adai’s son Büri ridiculed him responding to the Jin’s unexpected defeat of the Mongol for his weakness. Ögedei recalled Güyüg and Möngke in general Doqulqu, the khan went south to Shaanxi winter 1240–41, but the advance into Eastern Europe province with Tolui, clearing the area of the Jin forces and continued under the command of Qadan, Batu, and taking the city of Fengxiang. After returning north for the Sübe’etei, culminating in the nearly simultaneous defeats summer, Ögedei and Tolui again campaigned against the of the Poles, Czechs, and Teutonic Knights at Liegnitz Jin redoubt in Henan from October 1231 on, cutting and of the Hungarians at Muhi (April 1241). Only the through territory of South China’s Song (Sung) dynasty news of Ögedei’s death, reaching Batu’s camp in 1242, to assault the Jin’s rear. By late February 1232 the Jin prompted a withdrawal. ruler was besieged in his capital of Kaifeng, and Ögedei soon departed for Mongolia, leaving the final conquest to BUILDING IMPERIAL INSTITUTIONS his generals. In the event, the Jin dynasty held out for In his administration of the empire, Ögedei’s reign was two full years more (see KAIFENG, SIEGE OF). marked by a paradox: The same emperor who began the Ögedei’s attempt to subjugate the kingdom of Korea bureaucratization of Mongol administration was engaging met with less success. He dispatched Sartaq there in in the most extravagant acts of reckless generosity. Actu- 1231; the Korean king temporarily submitted but then ally, Ögedei needed bureaucratic administration to supply rose up and killed the Mongol overseers (DARUGHACHI) the gifts with which he could fulfill his image as the and fled to Kanghwa Island. As Sartaq was campaigning openhanded khan of Turco-Mongol ideals. against them, he was hit with a stray arrow and died. Ögedei took his administrators from three cultures: 1) At the same time, Ögedei completed Chinggis’s con- the largely Christian eastern Turk circle, represented by quests in the Middle East. Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi, son CHINQAI, a Uighur Christian scribe with KEREYID ties; 2) of the last ruler of Khorazm, had been trying to build a the Islamic circle represented by two Khorazmians, Mah- new base in western Iran, but Mongol operations in that mud Yalavach and his son Mas‘ud Beg (see MAHMUD area had driven him off and secured the surrender of Isfa- YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG); and 3) the North Chinese han in 1229. Jalal-ud-Din having fled to the area of GEOR- Confucian circle, represented by YELÜ CHUCAI, a Kitan GIA, Armenia, and TURKEY, Ögedei dispatched Chormaqan scholar and lay Dhyana Zen devotee, and Nianhe Zhong- to put an end to him. Chormaqan advanced rapidly and shan, a Jurchen. Conflicts often erupted between Mahmud harried Jalal-ud-Din’s increasingly small band, until Jalal- Yalavach and Yelü Chucai. Yelü Chucai encouraged ud-Din was killed in August 1231 by a Kurd in the moun- Ögedei to institute a traditional Chinese system of govern- tains. Chormaqan and his Mongols then set about ment, with taxation in the hands of government agents reducing the citadels of the Armenians and the Georgians. and payment in kind or in a government-issued currency. In 1234 after returning to Mongolia, Ögedei held Mahmud Yalavach promoted a system in which the gov- another quriltai, announcing plans for conquest of the ernment would delegate tax collection to tax farmers, who Koreans, the SONG DYNASTY in South China, and the would bid for the privilege and collect payments in silver. QIPCHAQS and their allies in the west, all of whom had The Mongols mostly followed Yalavach’s proposals. Since killed Mongol envoys. The campaigns against the Song, North China did not use silver as currency, ORTOQ mer- commanded by Ögedei’s sons, KÖTEN in the west and chants and moneylenders (mostly Uighur and Köchü in the east, penetrated deep into Song territory but Turkestani), working with capital supplied by Mongol did not deliver any decisive blow. In 1240 Köten dis- aristocrats, loaned at high interest the silver needed for patched a subsidiary expedition to Tibet, which was the tax payments. This caused great hardship, a fact not Mongols’ first contact with that land. relieved by ineffectual imperial decrees limiting interest. 418 Ögetei Khan From 1229 to 1240 Mahmud Yalavach administered handed taxes over to ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, who promised to Turkestan, while Yelü Chucai administered North China. double the annual payments of silver. In both areas the Mongols conducted a census (although Ögedei eventually fell victim to alcoholism. From on differing principles), pacified the population, sup- 1235 he had became an increasingly heavy drinker of pressed banditry, and encouraged the redevelopment of both Mongol KOUMISS and Turkestani grape wine. agriculture. In both areas, however, the new centralized Cha’adai entrusted an official to watch his habit, but administration had to adjust to the existence of large Ögedei managed to drink anyway. When he died at dawn appanages ruled by members of the Mongol imperial on December 11, 1241, after a late-night drinking bout, family and aristocracy, which were largely autonomous. Chinese officials blamed the grape wine forwarded to the Yelü Chucai also had to share power with SHIGI QUTUQU, feast by ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, while others blamed the sister one of Chinggis Khan’s “four foundlings,” whom Ögedei of Tolui’s widow, who had arranged the feast. The Mongol appointed chief judge (JARGHUCHI) in North China in aristocrats recognized, however, that the khan’s own lack 1234. In Iran, beyond the Amu Dar’ya River, Ögedei of self-control had killed him, and they squashed any appointed first Chin-Temür, variously described as a investigation into his death. Ögedei had nominated his QARA-KHITAI or an ÖNGGÜD, and then KÖRGÜZ, a low- grandson Shiremün as his heir, but Empress Töregene born Christian Uighur who later converted to Islam. became regent. Körgüz, in particular, proved to be an efficient and hon- See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL est administrator. EMPIRE; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENTRAL EUROPE Ögedei also refined his father’s Mongol institutions. AND THE MONGOLS; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; He codified rules of dress and conduct during the CONFUCIANISM; INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; ISLAM IN THE quriltais. Throughout the empire he created postroad MONGOL EMPIRE; KOREA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; (JAM) stations with a permanent staff, who would supply MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PAPER CURRENCY IN the post riders’ needs and were exempt from other taxes. THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; Where necessary he dug wells to ease travel. He decreed RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA AND THE that within the decimal units one out of every 100 sheep MONGOL EMPIRE; SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TAOISM of the well-off should be levied for the poor of the unit, IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; and that one sheep and one mare from every herd should WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. be forwarded to form a herd for the imperial table. Ögedei built the city of QARA-QORUM in 1235, assign- Ögetei Khan See ÖGEDEI KHAN. ing different quarters to Islamic and North Chinese craftsmen, who competed to win the emperor’s favor. In the Chinese ward there was a Confucian temple and an Oghul-Qaimish (regent, 1248–1251, d. 1252) Second observatory, which Yelü Chucai used to create and regu- empress-regent in the Mongol Empire, whose reign ended late a calendar on the Chinese model. with the coronation of Möngke and her execution for alleged sorcery. PERSONALITY AND STYLE OF RULE Nothing is known of Oghul-Qaimish’s early life, except In describing his sons, Chinggis Khan saw Ögedei’s chief that she was a member of the MERKID tribe, which had characteristic as courtesy and generosity. Despite the con- been conquered by CHINGGIS KHAN in 1204 and virtually tinued carnage of the Mongol conquests, Ögedei tried to wiped out as a separate people in retaliation for its revolt live up to this assessment. He kept peace among the of 1216–19. She was given as a wife to GÜYÜG, son of branches of his family, criticizing his own son Güyüg and ÖGEDEI KHAN and grandson of Chinggis Khan, probably Cha’ada’s son Büri for not respecting their nephew Batu. in the aftermath of that rebellion. Oghul-Qaimish bore The mysterious death of Tolui in 1232 seems to have Güyüg two sons, Khoja and Naqu. She is not known to affected him deeply, although whether his grief included have had any influence on her husband’s policies before some remorse for having contributed to his younger his death. brother’s death is hard to say. Güyüg died while camping at Qum-Sengir in Ögedei desired to win the support of both the Islamic Turkestan. Oghul-Qaimish brought his remains to his and the North Chinese sections of his empire, employing ORDO (palace-tent) in his appanage in the Emil-Qobaq members of both as high officials. The result, intended or region (around modern Tacheng). Despite his suspicion not, was a constant rivalry between the two peoples, a of Güyüg’s motives, BATU (d. 1255), head of the senior rivalry that deflected animosity away from the Mongols Jochid line, allowed Oghul-Qaimish to serve as regent. and onto each other. This rivalry was accentuated by the Güyüg’s chief officials, the scribes CHINQAI and Bala, and cost of Ögedei’s heroic generosity; the constant outflow his former tutor and judge, Qadaq, remained with her at from the treasury, principally to the west, had to be made the ordo, which became the de facto capital of the empire. up by taxes, principally on North China. By 1240 Ögedei While Chinqai and Qadaq were Christians, often criti- had replaced Yelü Chucai with Mahmud Yalavach and cized by Muslim historians for their anti-Islamic posture, Oirats 419 Oghul-Qaimish is said to have spent her time with the Oirad See OIRATS. native Mongol shamans (bö’e; Turkish, qam) and paid lit- tle attention to imperial affairs. Unlike TÖREGENE, her mother-in-law and forerunner as regent, she had no dis- Oirats (Oyirad, Oirad, Oyrat, Oyrot, Western Mon- gols) The Oirat people, while definitely a part of the cernible political agenda. Her sons, Khoja and Naqu, broader Mongolian world ethnically and linguistically, together with their nephew Shiremün, son of Ögedei’s have played an ambiguous role in Mongolian history, son Köchü, spent their time attempting to secure the sometimes challenging the Mongols for leadership, election of one of their number to the throne. In this sometimes forming independent states, and sometimes endeavor their primary support came from Yisü-Möngke, being incorporated by the Mongols. Their relation to the head of the Cha’adaid family. Mongols can thus be roughly compared to the relations One of the few public affairs of Oghul-Qaimish’s of the Austrians to the Germans or the Ukrainians to the regency was the embassy from Louis IX of France. An Russians. envoy, claiming to be from Güyüg but probably acting Contemporary communities of Oirat ancestry or cul- on his own, had offered Louis IX, crusading against tural affiliation include the KALMYKS of Russia, number- Egypt, an alliance against the Muslims to take ing 174,000 (1989); the XINJIANG MONGOLS, numbering Jerusalem. The king sent his own envoys in reply, but 138,000 (1990); the western Mongols, mostly in Mongo- after she received his envoys at her ordo on the Emil lia’s UWS PROVINCE and KHOWD PROVINCES, numbering (Emin) River, Oghul-Qaimish sent them back with pre- 168,400 (1989); the UPPER MONGOLS of Qinghai, number- sents and letters announcing the usual Mongol demand ing 72,000 (1990); the Khoshud and Torghud Mongols of for submission. ALASHAN, numbering 41,900 (1990); the Mongols of In 1249 or 1250 Batu hosted a QURILTAI (assembly), Gansu’s SUBEI MONGOLIAN AUTONOMOUS COUNTY, num- which selected Möngke, son of Tolui, as khan. Oghul- bering 4,200 (1999); and the Yekhe Minggadai of Fuyu Qaimish sent Güyüg’s Uighur clerk, Bala, to that assem- county, Heilongjiang, numbering 2,400 (1988). bly with a demand that Shiremün be elected khan. The Oirat speech is a distinctive dialect or language of the nobles rejected Bala’s proposal and insisted that disobedi- Mongolian family. Today it is strongly influenced by stan- ence to Batu’s advice would be punished. Oghul-Qaimish dard Mongolian everywhere except in Kalmykia and Xin- refused to recognize this decision, as did most of the jiang. These are also the only two regions where a other Ögedeid and Cha’adaid princes. She continued her distinctive Oirat script, either Cyrillic Kalmyk or the tra- passive resistance to the new turn of events, refusing, ditional CLEAR SCRIPT, is used. with her son Khoja, to come when the scribe Shilemün summoned her, her sons, and Shiremün to a second quril- IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE tai on the KHERLEN RIVER in July 1251, which officially In 1202 the Oirats were ruled by Qutuqa, who bore the proclaimed MÖNGKE KHAN. title beki, meaning “clan elder” and “shaman” (see Her second son, Naqu, and Shiremün proceeded to SHAMANISM). The Oirats occupied eastern Tuva and the quriltai and attempted to overthrow Möngke. When Khöwsgöl, with their center along the Shishigt River. the conspiracy was discovered, scribe Shilemün was Qutuqa Beki submitted to CHINGGIS KHAN’s son JOCHI in again dispatched to summon Oghul-Qaimish and Khoja. 1207 and was made a myriarch, or commander of a tümen Khoja obeyed, and like the other hostile princes was (nominally 10,000). Qutuqa’s two sons received Chinggis’s exiled to the South China front. Oghul-Qaimish again daughter Checheyiken and Jochi’s daughter Holuiqan in refused, still insisting that the transfer of the empire marriage (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). away from the line of Ögedei was invalid. In summer The Oirats continued as one of the most prominent 1252 Möngke had her and Qadaqach (Shiremün’s QUDA (marriage ally) families in the MONGOL EMPIRE. mother) arrested and their hands stitched in rawhide. Every branch of the Chinggisid family received Oirat MENGGESER NOYAN, Möngke’s chief judge (JARGHUCHI), women in marriage, and virtually every known descen- had Oghul-Qaimish stripped naked, questioned, and dant of Qutuqa bore the title kürgen (son-in-law of the executed by being wrapped up in felt and flung into a imperial family). The Oirats were particularly prominent river. In the eyes of Möngke her crime was not only in the Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE, whose founder, HÜLE’Ü rebellion but witchcraft. The khan described her to (1217–65), married two Oirat women in succession. An WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK as “more vile than a dog,” “the Oirat tümen under the Il-Khans’ kürgens (son-in-laws) worst kind of witch,” who had destroyed her family by settled in the area of Diyarbakır in modern Turkey. This her “sorcery.” Since all our knowledge stems from Toluid tümen deserted as a block in 1296 to MAMLUK EGYPT when sources, it is difficult to say what truth, if any, lies GHAZAN KHAN favored their local Turkmen rivals, but by behind these accusations. 1336 ‘Ali-Padshah, a member of the Oirat ruling family, was again a contender for power in the disintegrating Il- Ögödei Khan See ÖGEDEI KHAN. Khanate. ARGHUN AQA, an able but low-born Oirat, 420 Oirats became governor of Khorasan (eastern Iran) and founder tribe’s ruling Galwas lineage claimed descent from Qasar, of a prominent Oirat family there. Chinggis Khan’s younger brother; the tribe itself formed Closer to their homeland, the Oirat chiefs main- around THREE GUARDS refugees from eastern Inner Mon- tained strong ties to the families of Jochi’s sons Hordu golia deported by Esen in 1446–47. Not only were the (see BLUE HORDE) and BATU. They also were quda to Oirats as a whole of diverse origin, each tribe was QUBILAI KHAN’s brother ARIQ-BÖKE (d. 1266) and his formed from many yasu (bones), or patrilineages. Mod- descendants, whose territory bordered on the Oirats’. ern counts among the Dörböd tribe, for example, have During Ariq-Böke’s bid for the throne, Oirats formed a found 40 to 60 such different yasu. Thus, only the small- large part of his army. With Ariq-Böke’s defeat, the Oirat est units of social organization were actually based on commanders entered the victor, Qubilai Khan’s service, common ancestry. but by around 1279 common Oirats were joining rebel- The unifying factor in the early Oirat confederation lions against Qubilai. Little is known of the Oirats from was lack of Chinggisid ancestry, which disqualified its then until the expulsion of the Mongols from China in chiefs from the title of khan and the claim of 1368. sovereignty. The Mongol chronicles recount an elaborate story of how Toghoon Taishi tried to seize the throne, THE FOUR OIRATS relying on his holy ancestress (the Choros’s sacred tree), Strongly folkloric accounts in the 17TH-CENTURY CHRONI- but was defeated by the power of the Mongols’ holy CLES say the Oirats began to challenge the Mongols’ ancestor Chinggis. Thus, the Oirats, like the JALAYIR, Chinggisid rulers in the reign of Elbeg (c. 1394–99). The Suldus (see CHUBAN), Barulas (see TIMUR), and MANG- Mongolian chronicles evidence the Mongols’ bitter hostil- GHUD clans in the post-Chinggisid world, could rule ity to the Oirat usurpers, whom they say had become only as the quda (marriage allies) of Chinggisid emper- “foreign enemies” (khari daisun). These sources oppose ors. The supreme Oirat chief bore the Chinese title the “Four Oirats,” or the Oirats’ four tümens (nominally TAISHI (the highest honorific rank in the Mongols’ YUAN 10,000), to the SIX TÜMENS of the Chinggisid Mongols. DYNASTY) as the regent who actually ruled in the name Despite the universal currency of the term Four Oirats of the khan. among Mongols and Oirats and numerous explanations The Oirats under Esen depended heavily on their by both traditional and modern historians, no consensus Islamic connections. The lineage of Esen and his ances- has been reached on the identity of the original four Oirat tors, the Choros, was probably Uighur and in any case tribes. hailed from Moghulistan. Esen married the sister of a Elbeg’s supposedly pivotal reign unfortunately falls Moghuli khan, and the frequency of Muslim names within a gap in contemporary Chinese records. However, among the Oirats of this period (Mahmud, Abdullah, by 1412 Chinese records do speak of an Oirat chief, Mah- ‘Ala’ud-Din, etc.) is striking. In the 1440s and probably mud, deposing a Mongol khan. Mahmud’s son and grand- earlier Oirat tribute missions regularly included mer- son, Toghoon (d. 1438), and ESEN (r. 1438–54), brought chants from Hami, Turpan, and Samarqand (see TRIBUTE the Oirats to the height of their power over the Mongols, SYSTEM). From 1441 on a Muslim, Pir-Muhammad, and with Esen even assuming the title of khan in 1452. Esen his assistant, Hajji-Ali, headed Esen’s tribute missions. and his predecessors had close relations with MOGHULIS- Apparently, the Samarqandi and Turpan-Hami merchants TAN to the west, in which their own clan, the Choros, was played the same role with the Oirats that the Sogdians prominent. During their rise the Oirats occupied north- had with the TÜRK EMPIRES and the UIGHURS with the west Mongolia. Barköl and the Irtysh were the western Mongols. limits of their settlement. The Oirats’ Turkish neighbors The death of Esen in 1454 broke up the Oirats’ role always called them Qalmaq, a term of uncertain origin, as patrons of Turkestan-China trade. One of Esen’s non- which became Kalmyk in Russian. Muslim sons moved west, launching devastating attacks Up to the 16th century the major Oirat tribes were on Moghulistan and the Uzbeks. It was a sign of the the Khoid, the Baatud, the TORGHUD, the DÖRBÖD (ruled times that Pir-Muhammed by 1457 had decided to stay in by chiefs of the Choros clan), the BARGA, the BURIATS, China, while tribute envoys suddenly declined. Mongo- and the KHOSHUD. The origins of these groups are lian chronicles still speak of “Oirat taishis” bullying extremely diverse. The Khoid chiefs claimed descent Chinggisid rulers, but most of these taishis appear to from Qutuqa Beki, and thus were the original Oirats. have been adventurers with little or no relation to the The Baatud (heroes) were the Khoids’ vanguard force. Oirats as a people. By 1510 BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN The Barga and Buriats around Lake Baikal were part of unified the Mongols and abolished the position of taishi, the Oirat confederation from the 15th century to about Oirat or otherwise. From 1552 to 1628 ALTAN KHAN, 1625. The Torghud were descendants of the KEREYID KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI, Sholoi Ubashi Khung- tribe in central Mongolia. The Choros clan shared the Taiji (see KHOTOGHOID), and other princes of southwest Uighur ancestry legend of birth from a female sacred tree Inner Mongolia and KHALKHA repeatedly looted the Oirats and may have been of Uighur ancestry. The Khoshud living in the Irtysh, Barköl, and Altai regions. Oirats 421 OIRAT REVIVAL THE OIRATS AT THEIR HEIGHT The Oirats revived in the early 17th century. After Altan By 1690 three different Oirat confederations, or states, Khan’s death in 1582, raids from southwest Inner Mongo- had emerged. In Tibet the Khoshuds, with some Khoids lia ceased. The Oirat confederation crushed the Khalkha and Torghuds, formed the khanate of Tibet under the invader Sholoi Ubashi Khung-Taiji perhaps around 1623. descendants of Güüshi Khan (see UPPER MONGOLS). Strad- In 1640 the Oirats and the Khalkha made peace and dling the Volga, the Torghuds, with some Dörböds and formed an alliance, issuing a new code, the MONGOL- Khoshuds, formed the Kalmyk Khanate under Khoo- OIRAT CODE, to regulate their relations. The alliance rati- Örlög’s descendants. The Kalmyks numbered at their fied the Oirat’s partial adoption of Chinggisid titles. By height 40,000–50,000 households. In the Oirat homeland 1640 the title taishi was almost wholly replaced by khung- of Zungharia, the ZÜNGHARS, an offshoot of the Dörböd taiji (Russian, kontaisha), or its abbreviated form TAIJI. also ruled by the Choros, displaced the Khoshud in 1676. Derived from Chinese huang-taizi, “crown-prince,” and The Zünghar principality included the Zünghars, Dör- originally containing the idea of Chinggisid blood, khung- böds, Khoshuds, and Khoids (with some attached taiji became the title of great Oirat rulers, while the lesser Torghuds) and is said to have numbered 200,000 house- nobility of the Oirats became taiji. Quda ties remained holds. From this time until 1771 the Oirats remained important but served mainly to link the members of the powerful players in Inner Asian politics. Oirat confederation to one another rather than the Oirats The Kalmyk and Zünghar confederations were simi- to Chinggisid Mongols. lar in many ways. Both were divided into tribes (AIMAG), The Oirats also participated in the SECOND CONVER- which themselves were conglomerations of exogamous SION of the Mongols to Buddhism. Led by the Khoshud yasun (bones, or patrilineages). The khan or khung-taiji nobility, the Oirats invited Tibetan high lamas and dis- was assisted by an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) com- patched their sons to Tibet for training as monks. By posed of four chief officials, variously called ministers 1640 the Oirats had emerged as the chief defenders of the (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis; see JARGHUCHI), or zaisangs Dalai and Panchen Lamas from all their rivals, both (from Chinese zaixiang, grand councillor). These were inside and outside Tibet. The conversion to Buddhism commoner retainers of the ruler’s tribe. The Zünghar ruler energized with a revival of culture. The Oirats, who had GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727–45) expanded the council by previously made only occasional use of the UIGHUR-MON- adding six zarghuchis to assist the four tüshimed. GOLIAN SCRIPT, adopted in 1648–49 the CLEAR SCRIPT The people were assigned to appanages (ulus or designed by the cleric and scholar ZAYA PANDITA NAMKHAI- anggi) controlled by a nobility (noyod or taiji; see NOYAN) JAMTSU (1599–1662). of the tribes’ particular ruling “bones.” Below the noyods As Oirat power expanded, their tribal and territorial were the tabunangs, or sons-in-law or those who had distribution changed. The Baatud tribe disintegrated, as married women of the noyod lineages. The positions of did the remaining Barga-Buriat elements; those Buriats “four ministers,” or “judges,” were restricted to such around the Baikal had no further connection with the tabunangs of the ruler. Below them were minor func- Oirats. By 1640 the Oirats had occupied most of the fer- tionaries: standard bearers, trumpeters, aides-de-camp tile pastures south and west of the Zünghar (Junggar) (kiya), and so on. basin as well as their traditional Barköl and Irtysh lands. Each appanage was divided into otogs (a camp dis- They also expanded northwest along the Yenisey, Ob, and trict composed of several clans and usually with 3,000 to Irtysh Rivers as far as the Russian Cossack settlements of 6,000 households; see OTOG). The otogs were divided into Tara and Tobolsk. KHOO-ÖRLÖG led the Torghud from groups of 40 households, and they in turn into 20s. Each western Siberia to the Volga in 1630. In 1636–37, at the of these units had officials: zaisangs, demchis, and invitation of the Dalai Lama, the Khoshud under TÖRÖ- shülengges, respectively. These local officials were all BAIKU GÜÜSHI KHAN occupied Kökenuur on the Tibetan accounted commoners. Commoners without office were plateau. divided into the “good” (said), the “middle,” and the By 1642, if not before, the Khoshud rulers, who reck- “base.” oned their descent from Chinggis Khan’s brother Qasar, While Oirat noyods frequently resisted the khan, took the title khan. The Dalai Lama also granted this title insubordination among the commoners to their noble- to totally non-Chinggisid rulers, such as GALDAN men was virtually unknown. Every household was BOSHOGTU KHAN of the Choros (1678) and AYUUKI KHAN of assigned both to its particular unit and to that unit’s the Torghud (1690). Both Galdan and Ayuuki were assigned territory. Local officials were responsible for Khoshud on their mother’s side and so could possibly keeping their people in line and reporting external or claim Chinggisid ancestry. Still, the title khan was never internal disorder. The commoner officials were required strictly hereditary among the Oirats and always required to assemble periodically at the palace-yurt (örgöö) of their some external validation: at first from the Dalai Lama but noyon, and otog elders had to assemble the demchis; fail- by the mid-18th century from the QING DYNASTY or Russia. ure to appear was subject to a fine. Government was 422 Oirats maintained almost entirely by in-kind contributions. The of monasteries also promoted commerce. Patrons and commoners were required to give food, mounts, and monastic treasurers in Züngharia regularly made visits to other necessary supplies to government messengers and China to sell horses and purchase religious articles. “feed” their own nobles, tabunangs, and the high officials. RELIGION AND CULTURE MILITARY Cultural life among the great Oirat khanates was domi- The Oirat khanates excelled among contemporary Inner nated by Buddhism. The Buddhist belief among the Asian peoples in the use of muskets and cannons. During Oirats, surrounded by the Muslim Turks, was peculiarly both the 1688 invasion of Khalkha and the 1723 cam- militant and focused on the Dalai Lama in Tibet, whose paign against the KAZAKHS, firearms, both small and name itself was a common religious prayer. The biogra- heavy, gave them the margin of victory. Despite Russian phy of the great monk-scholar Zaya Pandita Namkhai- bans on export of firearms, the Kalmyk Ayuuki Khan Jamtsu vividly illustrates the aristocratic Buddhist milieu. could muster 3 cannons and 4,000 muskets in 1682. A nobleman might donate up to 10,000 horses for a sin- From 1697 on the Kalmyks as Russian allies received a gle religious service or requisition his subjects to become regular supply of gunpowder and bullets from Russia as bandi (novices) or lay servants in the monasteries. The well as the use of cannons during war. Supplying Russian clergy and their “disciples” were protected from both vio- firearms to the Zünghars was still banned, however. lence and state duties. Novices who had married without Bukharan merchants and Zünghar trade missions fre- taking the major vows were probably common although quently evaded these bans, and raids on Siberia also sup- legally discouraged. The monasteries were mostly plied firearms. The Zünghar ruler Galdan-Tseren in 1733 nomadic, although in 1638 a Zünghar ruler requested asked the Russians in vain for a military alliance and pigs from Russia to give to the monasteries. blacksmiths to make cannons to use against the Qing. In At its height the Kalmyk chief lama’s estate of shabi- 1744 he captured and used Russian gunsmiths, carpen- nar (disciples, or serfs), for example, reached 3,000–4,000 ters, and blacksmiths. Even so, demand remained high households. Galdan-Tseren organized the entire clergy for sabers, lances, bows and arrows, armor, and helmets, into nine jisai (Mongolian, jisiya), with 9,000 lamas and and these edged weapons were still the mainstay of the 10,600 households of shabinar. To improve the clergy, he Oirat armies. requisitioned 500 pupils, each with two yurts, three ser- vants, two horses, and 100 sheep to be trained by a COMMERCE respected Tibetan lama. One special otog, or camp dis- From the time of Toghoon Taishi in the 15th century to trict, named Altachin, “goldsmiths,” was dedicated to the loss of independence, the Oirats maintained symbi- making Buddhist images. otic relations with Turkestani Muslim merchants (cf. the The ethos of later Zünghar Buddhism was exempli- ORTOQ of the empire period). Due to their military fied by Lubzang-Puntsog (fl. 1707–17), a noble-born prowess, China and (after 1600) Russia tried to buy off lama and student of the famous Tibetan scholar ’Jam- Oirat raids by allowing Oirats to participate in “tribute” byangs bZhad-pa (1648–1721) in Lhasa. A Torghud tale and duty-free trade missions to China and Siberia subsi- pictures him as a lineage-proud and petty-minded disci- dized by their hosts (see TRIBUTE SYSTEM). The nobles del- plinarian. Galdan had installed three holy images, which egated much of the actual trading to Samarqandi (15th he had brought from Tibet, in three new monasteries in century) or Bukharan (17th–18th century) merchant Zungharia, but on his return Lubzang-Puntsog consoli- clients who joined Oirat missions. Both Chinese and Rus- dated them into a college (datsang) solely for the higher sian hosts frequently protested the size of these study of the Vinaya (monastic discipline). He expelled 2,000–3,000-man trade missions. 3,500 of Galdan’s 5,000 monks, giving the Zünghar While the anarchy among the Oirats in the mid-16th monks an excellent reputation for discipline. At the same century led to frequent raids on trade caravans, the time, Lubzang-Puntsog became notorious in Tibet in restoration of order in the 17th century revived trade 1717 for persecuting the traditional and unscholarly rNy- with Siberia, Turkestan, and China. Bukharan merchants ing-ma-pa (Old Order). also peddled goods through the steppe and at fairs, such While Tibetan language and scriptures were dili- as at the Yamysh salt lake (near Maykain). The Oirats’ gently studied in the monasteries, for civil purposes the major export was horses, along with other livestock. Red Kalmyks and Zünghars used Oirat Mongolian in Zaya- fox, ermine fur, and lambskin were also welcomed in Pandita’s clear script, in which a number of diplomatic China and Siberia. Oirats sold to the Bukharans rhubarb letters have survived in Russian archives. Large numbers and slaves, usually Russian, Chinese, or Mongol. In of Buddhist translations are mentioned, but the only sur- return for these goods, Bukharans sold a variety of thick viving historical works from before the loss of indepen- cotton cloth, kamka, or silk damask, flour, smuggled dence are Zaya Pandita’s hagiography Sarayin gerel (Light Siberian weapons, coins, beads, combs, needles, fine of the moon), written in Zungharia around 1690, and Siberian furs, and other luxury products. The formation Emchi (Physician) Ghabang-Sharab’s Dörbön Oyirodiyin ongghon 423 töüke (History of the four Oirats), written in Kalmykia By 1775 the various Oirat peoples were almost com- in 1737. Unlike earlier Mongolian histories, this last is pletely isolated from one another. Connections were partly not a chronological narrative but rather a treasury of revived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but the genealogy, wise sayings, and episodes left by the heroes revolutionary governments of the Soviet Union, Mongolia, of Oirat independence, written as the Kalmyks fell into and China again cut off connections from around 1930 to subjection to Russia. This distinctive genre of historical 1990. With increasing liberalization the Oirats have again highlights was continued in the work of the same name been able to renew their connections, although their by the Kalmyk nobleman Baatur Ubashi Tümen from remoteness and poverty within their respective countries 1801 to 1820, and in the Khoo-Örlögiyin töüke (History still severely hinder cultural and personal interchange. of Khoo-Örlög, late 18th century) and Mongghol ug See also ALTAI URIYANGKHAI; BAYAD; KALMYK-OIRAT ekiyin töüke (History of the origin of the Mongols, LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS; MINGGHAD; ZAKHACHIN. 1825), both written in Xinjiang. Another interesting Further reading: Todd Gibson, “A Manuscript on monument of Oirat intellectual activity consists of two Oirat Buddhist History,” Central Asiatic Journal 34 detailed and comparatively accurate maps drawn by a (1990): 85–97; Junko Miyawaki, “The Nomadic Kingship Zünghar cartographer in 1742 and taken to Europe by a Based on Marital Alliances: The Case of the 17th–18th returning Swedish captive. Century Oyirad,” in Proceedings of the 35th Permanent International Altaistics Conference, ed. Chieh-hsien Ch’en DISINTEGRATION OF THE OIRATS (Taipei: Center for Chinese Studies Materials, 1993), The reign of Galdan Boshogtu Khan (1678–97), which 361–369; Junko Miyawaki, “Political Organization in the seemingly marked the height of Oirat power, also led to Seventeenth-Century North Asia,” Journal of Asian and the first permanent rifts in Oirat solidarity. In 1686 a African Studies 27 (1984): 172–179; Hidehiro Okada, Khoshud prince fled Galdan’s rule and surrendered with “The Origin of the Dörben Oyirad,” Ural-Altaische his people to the Qing. This group was resettled as Jahrbücher, n.s. 7 (1987): 181–211. Alashan (Alxa) banner in southwest Inner Mongolia. The Khoshud of Kökenuur and Tibet also suspected Galdan’s old script See UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. intentions and accepted Qing protection in 1697. They finally lost all independence in 1724 (see UPPER MON- Ölöt See ÖÖLÖD. GOLS). In 1697 and 1702 Zünghar nobles with their sub- jects surrendered to the Qing; they were eventually resettled as widely scattered ÖÖLÖD banners. In 1704 a Ömnögov’ See SOUTH GOBI. party of 500 Kalmyk pilgrims to Tibet, led by the Ayuuki Khan’s junior cousin Arabjur (d. 1716), was unable to Onan See ONON RIVER. return home. The Qing authorities resettled them in Ejene (Ejine) banner in far western Inner Mongolia. ongghod See ONGGHON. The Kalmyks came under Russian suzerainty from the death of Ayuuki Khan in 1724, a development ongghon (ongghod, onggon, ongon, ongod) The word accentuated by the rupture of relations with the Züng- ongghon (singular) or ongghod (plural) indicates any hars in 1727. From 1749 the Zünghars began to disinte- material thing (including an animal) within which dwells grate. Most of the Dörböds surrendered to the Qing in a spirit of the dead. The term is thus used for graves, 1753 and were resettled in modern-day UWS PROVINCE sacred places, or animals dedicated to a spirit and also of western Mongolia. A body of Khoids who surren- refers to the spirit inhabiting the thing. It referred espe- dered in 1755 was resettled in Heilongjiang as the Yekhe cially to small figurines kept by pre-Buddhist Mongol Minggadai of Fuyu. The Zünghars proper were, how- families, which were made as material supports for the ever, crushed after rebelling under AMURSANAA. Most of ancestor spirits so that they could be fed. the current-day Mongols of Xinjiang are descended not Medieval travelers and modern ethnographers describe from them but from the Torghud and Khoshud Kalmyks the ongghon figurines as a universal phenomenon in the who fled increasing Russian control in 1771 (see XIN- native Altaic and Siberian religions. Only roughly anthro- JIANG MONGOLS). The modern Torghuds of KHOWD pomorphic, they could be made of silk, felt, wood, sheet PROVINCE in Mongolia had fled first from the Qing con- metal, or bronze. Particularly among the BURIATS they quest of Zungharia in 1755 to Russia, and then from often took the form of animals and other symbolic figures Russia with the Kalmyks back to the Qing in 1771. They painted on silk in red. In later times ongghons were some- were resettled in Bulgan Sum, Khowd province. The times hung in boxes or pouches from the YURT roof; three remaining Kalmyks, mostly Dörböds, but also Khoshuds or so might be kept in a box 20 by 30 centimeters (8 by and Torghuds, came under strict Russian sovereignty 12 inches). Shamans also attached ongghon housing their after 1771. familiar spirits to their costumes. 424 onggon The role of ordinary household ongghons was to give While the Tang dynasty fell to peasant rebels, Li Ke- success in the chase or animal husbandry and to prevent yong, a Shatuo chief who had received the Tang dynasty’s sickness. This they did only as long as they were regu- Li surname, built up a military force of 10,000 Shatuo larly “fed” by smearing their mouths with butter, first cavalrymen. In 923 Li’s son defeated the peasant rebels’ fruits of milk, and aspersions (satsal) before each meal. new dynasty and became emperor of a revived Tang Travelers in the 13th century described each tent of a dynasty. The dynasty was thoroughly Chinese in organi- respected Mongol as having several ongghon. Above the zation, but the Shatuo retained their Turkish language master and mistress’s place was hung an ongghon repre- and culture. Shatuo generals overthrew the Li family and senting Nachighai, the general protector of growth and founded the Latter Jinn dynasty (937–47) and the Latter abundance. (In the 18th century this deity was usually and Northern Han (947–79) dynasties. The main Shatuo known as Mother Emegeljin.) Two others were kept on colonies that settled in Lintao (Gansu province) and Yan- the yurt wall above the master’s and mistress’s place at the men (Daixian, in northern Shanxi) eventually submitted back of the yurt. Two more were kept near the door on to the Northern SONG DYNASTY (960–1126). the men’s and women’s side of the yurt. These included a With the rise of the TATARS in Mongolia, the Shatuo figure shaped like an udder to bless the milking of mares tribe was called “White Tatars” in distinction to the Mon- (men’s work) and SHEEP and CATTLE (women’s work). golian “Black Tatars.” When the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY In the empire period travelers saw old women assem- (1115–1234) drove the Song out of North China, they bling to make silk ongghon with great reverence, and recruited the White Tatars as tribal auxiliaries. A White today ordinary people still make their own ongghons. An Tatar notable, Buguo, in Yanmen, was made digid-quri, or ongghon of an ancestor is made only after three years after hereditary chief, with the task of guarding the Jin’s fron- death, when the soul has, with the full disintegration of tier fortifications. From this time on the Mongols called the body, joined the spirit world. When an ongghon is these people the “Önggüd,” supposedly from the word made specifically to propitiate a harmful spirit subdued önggü, or wall. The Jin titled the Önggüd forces “Tiande by a shaman, as in case of illness, then the shaman must Military Prefecture” (Tiande Jun), which in medieval pro- make or consecrate it. Some seem to have descended nunciation became MARCO POLO’s Tenduc. from father to son, while others were passed from mother By this time the Önggüd, or White Tatars, had been to daughter. The greater chiefs (captains of 100 and converted to the Syriac-rite Christianity of the Church of above and members of the royal family) had special carts the East (the Nestorians), as is attested in widespread where ongghon were kept. The ongghons of CHINGGIS names such as Ioqanan (John), Sirgis (Sergius), and Kör- KHAN were also kept by his descendants in special carts gis (George). This conversion was almost certainly (see EIGHT WHITE YURTS). related to Uighur Christian merchants following trade During the SECOND CONVERSION (1575–1655) Bud- routes from Turkestan through Inner Mongolia to North dhist missionaries saw the ongghon as the heart of the China. Marco Polo describes “Tenduc” as a mixed shamanist religion and called on all converts to throw agropastoral area, famed for its camlets of white camel them into great piles to be burned; their continued pos- hair. The non-Turkish majority followed Chinese reli- session was banned. By the 19th century ongghons were gions, and there was also a Muslim trading minority common only among the Buriats but could sometimes be called Arghuns. found in eastern Inner Mongolia, ORDOS, and among the In 1205 the khan of the NAIMAN in western Mongolia KALMYKS and OIRATS. called on the Önggüd digid-quri, Ala-Qush, to attack the See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY. rising Chinggis Khan. Ala-Qush instead revealed the Naiman plan to Chinggis Khan, sending an envoy with a gift of wine, a delicacy previously unknown to the Mon- onggon See ONGGHON. gols. When Chinggis invaded the Jin dynasty in 1211, Ala-Qush supported him, and Chinggis bestowed his Önggüd (Shatuo, White Tatars, Tenduc) Important daughter ALAQAI BEKI on Ala-Qush’s son. This departure allies of CHINGGIS KHAN and later marriage allies of the from the Önggüd’s pro-Jin tradition caused a revolt, and Yuan emperors, the Önggüd first appear in Chinese Ala-Qush and his son were murdered. After the revolt records as the Shatuo (Chinese, Sandy Gravel) tribe of was put down, Alaqai ruled the Önggüd as regent for sev- the West Türk confederation. In the seventh century they eral underage princes until the time of GÜYÜG Khan settled around the Barköl area (eastern Xinjiang) under (1246–48). the protection of China’s Tang dynasty (618–907). As the The Önggüd rulers after Alaqai Beki regularly Tang weakened, Shatuo chiefs served the dynasty as received imperial princesses; Körgis (r. 1264?–98) allies. By the ninth century the Shatuo were dispersed in received two daughters of QUBILAI KHAN as wives. Active small settlements over North China, from Taiyuan in in fighting the incursions of QAIDU KHAN and his allies, Shanxi province, through southwest Inner Mongolia, to Körgis was eventually captured and executed by Qaidu’s Gansu. forces in 1298. Shortly before his death, Körgis converted Öölöd 425 from the Church of the East to the Roman Catholic west China. Ja’a-Gambu later joined with Temüjin and Church, but after his death the opposition of the nobility helped him gather Kereyid warriors to his standards. kept the Önggüd in the Church of the East. Even so, Ong Khan’s alliance with Temüjin held. After 1221 many Önggüd were resettled in KHORAZM, In 1203 Temüjin proposed a marriage alliance with where they served as governors and as QUDA (marriage Ong Khan. Ong Khan’s son and heir Ilqa Senggüm, wor- partners) for the Jochid princes. A fragment of the ried that Temüjin might usurp the throne, prompted his Arghun clan achieved importance in the Jochid BLUE father to pretend agreement and use the marriage to HORDE and formed part of the KAZAKHS and the Mogholis attack Temüjin. The plan was revealed, but the Kereyid (see MOGHOLI LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE.) allied with anti-Temüjin Mongols defeated Temüjin any- Several Önggüd sites, including their major center at way at Qalaqaljid Sands (spring 1203). In the aftermath Olon-Süme and many tombs, have been excavated in the Ong Khan’s Mongol allies tried to seize the throne, and ULAANCHAB, HÖHHOT, and SHILIIN GOL areas of modern Temüjin counterattacked that autumn, defeating Ong Inner Mongolia. The artifacts, including gold brocaded Khan at the Battle of Jeje’er Heights (autumn 1203). Ong clothing, golden stemmed cups, a BOQTA (married Khan fled and was killed by Naiman frontier guards. woman’s headdress), and tomb murals, show a wealthy To European writers such as MARCO POLO, Ong Khan, Sino-Mongolian material culture. Seated “STONE MEN” ruler of the Christian Kereyid tribe, was Prester John, the funerary statues may also be associated with them. legendary Christian ruler in the East. In Mongol histo- After the expulsion of the Mongols from China in ries, however, Ong Khan shows no trace of any Christian 1368, the Önggüd (or Enggüd) became an OTOG (camp belief or identity. district) of the TÜMED Mongols settled around modern Despite the turbulent struggles of his youth, the Höhhot; the famous queen MANDUKHAI SECHEN KHATUN SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS portrays the mature Ong was of this clan. Descendants of the Shatuo in Lintao Khan as a lax and indecisive ruler, cruel to his brothers, (Gansu) are also found among the Tu (Monguor) people excessively indulgent to his son, and almost wholly in modern Qinghai (see TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE). dependent on Mongols such as Yisügei and Temüjin (Chinggis) for his success. Nevertheless, the emphasis on Ong Khan’s bad character cannot hide the fact that his Ong Khan (Toghril, Wang Khan) (d. 1203) Khan of the patronage was the major factor in Chinggis’s early rise. Kereyid khanate in central Mongolia and Chinggis Khan’s first patron Ong Khan, born Toghril, was a son of the KEREYID khan ongod See ONGGHON. Qurjaqus-Buyruq Khan. Under Qurjaqus-Buyruq Khan the KEREYID Khanate faced fierce opposition from the ongon See ONGGHON. MERKID tribe to the north and the Tatar tribe to the east. As a child Toghril was captured once by the Merkid and once, with his mother, Ilma Khatun, by the TATARS. Qur- Onon River (Onan) The Onon River flows northeast jaqus-Buyruq defeated his enemies but willed that after from the KHENTII RANGE in northeast Mongolia through his death the khanate be divided among his sons. After Russia’s Chita district and along the southern border of his death the Kereyid khanate was riven by family con- the AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA. Merging with the flict. Toghril soon killed his two half-brothers. His uncle Ingoda (Buriat, Yengüüd), it forms the Shilka River, Gür-Khan drove Toghril out of the khanate, but Toghril which in turn merges with the Ergüne (Argun’) to form recovered the throne with the help of Toqto’ a Beki of the the Amur River, emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The Merkid and YISÜGEI BA’ATUR of the Mongols, with whom Onon is 808 kilometers (502 miles) long but not naviga- he become ANDA (blood brother). ble. Together with the KHERLEN RIVER (Kelüren), it Around 1180 Yisügei’s orphaned son, Temüjin (later defined the original homeland of the MONGOL TRIBE. CHINGGIS KHAN), sought Toghril’s support against the CHINGGIS KHAN’s coronation took place at Ködö’e Aral, Merkid. Toghril helped Temüjin and supported him as near the headwaters of the Onon. khan of the Mongols. Subsequently, the two campaigned together against the Tatars, the Merkid, and the NAIMAN. Ööld See ÖÖLÖD. When Erke-Qara, another of Toghril’s brothers, received Naiman help and drove Toghril off the throne, Temüjin assisted him to regain power. In 1196 he and Temüjin Öölöd (Eleuths, Ölöt, Öelet, Ööld) The original sig- assisted the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY in North China against nificance of the widely used tribal name Öölöd among the the Tatars, and the Jin emperor gave Toghril the title Ong Oirat Mongols is unclear. QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) (Prince) Khan. records, however, use the term as a euphemism for the Around 1201 Ong Khan forced his younger brother, hated word Zünghar. (On the Öölöds before their surrender Ja’a-Gambu to flee to the Tangut XIA DYNASTY in north- to the Qing dynasty, see ZÜNGHARS.) 426 Orchon In 1697 and 1702 two relatives of the Zünghar GAL- The impoverished MONGOL TRIBE of the 12th century DAN BOSHOGTU KHAN (1678–97), Danjila (d. 1708) and knew ordos only as objects of plunder among their richer Rabdan (d. 1703), surrendered to the Qing. Their people MERKID, KEREYID, and NAIMAN neighbors. When CHINGGIS were organized as two “Öölöd” BANNERS and given pas- KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) conquered the Kereyid tures in modern northern BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE. In Khanate of central Mongolia, he inherited the Kereyid 1731 500 households fled back to the Zünghars, and the khans’ ordo, golden flagons, servants, and guards. Known remaining Öölöds were deported to HULUN BUIR. In 1761, generally as the Shira Ordo, “Yellow Ordo,” due to its with the annihilation of the Zünghars, part of these Öölöds gold-plated doors, threshold, and pillars, it became the were resettled in eastern NORTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. great throne room of the realm and could hold several Those who remained in Hulun Buir (northeast Inner hundred people. When a Mongol lady married, she Mongolia) formed a directly administered banner along received a large number of her father’s subjects, or INJE, to the Imin and Shinekhen Rivers. Under Japanese adminis- which would be added her husband’s maids and house- tration (1932–45) some Öölöds were resettled to the east boys (ger-ün kö’üd), either inherited slaves or prisoners. around modern Yakeshi city. The Öölöds of North According to WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK, BATU (d. 1256, grand- Khangai and Hulun Buir have been thoroughly “Mon- son of Chinggis Khan) had 26 khatuns, each of whom golized.” had one great YURT and up to 200 smaller yurts. The chief In 1764, after an Öölöd duke again tried to flee west, yurts were arranged in a line by seniority from west to his people were resettled on the Khowd River (modern east, and each great yurt was followed by its attendant Erdenebüren Sum, Khowd province) as a directly admin- smaller yurts. William of Rubruck and other European istered banner that, along with the MINGGHADS, supplied writers called the camp as a whole the ordo, whence the corvée services for the Khowd garrison. These Öölöds term horde (from the alternate pronunciation horda) for a alone have preserved their Oirat dialect and folkways. great congregation of nomadic peoples. In fact, however, Khowd’s Öölöds numbered 3,770 in 1929, 4,900 in 1956, ordo referred to each particular khatun’s camp, and so and around 9,100 in 1989; 3,774 live in Erdenebüren what Rubruck saw was actually 26 ordos. Sum (1997 figures) and 3,000 in KHOWD CITY. The ordos were legal and economic corporations. Those Zünghars remaining in Xinjiang were also ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) and his successors granted their renamed Öölöds. Under the Qing dynasty 30 of the 148 mothers, wives, and daughters appanages in sedentary Mongol sumus (SUM) in Xinjiang were Öölöd. In 1999 the districts all over the empire. Thus, when HÜLE’Ü predominantly Öölöd Mongols of Tekes and Zhaosu (1256–65) went to Iran, he left his second wife, Qutui counties numbered 18,000, and those of Tacheng and Khatun, behind with her ordo but took with him a maid Emin, 7,000. of that ordo who had borne Hüle’ü a son. Hüle’ü assigned See also KHOWD PROVINCE; XINJIANG MONGOLS. to the concubine a new yurt and a share in all his booty. When Qutui Khatun finally arrived in Iran all the concu- bine’s property automatically reverted to Qutui Khatun’s Orchon See ORKHON RIVER. ordo, which also received a regular stipend from districts in KURDISTAN worth 100,000 gold dinars annually. The ordo (horde, hordu, orda) The word ordo refers to the khatuns throughout the empire increased their incomes great palace-tents and camps of the Mongol princes and by investing their silver with ORTOQ (partner) merchants, emperors, which served as the nucleus of their power. By who invested it or loaned it out on interest. The Mongol a strange evolution, it has come to be used in English for YUAN DYNASTY in China curbed the ordo’s autonomous a disorganized mob of people. It is found in Mongolian in control over their appanage villages, while GHAZAN KHAN many forms, sometimes with the initial h- and sometimes (1295–1304) in the Middle Eastern IL-KHANATE prohib- without. Orda is a dialectal variant common in the west- ited their participation in moneylending, but in both ern khanates. realms the corporate character of the ordo remained. The term ordo or hordu first appears in eighth-cen- Ordos survived the death of either the khatun or the tury Turkish Runic inscriptions designating a palace-yurt. khan. Upon remarrying the khan could install a new wife Each ordo belonged to a single KHATUN (lady or empress), in the ordo. After the khan died, his successor frequently which meant that in the polygamous Inner Asian society remarried the ordo’s khatun if she was not his mother. each lord, or khan, held several ordos. The Liao dynasty Astute use of this tactic could build up a very large (907–1125), founded by the seminomadic KITAN of east- emchü, or personal property, for the khan. Geikhatu Khan ern Inner Mongolia, further developed the ordo institu- (1291–95) in Iran, for example, married two brides with tion by uniting it with a specially recruited multiethnic new ordos, but after his coronation he married four wid- bodyguard, numbering 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers and ows of his predecessors, acquiring their ordos, three of their families. The Liao, however, adopted the Chinese which dated to his grandfather Abagha Khan’s (1265–82) practice of having only one principal wife, so that each time. Widows controlling the ordos often became emperor possessed only one ordo. formidable political figures. The Mongol Yuan emperor Ordos 427 Temür (1294–1307) bestowed new guards and assets on ruler of the Eight White Yurts, was the titular leader of his mother, Kökejin’s (Bairam Egechi), ordo, renamed the the Three Western Tümens. In 1510 the Chinggisid ruler Longfugong Palace. Kökejin and her successor remained BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?) conquered powers behind the throne until 1328. While large palatial Ordos and installed his son Barsu-Bolod Sain-Alag (d. tents continued to be called ordos, the social institution 1521) as jinong. While the Ordos dialect and folkways they represented does not seem to have survived the fall show some similarities to the OIRATS, their CLAN NAMES of the MONGOL EMPIRE. are mostly of the Mongols proper. See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; EIGHT WHITE YURTS. Barsu-Bolod was the ancestor of all Ordos’s Ching- gisid nobility. The title of jinong descended to his sons by Ordos (Urdus, Erduosi; Yekhe Juu, Ih Ju, Yike Zhao) primogeniture but retained only nominal authority. The The Ordos Mongols inhabit a dry plateau south of the incessant raids from Ordos into China sparked the begin- Huang (Yellow) River in China’s Inner Mongolian ning of the Great Wall (see MING DYNASTY). The Ordos Autonomous Region. Famous as guardians of the EIGHT noble KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI (1540–86) helped WHITE YURTS of CHINGGIS KHAN, they have a distinguished initiate the SECOND CONVERSION of the Mongols to Bud- literary and scholarly tradition extending to the present. dhism, while his great-grandson SAGHANG SECHEN (b. The name Ordos means “palace-tents” and refers to 1604) wrote one of Mongolia’s most famous chronicles. the shrine of Chinggis Khan. As a league under the QING In the civil war that ended the reign of LIGDAN KHAN DYNASTY (1636–1912) it was named Yekhe Juu, “Great (1604–34) first he and then the armies of the Qing Monastery,” referring to the Wang-un Juu Monastery in dynasty occupied Ordos. After the rebellion of Jamsu in Dalad where the league’s nobles met. This name was used 1649, the Qing court divided Ordos into six banners until 2001, when Yekhe Juu was renamed Ordos munici- (appanages), to which a seventh was added in 1736. pality. During the 19th century Ordos DUGUILANG (circle) After 1949 Yekhe Juu/Ordos had an area of 86,400 movements attacked princely misrule and encroaching square kilometers (33,360 square miles). The plateau’s CHINESE COLONIZATION. The celebrated poet and singer elevation ranges from 850 to 2,000 meters (2,790–6,560 Kheshigbatu (1847–1917) of Üüshin lampooned the feet) above sea level. The total population in 1990 was duguilangs’ enemies. The duguilangs organized violent but 1,198,912, of which 141,020 (12 percent) were Mongo- futile resistance to Christian missionaries in 1900 and lian. The four western and southern BANNERS of Khang- then to the Qing dynasty’s NEW POLICIES after 1903. After gin (Hanggin), Otog, Otog Front (Otog Qianqi), and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, Üüshin (Uxin) have almost 75 percent or Ordos’s terri- Ordos remained an isolated district ravaged by bandits tory but only 387,300 inhabitants, of whom 93,900, or 24 and sullenly hostile to contemporary Chinese culture. By percent, were Mongols. Most rural Mongols here live in this time the Hetao and the northeastern Dalad, Jüüngar majority-Mongol districts, and the vast majority still (Jungar), Wang, and Jasag (modern Ejin Horo) banners speak Mongolian. had been almost completely covered by agricultural colo- In 1990 Ordos had 4,973,000 head of livestock, of nization, leaving only a few sites surrounding temples which 4,400,000 were sheep and goats and 49,000 and Chinggis Khan’s shrine still virgin steppe there. horses. Much of Ordos is covered by the Khöbchi Desert During the Sino-Japanese War (1937–45) the in the north and the Muu Usu Desert in the south. Char- Japanese encroached along the Huang (Yellow) River, acteristic vegetation is thickets of sagebrush (Artemisia), while tenuous Chinese Communist influence spread willows, and pea bushes (Caragana). north from Yan’an. Ordos fell to Chinese Communist The maze of rivers and canals in the Hetao (River armies in 1949–50. In 1954 the Communist government Bend) region northwest of the Huang (Yellow) River’s returned to Ejen Khoroo (Ejin Horo) the shrine of Ching- great bend was originally included within Ordos’s Dalad gis Khan, which had previously been removed by the and Khanggin banners. Easily irrigable, its 6,553 square Nationalists to Qinghai province to keep it out of kilometers (2,530 square miles) had 974,300 inhabitants Japanese hands. A new mausoleum was built in 1956, and only 16,700 Mongols in 1990. Hetao is now part of and Wang and Jasag banners combined as Ejen Khoroo Bayannuur league. banner. In Inner Mongolia today the Ordos Mongols are seen as the most religious. HISTORY See also 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES; DIDACTIC POETRY; The Ordos plateau was the original heartland of both the INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGO- XIONGNU (Hun) nomads (209 B.C.E. to 91 C.E.) and the LIANS; LITERATURE; MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE; WUHAI. Tangut XIA DYNASTY (1038–1227). Mongols first settled Further reading: Hong Jiang, The Ordos Plateau of Ordos in the wake of the TUMU INCIDENT in 1449, bring- China: An Endangered Environment (Tokyo: United ing with them the Eight White Yurts, or shrine of Ching- Nations University Press, 1999); Antoine Mostaert, gis Khan. By 1470 Ordos was counted one of the “Matériaux ethnographiques relatifs aux Mongols ordos,” Mongols’ SIX TÜMENS, and Ordos’s jinong (viceroy), as Central Asiatic Journal 2 (1956): 242–294; Antoine 428 Ordu-Baligh Ruins of Ordu-Baligh (From N. Tsultem, Mongolian Architecture [1988]) Mostaert, “Ordosica,” Bulletin of the Catholic University of also found a bronze smithing area with iron imple- Peking 9 (1934): 1–96. ments, wax, and flat and cast pieces of bronze, together with Chinese copper coins dated to 840. Mortars and Ordu-Baligh (Khar Balgas, Karabalghasun, Kara Bal- pestles were found in large numbers, but all of them gassun) The city of Ordu-Baligh was completed under were broken, apparently a testimony to the destruction Bayan-Chor (Moyanchuo, 747–59) as the capital of the wrought by the Kyrgyz sack of the city in 840. UIGHUR EMPIRE. An Arab visitor, Tamim ibn Bahr, See also ARCHAEOLOGY; RUNIC SCRIPT AND INSCRIP- described the city in 821 as a great town, with 12 large TIONS. iron gates, markets, craft quarters, and extensive agri- cultural suburbs. In the center was a walled palace Orhon See ORKHON RIVER. crowned with a golden YURT that could hold 100 people and was visible for kilometers. The population, includ- ing many Sogdians and Chinese, were mostly Orkhon province See ERDENET CITY. Manichean in religion. The ruins of Ordu-Baligh, now called Khar Balgas (Black Ruins) in Khotont Sum, Orkhon River (Orhon, Orchon) The longest river (North Khangai), were excavated by D. A. Klements and entirely in Mongolia, the Orkhon rises in the KHANGAI W. W. Radloff in the late 19th century and by D. RANGE and flows northeast to empty into the SELENGE Bukenich (1933–34) and S. V. Kiselev and Kh. Perlee RIVER near the northern border town of Sükhebaatur. (1949). Parts of the citadel towers still stand 14 meters Major tributaries rising from the KHENTII RANGE and (46 feet) high. Outside the palace citadel a Manichean draining into the Orkhon include the TUUL RIVER, Kharaa temple contained a fragmentary trilingual (Old Turkish, River, and Yöröö (Yeröö) River. The drainage area of the Sogdian, Chinese) inscription. The 1949 excavations 1,124-kilometer-long Orkhon is 132,000 square kilome- ortoq 429 ters (50,970 square miles). Along the Tamir, a tributary of budgets. As agents of the ruling Mongolian aristocracy, the upper Orkhon, in the Khangai Range was the site of ortoq merchants received tablets of authority (PAIZA) the Ötüken Forest, the sacred center for the XIONGNU exempting them from taxes and allowing them to use the (Huns), the TÜRK EMPIRES, and the UIGHUR EMPIRE. The official JAM, or postroad system. Ortoq merchants, unlike upper Orkhon valley itself contains many major historical other civilians, were allowed to bear arms freely, and their sites, including Old Turkish Runic inscriptions (see RUNIC losses to banditry had to be made up by the local popula- SCRIPT AND INSCRIPTIONS), the Uighur capital ORDU- tion. Following Chinggis Khan’s precedent, his successors BALIGH, the Mongol imperial capital QARA-QORUM, and the encouraged foreign merchants, whether Hansa traders 16th-century Buddhist temple ERDENI ZUU. In modern entering Russia or Indians from Lahore going to Central times MINING and logging have degraded water quality. Asia, to take advantage of these privileges. Ortoq relations frequently took the form of exchanging gifts, the mer- chants presenting pearls and other tangsuqs (precious rar- ortoq (partners) Ortoq, or “partner,” merchants ities), and the Mongols in return presenting their engaged in commerce and moneylending with capital partners with war booty to invest in trade. The Mongol supplied by the Mongol Empire’s imperial treasury or the nobles and ladies, when lacking money on hand to private treasuries of the empire’s great aristocrats. invest, frequently paid their partners with drafts drawn By the 11th century Middle Turkish ortoq, “partner,” on their distant appanages in China, Central Asia, or meant commercial partners who pooled their capital and Iran, thus allowing enormous debts to accumulate. shared their profits according to agreed-upon percent- The ortoq merchants used their capital both for long- ages. This relation was eventually to become the model range commerce and for moneylending. In North China, for ties between nomadic rulers and Central Asian mer- where most of the ortoqs were Uighurs or Central Asian chants. Long-range caravan commerce had played a vital Muslims, the Mongols’ introduction, for the first time in role in all the steppe empires of Inner Asia. Sogdian mer- China’s history, of a silver tax created a strong demand, chants from Samarqand and Bukhara had a symbiotic driving interest rates on silver loans to 100 percent per partnership with the rulers of the first Türk Empire year. Once the silver tax was paid, it was then available to (552–659), serving as scribes, religious preceptors, and be given to an ortoq and lent out again, with a share of ambassadors in return for the rulers’ promotion of their the interest again accruing to the Mongol rulers. By 1240 trade with China, Iran, and Byzantium. In the 10th and usury was causing great hardship in North China, and 11th centuries a partnership of Uighur merchants based Ögedei Khan ineffectually decreed that total interest was in Turpan (in modern Xinjiang) and the KITANS’ Liao never to exceed the principal. Ortoq merchants also dynasty (907–1115) in Inner Mongolia dominated Inner served as tax farmers, managing the collection of taxes Asia. After the Manchurian Jurchen people overthrew for a profit from collection over quotas. Kitan rule, conquered North China, and founded their Aware of how the unregulated ortoq system was over- own JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), Turkestani Muslims began taxing the jam and causing the flight of civilians, MÖNGKE to join the UIGHURS in long-distance trade among North KHAN (1251–59) attempted to limit the main abuses. In China, Inner Mongolia, and Central Asia. 1253 he appointed officials to supervise the ortoq. In his Even before uniting the Mongols, CHINGGIS KHAN reform of the tax and jam systems, he ordered all ortoqs to (Genghis, 1206–27) had drawn into his entourage mer- pay both commercial and qubchiri taxes. He also strongly chants such as the Uighur CHINQAI, who had traded discouraged the presentation of tangsuqs. By paying large extensively in North China and Mongolia, and Hasan, outstanding debts to ortoq merchants, however, he demon- from the Muslim “Arghun” minority among the Inner strated their interests were still being considered. Mongolian ÖNGGÜD tribe. These foreign merchants pro- In the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China, the vacilla- vided him with valuable intelligence on the Jin dynasty tions of Möngke’s policy were continued. In 1263 QUBILAI and the realms to the west. By 1218 merchants from KHAN (1260–94) reiterated that ortoq merchants were Bukhara, KHORAZM, and Otrar were serving Chinggis subject to taxes, but this edict was widely ignored. The Khan as diplomats. In that year Chinggis Khan ordered institution of a paper currency probably reduced interest his family and commanders (NOYAN) each to chose eligi- rates on silver, but after 1272 depleted bullion reserves ble non-Mongol clients from their retinue, supply them led to new silver-denominated commercial taxes. In 1268 with capital, and send them together as a trade party to an office, eventually titled the Quanfusi, or “Office of the realm of the sultanate of Khorazm, then ruling Cen- Market Taxes,” was set up to supervise all ortoqs. Despite tral Asia and Iran (see OTRAR INCIDENT). attempts at abolition by Confucian-oriented Mongol aris- Under ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) and GÜYÜG Khan tocrats opposed to the whole idea of ortoq, the office con- (1246–48) ortoq businesses flourished. These ortoq kept tinued until 1311. With the Mongol conquest of South the great palace-tents (ordo) of the Mongol rulers sup- China, the ortoq merchants expanded their sphere of plied with clothing, grain, and other provisions. Uighur operations to the SOUTH SEAS. In 1286 maritime trade was administrators also invested tax monies to stretch official put under the Quanfusi, and ortoq merchants were given 430 Ossetes a monopoly on overseas commerce in metals and slaves. Others, protected in the Caucasus Mountains, were never Late in his reign Qubilai began discouraging the presenta- entirely subdued. tion of tangsuqs and curtailed the possession of arms by The Ossetes, known in Europe as the Alans and now ortoq merchants, measures that were revoked after his living on the border of Russia and Georgia, were a branch death. The abolition of the Quanfusi in 1311 came not of the ancient Sarmatians, first appearing in the first cen- from opponents of ortoq, but from SEMUREN (Central and tury C.E. Defeated by the Huns in 371, most Ossetes West Asian) officials who opposed any regulation of ortoq moved into the Caucasus, while others remained along whatsoever. The high point of ortoq operations came the northern coast of the Caspian Sea. An Ossetian chief under Yisün-Temür (titled Taidingdi, 1323–28), whose dwelling at the Caucasus fort of Magas converted his peo- Muslim-dominated administration exempted Christians ple to Christianity around 900–25, and they remained and Muslims from any corvée payments and guaranteed mostly Christian thereafter. By the 13th century the the fantastic payments promised by the Mongolian nobil- Ossetes of the Caucasus were farmers living in indepen- ity in return for tangsuqs. The coup d’état of 1328 dent villages constantly at war with one another. reversed these policies, and the new regime, by contrast, The first contact with the Mongols occurred in 1223, granted exemption from the commercial tax only to Bud- when SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR and JEBE came north through Der- dhist and Taoist monasteries in 1330. bent and attacked the Caucasian Ossetes. The Mongols In Mongol Iran ortoq merchants also flourished. After returned in 1229, but the Volga and Caspian Ossetes HÜLE’Ü’s 1258 conquest of Baghdad, he appointed a Kho- resisted until winter 1236–37. In autumn 1239 GÜYÜG, razmian client, Ali Ba’atur, the overseer (DARUGHACHI) of MÖNGKE KHAN, and other Mongol princes advanced into the city, with special oversight of the ortoqs and the arti- the Caucasus and sieged Magas. The Mongols cut roads sans. Hüle’ü and his successor, Abagha Khan (1265–81), for their siege engines through the thick forests and after ignored Möngke Khan’s regulations and ordered their a three-month siege captured the fortress, killing all officials not to interfere with ortoqs in any way, and ortoq 2,700 defenders. Other Ossetian forts remained defiant, commerce once again flourished. As the Mongols did not and the Mongols kept guard posts along the Caucasus enforce the Islamic prohibition of usury, many with no passes to block their raids. In 1277 Mengü-Temür mercantile background, often Jews and Assyrian Chris- (1267–80), khan of the GOLDEN HORDE, took another tians, flocked to borrow money, buy tangsuqs, and major Ossetian mountain fort. become ortoq. GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304), however, as Möngke and other princes brought back Ossetian part of his program of Islamization and financial reform, (Mongolian, Asud) prisoners with them to the east. In prohibited both usury and the loan of government funds, 1272 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), emperor of the Mongol thus destroying the ortoq institution. The Mongol khatuns YUAN DYNASTY in China, organized an Asud guard of and their ordos were now financed directly through dedi- 3,000 soldiers. By 1309 the number had expanded to cated taxes. 30,000. The Catholic archbishop in DAIDU (modern Bei- In the GOLDEN HORDE, despite its early Islamization, jing) counted these Ossetian soldiers among his flock. the institution of ortoq continued. The fragmentary data The guard helped subdue NAYAN’S REBELLION (1287) and show that in Russia, too, ortoq merchants as tax farmers also fought in the coup d’état of 1323 that enthroned loaned money to local authorities unable to pay their tax Yisün-Temür (Taidingdi, 1323–28). Ossetes served as the quotas. Russian sources of the 15th century describe the Yuan’s crack soldiers into the 1350s and followed the ordobazarets, or “ordo camp merchants,” who inhabited Mongol khans back into Mongolia in 1368. During the the bazaars following the ordo palaces. 15th and 16th centuries assimilated Asud formed part of In the 15th to 18th centuries the OIRATS (West Mon- the Yüngshiyebü tümen in central Inner Mongolia. The gols) built a relationship with the merchants of Samar- Asud clan is found today in Aru Khorchin (Ar Horqin) qand and Bukhara strongly reminiscent of the early banner of eastern Inner Mongolia. Mongol Empire’s relations with the Turkestani merchants. See also BULGHARS; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; JEWELRY; POLO, MARCO; EMPIRE; NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY; QIPCHAQS; RUSSIA AND SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. THE MONGOL EMPIRE. Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, “Mongol Princes and Their Merchant Partners,” Asia Major 3, 2 (1989): 83–126; Elizabeth Endicott-West, “Merchant Associations otog (otoq, otok) The basic unit of Mongol sociopoliti- in Yüan China: The Ortogh,” Asia Major 3, 2 (1989): cal life from the 15th and 16th centuries on, the otog was 127–153. replaced by the banner and SUM system in the Mongolian BANNERS under the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). It was, however, retained in the ecclesiastical estates and other Ossetes (Alans, Asud) Many Ossetes on the steppe areas. between the Black and Caspian Seas were brought into The otog (Middle Mongolian, otoq) was unknown in the MONGOL EMPIRE, some being deported as far as China. the period of the MONGOL EMPIRE. It first appeared in the Özbeg Khan 431 15th century. In addition to its administrative meaning, alry combined with his envoys’ reports of the Mongol the word also means a “hunting camp” or a “hearth.” In conquest of North China made Sultan Muhammad very this last meaning it maybe related to the Turkish ot, uneasy. “fire.” The meaning thus appears to be of a body of peo- At that point Chinggis Khan sent a large delegation ple gathered around a single hearth. of Muslim ORTOQ (partner) merchants to Khorazm, num- By the turn of the 16th century the Mongols were bered in the sources at either 100 or 450. The delegation divided into the SIX TÜMENS, each of which in turn was arrived in winter 1218–19 at Otrar on the Syr Dar’ya (in divided into many otogs, totaling 54. As the otogs fre- modern Kazakhstan, between Turkestan and Shymkent). quently combined or divided clans, they were evidently The frontier governor, Inalchuq Qadir Khan (or Inal supposed to be roughly equal in size. After the reign of Ghayir Khan), a cousin of Sultan Muhammad’s mother, BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?) the tümens coveted the delegation’s rich goods and sent a message to were divided among his sons and the otogs among his Sultan Muhammad charging the merchants with spying. grandsons. The frequent identity between the number of Sultan Muhammad agreed to their arrest, and Inalchuq otogs in a tümen and the number of grandsons inheriting put them to death, seizing the goods for himself. them indicates that the count of otogs as we have it now When the sole survivor reached Mongolia and was probably fixed after, not before, this repartition. reported to Chinggis Khan, he sent three envoys, two The OIRATS also maintained a system of otogs at this Mongols and a Khorazmian, to demand that Inalchuq be time. After the reorganization of GALDAN-TSEREN (r. handed over as restitution. Sultan Muhammad refused— 1727–45) the Zünghar principality’s directly administered due to Inalchuq’s influence in the realm he could do no core was divided into 14 “old” and 16 “new” otogs. Rang- other—and then killed the envoys. This final act infuri- ing from 500 to 6,000 households in size, they averaged ated Chinggis Khan, who prayed to heaven for success in almost 3,600 households. The names of the otogs were a righteous campaign and began war against Khorazm. In sometimes clan or ethnically based (e.g., Telengit, the end Otrar’s population was massacred and Inalchuq Tsokhur) but were often occupational (e.g., Buuchin, executed in the khan’s presence outside Samarqand. “musketeers”). They were each headed by one to five offi- See also MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG. cials called albachi zaisang, or “tax officials.” The Qing dynasty abolished the otog organization, replacing it with banners (khoshuu) and “arrows” (sumu; Outer Mongolia See MONGOLIA, STATE OF. modern sum), yet the otog remained in ecclesiastical estates, such as the GREAT SHABI of the JIBZUNDAMBA overtone-singing See THROAT SINGING. KHUTUGTU and the organization of the TAIJI, or Chinggisid nobility, within the banners. The term is occasionally used among the BURIATS as well. ovoo See OBOO. See also APPANAGE SYSTEM. Övörchangaj See SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. Otrar Incident (Utrar) The Otrar Incident, in which a delegation of the Mongols’ merchant partners was mas- Övörhangai See SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. sacred without provocation by a local governor, provoked CHINGGIS KHAN’s war on Muslim Central Asia. By 1216 the new empires of Mongolia under Ching- Owenk’e See EWENKIS. gis Khan (Genghis, 1206–27) and of KHORAZM under Sul- tan ‘Ala-ud-Din Muhammad (r. 1200–20/1) had divided the QARA-KHITAI Empire between them. Chinggis Khan Oyirad See OIRATS. deputed three Muslim merchants in his service to announce his desire for peace with Sultan Muhammad Oyrot See OIRATS. and to present rich gifts. The envoys met the sultan early in 1218 as he was returning from a western campaign. The Khorazm shah needed information about the new Özbeg Khan (Uzbek) (r. 1313–1341) Khan who made power and dispatched his own envoys to Mongolia as Islam the ruling religion of the Golden Horde merchants opened private trade. Özbeg’s father, Toghrilcha, was a leader in the junta that In autumn 1218 Sultan Muhammad, campaigning in overthrew Töde-Mengü (1280–87). Later, however, the north, ran across a Mongol army pursuing fugitive Toghrilcha’s brother, TOQTO’A Khan (1291–1312) over- MERKID tribesmen. Despite the outnumbered Mongols’ threw the junta and promoted Buddhism. attempts to appease him, the sultan attacked. An incon- Converted to Islam by Ibn ‘Abd-ul-Hamid, a Bukha- clusive battle followed, but the skill of the Mongol cav- ran sayyid (descendant of the prophet) and sheikh (Sufi 432 Özbeg Khan master) of the Yasavi order, Özbeg seized power from his cion of Moscow’s growing power, Özbeg gave his sister base in KHORAZM after Toqto’a’s death. He killed a number Könchek to Iurii of Moscow, allowing her to be baptized. of emirs and Buddhist clerics who opposed Islamization Repeated provocations from Moscow’s rival city Tver’, of the Mongols, and to commemorate his rule he built a including the capture and suspicious death of Könchek, splendid mosque at Qirim (modern Staryy Krym in eventually pushed Özbeg to side with Moscow and make CRIMEA) in 1314. Özbeg honored Ibn ‘Abd-ul-Hamid as Iurii’s brother, Ivan I, grand prince of Russia (1332–41). Sayyid Ata (Sayyid Father), making him hereditary naqib Sayyid Ata and the clergy preferred Janibeg, but fol- (marshal) with the right to drink first of KOUMISS and lowing primogeniture Özbeg’s elder son, Tïnïbeg, suc- tutor for his second son, Janibeg. Özbeg made Qutlugh- ceeded him in 1341. With the clergy’s support, Janibeg Temür, who had assisted his rise, commander in chief murdered Tïnïbeg and seized the throne as khan (r. (beglerbegi), but by 1332 Qutlugh-Temür had been trans- 1342–57). ferred to rule Khorazm and ‘Isa Beg became commander See also BYZANTIUM AND BULGARIA; GOLDEN HORDE; in chief. Following Mongol practice Özbeg married his ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. father’s wives, which the Islamic clergy allowed, as their Further reading: Devin DeWeese, Islamization and husband had been an unbeliever. the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and the Conversion to Islam Özbeg pursued an aggressive policy toward the IL- in Historical and Epic Tradition (University Park: Pennsyl- KHANATE and Byzantium. Domestically, despite his suspi- vania State University Press, 1994). paiza The Mongol paiza was a badge or tablet that gave the bearer authority to demand goods and services P The Mongols did not distinguish between tallies and tablets; bearers kept all badges permanently and even from civilian populations. The Mongol paiza system transferred them to others. Commanders of decimal combined the pai, or “tablet,” and the fu, or “tally,” sys- units, overseers (DARUGHACHI), tributary rulers, honored tems of China. In the traditional Tang dynasty clerics, ORTOQ merchants, meritorious soldiers, and (618–907) system preserved by the Liao (907–1125), a hordes of envoys all received them. Only the accompany- limited number of silver pai or paizi, issued only in ing JARLIQ, or warrant, specified the reason for conferring emergencies, gave the bearer the right to use the official the paiza. Members of the ruling family also made and postroad, while “goldfish tallies,” divided into left and granted paizas to their servitors. While technically the right halves, authenticated mobilization orders. Troops paiza and jarliq simply entitled the bearer to use the could be mobilized only when the emperor dispatched a postroads, in practice the higher badges gave virtually half to match that held by the commander. Under the unlimited power over life and property. The Persian his- JIN DYNASTY postroad tablets, ranked as gold, silver, and torians ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI and RASHID-UD-DIN wooden, were given permanently to the heads of mili- FAZL-ULLAH paint a vivid picture of provincial officials tias’ decimal units. While the goldfish shape was and envoys, all armed with paizas and jarliqs, engaged in replaced by a golden tiger, the tally system was other- unending wars over jurisdiction. wise unchanged. After Chinggis’s time strong rulers aimed to limit CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) seems to have both the power and the number of paizas in circulation. adopted the tablet and tally system within a year or two ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) prohibited the nobility from of invading the Jin, and the form of Mongol paizas (mod- issuing paizas and jarliqs, but in the long interregnum ern paiz, from Chinese paizi) copied the Jin tablets and following his death, the Mongol nobility again issued tallies closely. There were four ranks, golden tiger, gold them freely. Even orders to recall all old paizas and jarliqs (actually gilded silver), silver, and wood, all worn on the proved ineffective, as the badges, undated and of bearer’s belt. The silver and gold paizas were basically unchanging form, could easily be concealed and used rectangular in shape with rounded ends and a hole again. MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) prohibited merchants toward the upper end. The tiger-head paizas were round from using paizas. QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) divided the and surmounted by a tiger’s head and a ring. The Mongo- golden tiger tablet into three ranks and added a new cate- lian paiza inscription, however, granted far more compre- gory of gerfalcon paiza, conferred only on active-duty hensive authority than did the Jin or Liao: “By the power officers, which gave the right to use special “gerfalcon” of eternal Heaven, by the protection of the great blessed- postroads. In the IL-KHANATE, GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) ness [of Chinggis],” and on the back, “Whoever has no canceled all old paizas, requiring their holders to reverence [some add: for the decree of so-and-so] shall be exchange old ones for new. The new paizas, fashioned in guilty and die.” two ranks, contained the names of the bearers on them to 433 434 palaces of the Bogda Khan prevent them from being transferred and were to be JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU in 1739, with four dugangs turned in at the end of the official’s term. Nevertheless, (assembly halls) for the four tantras. It was expanded by even strong advocates of regular procedures found that the Fourth Jibzundamba in 1807–09. The architecture was the paiza system, in the hands of loyal and able servants, a distinctive Mongolian departure on a Chinese design. readily cut through bureaucratic knots. Thus, the crisis- The Bogda lived within the yellow-walled compound filled beginning of Qubilai Khan’s reign juxtaposed (hence its common name, Yellow Palace) in two yurts, one repeated injunctions for officials not to arbitrarily levy wooden and one felt. In 1892 the temple burned down but goods or troops with continued issuance of high-ranking was rebuilt. It was located in East Khüriye, just north of paizas in large numbers to favored commanders, who modern-day central ULAANBAATAR. After 1911 it was the used them as rewards for their officers. seat of the theocratic government. The QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) also maintained a The other palaces were all built south of the city, postroad system in Mongolia and issued “postroad riding between the Selbe River and the TUUL RIVER. Gunggade- certificates” (ulaa unukhu temdeg). Like the old Chinese jidling, or “White Temple” was to the west and was built tablets, however, they were specified for a particular by the Fifth Jibzundamba (1815–42) in a Tibetan style. office and, while still open to abuse, were reserved more After 1928 it was for several years the party school for the strictly to actual postroad use. Still, the reputation of MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY. The Khaisu- messengers was not good; a proverb in the Mongolian tai Labrang Palace (also called the Brown, or Summer, genre “THREES OF THE WORLD” describes messengers thus: Palace) to the east was built around the turn of the 20th “In government, a messenger is rough / In metals, a file is century by the EIGHTH JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU rough / In a hole, a hedgehog is rough.” (1870–1924). Within its courtyard the Bogda pastured his herds of pet animals, including an elephant. palaces of the Bogda Khan By 1911 the Bogda Khan Sharabpeljailing, the Green, or Winter, Palace, was (Holy Khan), or JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, had four palaces. built from 1893 to 1906 by the Tezhan firm. Its chief hall Only one, the Green, or Winter, Palace, has survived. The is dedicated to the maharajas, or deities, of the four quar- Dechingalba Temple was originally built by the SECOND ters. In 1905 a two-story white European-style building The Andingmen Gate, built from 1912 to 1919 in front of the Bogda Khan’s Green Place to commemorate Mongolian independence (From N. Tsultem, Mongolian Architecture [1988]) Parwan, Battle of 435 was added. From 1912 to 1919 the monumental Anding- Song, its bills were taken out of circulation at the confis- men (Mongolian, Amugulang Engkhe-yin Khagalga), or catory rate of 50 to 1, and convertibility was canceled “Gate of Peace and Stability,” was constructed in front of until 1282. From then on chronic inflation replaced the the palace by the same Tezhan firm. Pictures on the gate slight deflation that marked the 1260s. Fragmentary data show episodes from the GESER epic and the Chinese novel show rice prices rising from 1276 to 1308 at around Journey to the West. This palace, which was well known in 12–13 percent a year. Fiscal indiscipline—government Mongolia for housing the Eighth Bogda’s stuffed animals, expenditures routinely exceeded revenues by 40 percent curios, mechanical devices, and other objects of general or more—was this inflation’s most obvious cause, yet the interest, was made a museum in 1924. Yuan’s currency emissions also correlated closely with See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Eurasian silver supply trends visible elsewhere, indicating that currency managers did make a serious effort to keep Pao-an See BAO’AN LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. currency issues in line with silver reserves. Outside observers understood nothing of paper money’s complex financial underpinnings, considering it Pao-tou See BAOTOU. almost a species of magic. In 1294, facing a fiscal crisis, the Mongol khan in Iran, Geikhatu (1291–95), and his papacy See WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. vizier, Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani (d. 1298), consulted with BOLAD CHINGSANG, the Yuan’s representative in Iran, and paper currency in the Mongol Empire Travelers attempted to introduce unbacked paper currency (called such as MARCO POLO and MUHAMMAD ABU-‘ABDULLAH IBN chao from the Chinese). Massive popular resistance BATTUTA considered the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY’s use of forced its abandonment after a few weeks. paper currency as one of the marvels of the world. The In 1287 Qubilai’s minister SANGHA introduced a new SONG DYNASTY (960–1279) and JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) currency, the Zhiyuan (Chih-yüan) bills, to deal with the in China began issuing paper bills (chao) at first to sup- budget shortfall. The new nonconvertible currency was plement and then to replace copper coins. Lack of finan- also denominated in copper cash. Officially, the Zhong- cial discipline began to eat into the Jin currency after tong bills were now devalued to 20 percent of the value 1190 and the Song currency after 1210, and the death of a Zhiyuan bill of the same denomination. In fact, how- throes of both dynasties were accompanied by a hyperin- ever, the Zhongtong currency circulated at equal or even flationary spiral. After conquering North China the Mon- greater value, probably due to the fact that after 1304 it gol administration issued local bills from 1227 on. These became convertible to silver again. Another experiment bills had limited circulation and expired after two or in 1309 tried to remove the Zhongtong currency from three years, and the Mongol administration did not circulation at only 4 percent of its original value and to accept them as tax payments, insisting on silver. Such introduce new silver-denominated and nonconvertible locally issued currencies continued until 1261. Zhida (Chih-ta) bills and copper coins. This initiative In Augut 1260 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), under the was abandoned after 1311 in favor of printing Zhongtong advice of Wang Wentong (d. 1262), LIU BINGZHONG, and and Zhiyuan currency again. After 1321 emissions others created China’s first unified paper currency with declined, and prices stabilized. After plague, flooding, bills that circulated throughout the realm with no expira- and climate change brought massive economic disloca- tion date. To guard against devaluation, this Zhongtong tion in the 1330s and 1340s, however, the minister TOQ- (Chung-t’ung) currency was fully convertible with silver TO’A tried to finance his hugely ambitious program of and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in reconstruction with a new unbacked Zhizheng (Chih- paper currency. The currency’s 10 denominations were cheng) currency in 1351. The renewed emission of cur- given in copper cash equivalents from 10 coins to two rency combined with massive revolts that crippled strings of 1,000 coins each. Two strings of paper money revenues forced the Yuan into a hyperinflationary spiral, were exchangeable for one tael of silver and 15 strings for driving paper currency out of use by 1359 or so. 1 tael of gold. The YASTUQ, or ding, a silver ingot worth See also MONEY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. 50 taels, was retained as the money of account. The Mon- Further reading: Peng Xinwei, trans. Edward H. gol currency was printed on one side in black ink only, at Kaplan, A Monetary History of China (Zhongguo Huobi first by wooden blocks on coarse cloth. In 1276 the mints Shi) (Bellingham: Western Washington University Press, shifted to more durable copper blocks and mulberry-bark 1994), 2: 458–536. paper. Used bills were replaced for a 3 percent fee for ink and labor. Parwan, Battle of (Perwan, Parvan) At the Battle of Currency emissions were kept small at first, but from Parwan in Afghanistan in spring 1221, a Central Asian 1273 to 1276 war against the Song in South China and Turkish army defeated the Mongols. The victory tem- Japan made emissions of paper currency explode from porarily raised hopes of driving out the Mongols, but it 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding. With the conquest of the soon evaporated in internal dissensions. 436 patronymics In February 1221 Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi (d. 1950 to the use of the initials. The introduction of 1231), son and heir of the sultan of KHORAZM, came to patronymics had to overcome strong resistance from the Ghazni in Afghanistan intending to revive resistance to population due to the traditionally strict prohibition on CHINGGIS KHAN’s invasion. Malik Khan (Amin Malik, d. children mentioning their parents’ names in public. 1221) of Herat was already in Ghazni with 50,000 pagan When speaking in Mongolian, the patronymic, if Qangli Turks. After the arrival of Jalal-ud-Din, famous for needed, is used in the genitive (possessive) form with the his bravery, local Ghuri warriors rallied to his banner, as patronymic first (e.g., Dorjiin Baatar, Dorj’s Baatar, or D. did Saif-ud-Din Ighraq with 40,000 warriors of the Mus- Baatar). In writing for foreign audiences, however, the lim Khalaj Turks. genitive is often dropped and the order reversed. Titles In spring 1221 Jalal-ud-Din advanced to Parwan in are always attached to the name, never the patronymic the Hindu Kush mountains, defeating a small detachment (thus Doctor Baatar, not Doctor Dorjiin). of Mongols. A week later Chinggis Khan dispatched SHIGI In 1997 Mongolia’s government decided that even QUTUQU with three tümens (nominally 30,000) cavalry. the combination of patronymics and names left too many Jalal-ud-Din ordered the army to dismount, so that the people with the same names. The genuine ancient owogs, men would fight without thought of flight. Taking the or CLAN NAMES, were to be revived, with the patronymic center, he put Ighraq on the left and Malik Khan on the functioning as a middle name. (Thus, if Dorjiin Baatar’s right. Malik Khan’s 10,000 men on the right slowly clan name was BORJIGID, he would be Borjigid Dorjiin pushed the Mongols to their base in hard fighting. The Baatar.) This new reform has run up against the problem next day the Mongols set figures on their spare remounts that most Mongols do not know their clan names. to make their numbers look greater, but the ruse did not Mongolia’s patronymic system was sometimes imi- fool Jalal-ud-Din. The third day Mongol ba’aturs (heroes) tated in Inner Mongolia from 1947 on, although it never charged Ighraq’s left wing. Ighraq’s men, on foot again, became official. fired their arrows, and the Mongols feigned flight. Jalal- See also NAMES, PERSONAL. ud-Din beat the drums to mount, Ighraq’s men charged, but the Mongols suddenly turned and charged again, killing 500. Just then Jalal-ud-Din personally rode up and petroglyphs Found throughout the territory of Mon- put the Mongols to flight. Large numbers of Mongols golia and Inner Mongolia and dating from all periods, were captured, and Jala-ud-Din killed them by nailing petroglyphs (paintings or carvings on stone) form a sur- stakes into their ears. vey of the lifestyles and beliefs of the peoples inhabiting Unfortunately for Jalal-ud-Din’s cause, Malik Khan the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. They are, however, difficult to struck Ighraq in a dispute over booty, and when Jalal-ud- date, especially as favored sites were used for several Din proved unable to discipline the turbulent Qangli millenia. Turks, Ighraq and his men deserted the army. Chinggis Art in Mongolia, as in Europe and Siberia, began in Khan soon moved up his whole army, and Jalal-ud-Din, the Upper Paleolithic (40,000–14,000 years ago). Pictures unable to resist, retreated to the Indus. of Ice Age animals have been found in Mongolia at Khoid Tsenkher (Mankhan Sum, Khowd) and elsewhere. In the Mesolithic (11,000–8,000 years ago) and Neolithic patronymics In Mongolia the practice of using a (5000–1500 B.C.E.) considerably cruder animal figures patronymic, or one’s father’s name, began in Buriatia and were usually carved in outline. Cattle were commonly was introduced by the government into Mongolia in the represented in these periods, often with a circle or even a 1930s. Today patronymics are seen as inadequate and are whole calf inside the body. Horses, elk, and ibex are also being supplemented by the revival of ancient clan names. common. Hunting scenes are rare, but faces and standing The use of patronymics among the Mongolian peoples male and female figures occur frequently. began among the 19th-century BURIATS of southern The Bronze and early Iron Ages (around 1500–500 Siberia. Buriats created Russian-style surnames, not from B.C.E.) were the “golden age” of Mongolian petroglyphs, their own clan names, but simply from their fathers’ both carved and painted in red ocher. Bichigtiin Am given names. The patronymics eventually became fixed (Bayanlig, Bayankhongor) is perhaps the richest site. The surnames, although they remained flexible well into the most common theme is ibex and elk being hunted by Soviet era. men with bows and arrows and assisted by dogs. Wolves, In Mongolia proper the government used only per- foxes, sheep, boars, camels, and other game appear regu- sonal names until around 1934, when a patronymic sys- larly, but cattle are rarer. Stylized elk identical to those on tem (designated owog, clan) was introduced on ELK STONES are found as well as less-stylized elk with administrative forms to resolve confusion among people high-standing horns. Carefully rendered two-wheeled with the same names. From 1943 the initial syllable of chariots drawn by two (or occasionally three) horses are patronymics began to be widely used with names in all separate from hunting scenes. Figures lead or ride horses formal writing. This gave way with Cyrillicization in and occasionally camels. Ocher rock paintings often ’Phags-pa Lama 437 show a square outline filled with dots (corrals? lineage na rDo-rje, now prince of Bailan and husband of a Mon- grave sites?), with flying birds and stick figures leading gol princess, secular rule in dBus-gTsang, or central quadrupeds (horses? dogs?) nearby. Figures of mounted Tibet. Other orders were disgusted by ’Phags-pa’s Mongo- archers hunting presumably postdate the eighth century lian clothes and manners, and after Phyag-na rDo-rje’s B.C.E. sudden death in 1267 the traditionally unruly ’Bri-gung- Later petroglyphs, while usefully illustrating aspects pa order revolted. ’Phags-pa returned to Qubilai’s court at of material culture—headgear, Mongol yurts (ger), carts, SHANGDU as Mongol troops cowed the ’Bri-gung-pa into armored cavalrymen, composite bows—lack the rich submission and reinstalled regular Mongol rule. composition of the Bronze Age sites. Finally, in the Bud- Once at court, Qubilai charged ’Phags-pa with dhist era monks often wrote Om Mani Padme Hum and designing a new script that could render all the scripts of other inscriptions over rock drawings. Abstract designs the empire, particularly Chinese and the Uighur script probably related to lineage brand markings are common used for writing Mongolian. ’Phags-pa based his new throughout the history of Mongolian petroglyphs. SQUARE SCRIPT on Tibetan and presented it to the emperor See also HUNTING AND FISHING; PREHISTORY. on March 17, 1269. As a reward Qubilai promoted Further reading: Esther Jacobson, Vladimir Kubarev, ’Phags-pa to the position of imperial preceptor (Chinese, and Damdinsürengijn Tseevendorj [sic for Tseveendorj], dishi). Répertoire des pétroglyphs d’Asie centrale, vol. 6, Mongolie ’Phags-pa spent the next years mostly at Lintao, in du Nord-ouest: Tsagaan-Salaa/Bago Oigor (Paris: De Boc- northwest China. In spring 1274 he finally resigned his card, 2001) [in English]. position as imperial preceptor to his younger half-brother Rin-chen-rGyal-mtshan (1238–79) and returned to cen- tral Tibet with a large escort. Delayed in the high moun- ’Phags-pa Lama (hP‘ags-pa Lama) (1235–1280) Tibetan tains near the source of the Huang (Yellow) River, he Buddhist cleric who designed a new script for Mongolian arrived at Sa-skya late in 1276. In 1277 he called the and began Tibet’s priest-patron relation with the Mongols Council of Chu-mig (modern Qumig, near Xigazê) in ’Phags-pa Lama, scion of the powerful ’Khon family in 1277, which he asked a master of the rival bKa’-dams-pa central Tibet, which had controlled both the monastery order to chair, to restore peace between the various and secular rule in the Sa-skya (modern Sa’gya) district, orders of Tibetan monks. He died on December 14, 1280. was born on March 26, 1235, in the Ngam-rings (mod- ’Phags-pa’s family held the Imperial Preceptorate until his ern Ngamring) district of western Tibet. Originally nephew Dharmapalarakshita’s death in 1287. From 1320 named Blo-gros rGyal-mtshan, he was later known as on memorial halls to ’Phags-pa were constructed by ’Phags-pa Lama (Noble Guru). When the Mongol prince imperial order over all the empire. KÖTEN summoned the boy’s uncle Sa-skya Pandita ’Phags-pa wrote many works in Tibetan, in particular (1182–1251) to his appanage in Liangzhou (modern several handbooks of Buddhism intended for the Mongol Wuwei) in 1244, Sa-skya Pandita brought with him royal family. His Shes-bya rab-gsal (Elucidation of the both ’Phags-pa and ’Phags-pa’s younger brother Phyag- knowable), written for the crown prince JINGIM, was na rDo-rje (1239–67). translated into Chinese (1306) and later included in the In 1253, after the death of Köten and Sa-skya Pan- dita, the prince Qubilai summoned ’Phags-pa and Phyag- Chinese Buddhist canon. Excerpts were also incorporated na rDo-rje to his court. On June 21, 1255, ’Phags-pa as a chapter in the later Mongolian-language Buddhist received his monastic vows, and three years later he handbook Chikhula kereglegchi (What it is important to played a major role in a Buddhist-Taoist debate before know, c. 1600). This work promoted the concept of the Qubilai. That same year ’Phags-pa gave Qubilai and his Mongol dynasty as successor to a long line of Buddhist wife CHABUI the first of three Tantric Hevajra initiations rulers in India and Tibet. As a Sanskritist he also pro- of the Sa-skya order. moted the study and imitation of Sanskrit canons of Elected khan in 1260, QUBILAI KHAN appointed poetry in Tibet. ’Phags-pa as state preceptor (Chinese, guoshi) with a jade In subsequent Tibetan and Mongolian historiogra- seal on January 14, 1261, and he served both as the phy, ’Phags-pa appears as the first Tibetan cleric to estab- emperor’s personal chaplain and head of all Buddhist lish the “priest-patron” relation with an Inner Asian or monks. ’Phags-pa was chosen for this position not due to Chinese ruler and one who secured the high-level auton- any established leadership in Tibet—the Sa-skya-pa were omy of Tibet under Mongol rule. In fact, however, ’Phags- only one of many Tibetan monastic orders—but due to pa was a rather unambitious scholarly monk, loyal to the his intellectual ability, familiarity with the Mongol world, Mongol rulers but uncomfortable in his position as Qubi- and loyalty to Qubilai. lai’s viceroy in Tibet. In June 1264 Qubilai sent ’Phags-pa and Phyag-na See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS rDo-rje back to Tibet, granting ’Phags-pa authority over POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET AND THE MONGOL all the Buddhist clergy in Tibet while investing in Phyag- EMPIRE; TREASURY OF APHORISTIC JEWELS; TWO CUSTOMS. 438 ’Phags-pa script Further reading: Agata Bareja-Starzynska, ´ “A Brief semiofficial ORTOQ (partner) merchants traveling through Study of the Mongolian Transmission of the Buddhist Bukhara to “Cambalu” (DAIDU, modern Beijing) and the ´ bya rab gsal by ’Phags pa bla ma Blo gros Treatise Ses court of QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94). rgyal mtshan,” in Tractata Tibetica et Mongolica, ed. Being by their own account the first Latins Qubilai Karénina Kollmar-Paulenz and Christian Peter (Wies- had ever seen, the khan sent them back with a PAIZA baden: Otto Harrassowitz, 2002), 13–20; Constance (badge of authority) to seek more men from the pope. Hoog, Prince Jin-gim’s Textbook of Tibetan Buddhism (Lei- Reaching Venice in 1269, the Polos waited for a new den: E. J. Brill, 1983); L. Petech, “’P’ags-pa,” in In the Ser- pope to be elected. Delayed several years, they eventually vice of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early returned to Qubilai, accompanied only by Niccolò’s son Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz Marco, whom they had picked up in Venice. et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz 1993), 646–654. The Polos then spent more than a decade in China, where they were members of the SEMUREN (various sorts) ’Phags-pa script See SQUARE SCRIPT. class, below the Mongols but above the local Chinese. By his own account Marco served the khan on missions to YUNNAN and the Indian Ocean, gratifying Qubilai Khan’s plebiscite on independence In the plebiscite of hunger for fascinating stories of those far-off places. In October 20, 1945, the Mongolian people voted unani- 1289 Qubilai appointed the Polos to accompany Kökejin mously for independence from China. as a new bride for the Il-Khan Arghun (1284–91) in Iran. Based on the Yalta accords of February 1945 between Traveling by sea, they found Arghun Khan dead and so the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, the Chi- took the bride to his son Ghazan in Khorasan. nese ruler Chiang Kai-shek was forced in the Sino-Soviet The Polos finally returned to Venice in 1295. Marco Friendship Treaty of August 14 to recognize Mongolian was captured while commanding a Venetian war galley in independence within its current frontiers. The one face- 1296 and imprisoned in Genoa. There he met a Pisan saving condition was that the Mongolian people should romance writer, Rustichello, to whom he narrated his confirm their desire for independence with a plebiscite. experiences. Rustichello wrote Marco’s account in Franco- From August 30 the Mongolian government began a mas- Italian, adding many elements of medieval romance writ- sive campaign for a successful plebiscite, eventually hold- ing and entitling the whole Le Divisament dou monde (The ing 13,000 mass meetings. On October 20 the plebiscite description of the world). After his release Marco Polo was conducted, with Li Fazhang, China’s deputy interior returned to Venice. Despite his travels, he does not seem minister as observer. The logistics of assembling the peo- to have achieved any great wealth, and his will passed on ple for voting and reporting the results proved quite only a few souvenirs of his time in the East. formidable, as Mongolia’s ruler MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG The Description of the World is organized around demanded full counts by 12 noon in the countryside and three itineraries Marco Polo actually traveled: 1) the 8 P.M. in the towns. In open balloting—all voters had to Polos’ 1276–79 route east from LESSER ARMENIA through sign their names or affix thumbprints—the Mongolian Iran and Afghanistan to “Cambalu”; 2) Marco’s route people voted 483,281 to 0 for independence from China. from “Cambalu” to Yunnan; and 3) the Polos’ 1289–91 On January 6, 1946, the Chinese government recognized route from “Cambalu” to the port of Zaiton (modern the results as valid, and on February 13 the Chinese for- Quanzhou) and from there by sea to Java, southern India, eign minister and a Mongolian delegation headed by the and Iran. Along each route, however, numerous digres- deputy secretary of the party’s Central Committee, Ch. sions describe places such as KASHMIR, the Mongolian Sürenjaw, exchanged formal recognition. Nevertheless, heartland, Japan, Socotra, and Zanzibar, which Marco diplomatic relations were never actually established, and Polo never visited personally. A final chapter describes outstanding issues, particularly the border, were never Russia and Siberia with romanticized incidents from the settled. history of the western khanates. Since the Polos traveled as ortoq merchants and Poland See CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. envoys using the Mongol JAM (postroads) and escorts, it is not surprising that Marco Polo’s account of the “Tar- Polo, Marco (1254–1324) Italian merchant and traveler tars” (Mongols) is extremely favorable. As a jumble of who gave the most famous account of Asia and East Africa first-, second-, and third-hand material retold without the at the time of the Mongol Empire aid of notes many years later, the historical value of the Marco Polo was born in 1254 into a well-to-do Venetian descriptions is uneven. Boasts of having participated in merchant family. In 1260 Marco’s father, Niccolò, and his the siege of Xiangyang (modern Xiangfan) and having brother Maffeo, traveled through Soldaia (in Crimea) to been governor of Yangzhou, easily refuted by Chinese the court of Berke, khan of the GOLDEN HORDE. By pre- records, have damaged his reputation, yet Marco Polo at senting tangsuqs (rarities, in this case jewels), they his best has a genius for vivid description and supplies received goods and capital from Berke and became invaluable historical information. prehistory 439 From the beginning the Description of the World was sites, dated at 60,000 and 38,000 years BP. The Otson immensely popular in Europe. More than 150 manuscripts Maanit industries include bladed flakes, retouched exist in many languages, and the textual history is round scrapers, small hand axes, and triangles, many extremely confused. In 1307 Marco Polo himself abridged struck with soft hammers of wood or bone. No early and translated the text into French, and Tuscan Italian hominid remains have been found in Mongolia, but the and Latin abridgements were also made during his life. above industries are elsewhere associated with Homo The so-called Z, or Toledo, manuscript in Latin contains erectus, archaic Homo sapiens (or Homo heidelbergensis), many additional passages shared with the first printed and Homo neaderthalensis. edition of Giovanni Ramusio (1539). Whether these additions go back to Polo himself is disputed. The influ- UPPER PALEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC ence of Marco Polo on European knowledge of the East The Upper Paleolithic industries, associated with mod- was immense; Christopher Columbus was only one of ern Homo sapiens and found in the cold climate of the those inspired by his account. last glaciation (dated 40,000–14,000 years BP), not only See also CHRISTIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; show more specialized and standardized flakes and WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. blades but also, at Rashaan (Batshireet Sum, Khentii) Further reading: A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot, Descrip- and Khoid Tsenkher (Mankhan Sum, Khowd), the earli- tion of the World (1938; rpt., New York, 1976); Paul Pelliot, est Mongolian art: ocher paintings and carvings of wooly Notes on Marco Polo, 3 vols. (Paris: Librairie Adrien- rhinoceroses, mammoths, ibexes, ostriches, bison, and Maisonneuve, 1959, 1963, 1973); Igor de Rachewiltz, camels. Human and animal figurines and shelters have “Marco Polo Went to China,” Zentralasiatische Studien 27 been found at the South Siberian site of Mal’ta, near (1997): 34–92. Usol’ye Sibirskoye, and willow basketwork at Jalainuur (Djalai-nor, Zhalainuor) in northeast Inner Mongolia. Microlithic industries characteristic of the Mesolithic Polovtsi See QIPCHAQS. appear relatively early in Mongolia, with unrecalibrated radiocarbon dates of 11,000–8,000 years BP. At Moiltyn prehistory Stone Age sites have been found over much Am the transition from Upper Paleolithic to Mesolithic of the territory of Mongolia. While graves and settle- shows both primitive-looking pebble tools and small ments from the Bronze Age onward are generally concen- scrapers, awls, and points, an assemblage similar to the trated in the khangai (wooded mountain) zone of Ordosian assemblage of southwestern Inner Mongolia, Mongolia, Stone Age sites are generally found in the gobi exemplified at Shara Usu Gool (Sjara-osso-gol, modern and steppe zones. Wuding River), and to the post-Mal’ta Siberian site of Afontova-Gora on the Yenisey. LOWER AND MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC Possibly the earliest stone tools in Mongolia are found in NEOLITHIC the Tsagaan Agui cave (Bayanlig Sum, Bayankhongor). The Neolithic in Mongolia (5000–1500 B.C.E.) shows The date of these tools is, however, controversial; some considerable continuity in chipped-stone industries with archaeologists date them to strata from 700,000 years the Mesolithic. Characteristic of both periods are the before the present (BP), when the climate of Mongolia “Gobi cores” that are retouched and used as scrapers after was relatively favorable. Others regard their presence as having flake tools removed from them. Arrowheads of intrusive and date them to higher strata from around several types and rarer large spearheads and bone knives 300,000 years BP. set with flint blades were the culmination of chipped- The next datable tools in Mongolia, those of Yarkh stone industries in Mongolia. Cultivation of millet and Uul (Gurwansaikhan, Middle Gobi), are dated to 300,000 wheat brought into use querns, mortars, pestles, and years BP. The industries are dominated by handax forms other ground-stone articles. Pottery decorated with lines, similar to the Acheulian of Europe and Africa but quite waves, stripes, and rope impressions appeared as did different from the pebble industries of East, South, and bone fishing harpoons. Hearths and semisubterranean Southeast Asia. The Moiltyn Am (Kharkhorin Sum, dwellings and a number of early Neolithic gravesites have North Khangai) site, however, shows chopping tools been found near Choibalsang city, at Baruun Ölziit, characteristic of South and Southeast Asia, together with Norowlin, Tamsag, and the Kherlen Bridge. Tightly dou- remains showing the Levallois technique of using pre- bled-up bodies were placed facing west in narrow pits pared cores, which developed among the Acheulian and covered with ocher. Ornaments included pearl and industries to the west. deer-and marmot-teeth necklaces, bone and shell plates The Mousterian industries of the Middle Paleloithic of various forms, and bracelets. A unique find from are represented at Orkhon-7 (Kharkhorin Sum, North Norowlin is an oval bone plate with a schematic human Khangai), Otson Maanit (South Gobi), Chikhen Agui face. Nephrite goods in eastern Mongolia show trade cave (Bayan-Öndör Sum, Bayankhongor), and other links to Tuva’s Sayan Mountains. 440 privatization BRONZE AGE culture to the west. Except for the Arzhan site in Tuva, The MONGOLIAN PLATEAU is richly supplied with the cop- Tuvan and Mongolian Iron Age graves are not grouped per and tin deposits needed to make bronze. Slab (or around a single chief, and while grave goods differ by age stone-cist) graves, PETROGLYPHS, and ELK STONES mark and sex, the distinction is not strict. Not until the emer- archaeologically the distinctive Bronze Age culture of gence of the XIONGNU around 210 B.C.E. does the aristo- Mongolia, Transbaikalia, and Tuva, dated from the 13th cratic chief accompanied in death by slaves and family to the eighth centuries B.C.E. Bodies were buried length- appear in Mongolian ARCHAEOLOGY. wise in the soil with flagstones on the head and chest. See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; FUNER- Around the grave, in a 2 by 3 meter (7 x 10 feet) rectan- ARY CUSTOMS. gle, was erected a fence of slabs. Finally, a memorial stone Further reading: Ignace Bourgeois et al., Ancient might be erected at the site. Fields of such slab graves Nomads of the Altai Mountains: Belgian-Russian Multidisci- marked major gravesites, but all known slab graves have plinary Archaeological Research on the Scytho-Siberian Cul- been looted. Remaining grave goods include sprinklings ture (Brussels: Royal Museums of Art and History, 2000); of ocher, Neolithic-style flint blades, remains of livestock Esther Jacobson, Burial Ritual, Gender, and Status in South including one or more horses, pottery, necklaces, inlaid Siberia in the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age (Bloomington, ornaments, and remnants of hearths, perhaps connected Ind.: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1988). to the funerary meal and/or a commemorative bonfire. Pottery includes tripods modeled on Chinese Bronze Age privatization Privatization in Mongolia was carried li vessels, while helmets and ring-pommel bronze knives out very rapidly by means of vouchers from 1991 to show important links to Bronze Age Inner Mongolia and 1995. During this period the private sector’s share of the the Karasuk culture of Khakassia. Contemporary petro- economy rose from 10 percent in 1990 to 63.7 percent in glyphs show two-wheeled chariots and livestock but 1995. Further privatization by auction of several large mostly archers hunting ibex or elk on foot. Elk imagery enterprises, apartments, and residential and farmland has been linked to the cult of a deer goddess. (but not pastures) followed. IRON AGE VOUCHER PRIVATIZATION The transition to the Iron Age took place from the eighth With the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION the new Mongo- to fifth centuries B.C.E. along with the refinement of lian government created a plan for rapid privatization of horse-riding technology to permit mounted ARCHERY. existing enterprises. The plan was developed by the head Mobility increased, transforming transhumance into of the State Privatization Commission, D. Ganbold (b. long-distance pastoral nomadism. Northwest Mongolia’s 1957), a Moscow-trained economist and founder of the Iron Age culture, as exemplified at Chandmani Uul National Progress Party. It was ratified by the Law on Pri- (Ulaangom Sum, Uws), was identical to the Uyuk culture vatization passed on May 22, 1991. Privatization for the of Tuva and similar to the Tagar culture of Khakassia. In nonagricultural sector was envisioned in two parallel pro- contrast to the slab grave culture, burials were collective cesses: For small enterprises (shops, handicrafts, etc.) the and diverse in form. The approximately 300 graves of aim was to enable individuals with entrepreneurial abili- Chandmani Uul show four types: 1) large pyramidal ties and interest to gather enough capital to buy them stone barrows; 2) stone barrows without a coffin; 3) outright, and for large enterprises (factories, supermar- small stone coffins; and 4) log-walled barrows. Only kets, hotels, etc.) the aim was to create a dispersed stock examples of the last type, invisible from the surface, have ownership while allowing for a continuity of manage- been relatively undisturbed. Each burial chamber con- ment. Twenty large enterprises, in utilities, transport, tains up to 10 bodies, men, women, and children communications, and research, were reserved for contin- together, doubled up tightly with their heads to the west. ued state ownership. Ceramic vessels, bronze cauldrons, animal bones, hearth Each citizen of Mongolia born before May 31, 1991, sites, and elk stones show continuity with Bronze Age received two types of vouchers, three pink vouchers with funerary practices. Articles of bronze, iron, and bone a nominal value of 1,000 tögrögs each, and one blue include daggers; battleaxes; arrowheads; knives; awls; voucher with a face value of 7,000 tögrögs. At the same belt and saddle-girth buckles; harness plates; mirrors; time the government-owned daily Ardyn erkh (Democracy gold and tin earrings; necklaces; stone, deer- and mar- or People’s power) published basic information on all the mot-teeth pendants; wooden bowls and plates; and wool, assets being privatized to guide citizens in their invest- felt, and leather clothes. Glass beads from the Near East ments. The pink vouchers were transferable, so that per- show western trade links, and the bronzes furnish fine sons willing to take on ownership could buy them from examples of the ANIMAL STYLE. citizens uninterested in the opportunity. This phase was Although the Iron Age burials have been seen as evi- called “small privatization.” The blue vouchers were non- dence of a warlike, patriarchal aristocracy, this descrip- transferable, although they could be grouped within a tion appears more appropriate for the Scythian-Sarmatian household. These blue vouchers were usable only to bid prosody 441 on larger enterprises that would be auctioned off by the shares were held in Russia). These accusations con- government at the Mongolian Stock Exchange, which tributed to the Democratic Coalition’s defeat at the polls had been created in January 1991 under the Hungarian- in 2000, but the new MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTION- trained economist N. Zoljargal (b. 1964). This phase, ARY PARTY (MPRP) government has continued the privati- called “large privatization,” began in February 1992. zation program. Considering the scale of the task, privatization went HOUSING AND LAND PRIVATIZATION remarkably smoothly. By the end of 1993 764 large and 2,440 small enterprises had been privatized, and by the While at first it was thought apartments might be priva- end of 1994 the total reached 4,483 enterprises worth 20 tized through the voucher system, in February 1997 the billion tögrögs. Essentially the entire adult population, Democratic Coalition government passed a law, over the 1.1 million citizens, participated. While the privatization veto of President N. Bagabandi (of the opposition MPRP), law allowed for mutual funds, only 2 percent of all simply giving apartments to their current residents. That vouchers were traded through them. The aim of dis- year 25,000 apartments were privatized, and the figure persed ownership was achieved only too well, some com- eventually reached 83,169 apartments, or 98.3 percent of panies ending up with more than 20,000 shareholders. the total. Condominium associations manage the apart- Citizens showed a strong attraction for enterprises they ment blocks. This program, along with rural decollec- worked in, so that employee ownership averaged 44 per- tivization that distributed the herds to the herders, has cent in large enterprises. In small privatization citizens been one of the most popular parts of the privatization preferred cooperatives rather than sole proprietorships. agenda. By 1993 the country’s 4,332 economic entities included Although both the 1992 CONSTITUTION and Mongo- 449 shareholding companies, 1,099 limited liability com- lian tradition block the privatization of rangeland, priva- panies, 1,869 cooperatives, and 905 sole proprietorships. tization of urban plots and farmland was an important The end of voucher privatization was marked in August part of the original reform program. Although allowed 1995, when the Mongolian Stock Exchange opened a sec- under the constitution, fears of foreigners buying up ondary securities market with cash trading. While rural Mongolia prevented land privatization from being passed privatization was organized on the same legal framework, until 2002. In June 2002 the MPRP government passed a in practice it functioned as a separate procedure in which land privatization law that allowed Mongolian citizens to only cooperative (negdel) members participated largely receive free of charge on May 1, 2003, land that they had under rules set by their own membership (see DECOLLEC- personally improved for residential and nonpastoral eco- TIVIZATION). nomic use. Land is to be owned and assigned per family, with smaller limits for urban families and larger limits for THE SECOND WAVE OF PRIVATIZATION rural families. All are allowed additional small vegetable Despite the relatively smooth implementation, policy plots. Large agricultural plots of up to 100 hectares are to makers worried about the excess dispersal of ownership be assigned to experienced farmers only. New property and the lack of real accountability on the part of company taxes are also to be instituted. Since those already living management. At the end of the process, the state still in YURT-courtyards would become owners, those with held 62 percent of the ownership of larger enterprises, resources scrambled to develop residential and agricul- with ownership concentrated in energy, infrastructure, tural land. However, opposition politicians led protests and utilities. Even where it did not have the majority demanding that the law be reworked to make residential share, it still exercised the predominant influence on cor- holdings reflect family size and to have farmland hold- porate direction. ings assigned randomly. The protests did not, however, Since 1995 the government has turned to auctions reverse the government’s policy. and to a lesser extent to sales of shares on the stock See also ECONOMY, MODERN; MONGOLIA, STATE OF. exchange as the primary methods for privatizing those remaining state assets not planned for continued state prosody Poetry in Mongolian is primarily governed by ownership. Foreign direct investment was encouraged in alliteration, in which the two or more successive lines this process. The new Democratic Coalition government have the same first syllable. While often irregular, alliter- accelerated privatization in 1997, and from 1996 to 2000 ation usually groups the lines into couplets or quatrains, a total of 942 enterprises and assets were privatized for a sometimes grouping up to eight lines. The alliteration value of US $65 million. In this phase of privatization itself is often only approximate. In written poetry one accusations of corruption have become serious. An offer also finds purely visual alliteration, using the ambiguities for the State Department Store made in February 1996 of the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT to create first syllables was canceled after accusations of insider trading, while that look the same even though they have a different pro- from 1998 on privatization of the colossal Erdenet ore- nunciation. dressing plant was bogged down in accusations of cor- Folk poetry usually has seven to eight syllables per ruption and Russian mafia influence (49 percent of the line, with a cesura after the fourth syllable. While the 442 provinces in the Mongol Empire rhythm usually seems irregular when written, the fre- ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) abolished these branch sec- quent dropping or extension of vowels usually makes the retariats and divided the pacified areas of North China verse completely isochronic in performance. While the (roughly modern Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, and south- MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE has phonemic vowel length, such central Inner Mongolia) into 10 routes (Chinese, lu; length plays no role in Mongolian prosody, which is Mongolian, chölge) for taxation purposes. At the same dependent rather on the regular equivalence of the length time Ögedei divided the whole empire’s wealthier areas of the metrical units as spoken or sung, something that into a Yanjing administration, covering north and north- does not follow vowel length. Normally, the syllables west China, and a Besh-Baligh (near modern Qitai) group themselves into two-syllable and three-syllable administration, covering Central Asia from Hami to the feet, with the first syllable longest. Three-syllable feet are Amu Dar’ya. Late in Ögedei’s reign a third Amu Dar’ya found most often at the end of the line. administration was organized to administer pacified In later Tibetan-influenced Buddhist didactic poetry Afghanistan and Iran. The Chinese called these three and liturgy, the natural first-syllable stress in Mongolian administrations Branch Secretariats (xing zhongshu pronunciation is used for an isosyllabic metrical prosody. sheng). Under MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) they were The most regular form has four trochees followed by a renamed Branch Departments of State Affairs. Each cesura and two trochees and a dactyl. Although Mongo- administration had one to four chiefs, with two or three lian poets were familiar with the complex composition senior assistants. rules and paraphrasings prescribed in the Kavyadarsha of In 1260 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), who at first con- the ancient Indian literary critic Dandin, these rules were trolled only North China, reorganized the Yanjing Depart- by no means the sine qua non of Mongolian poetry as ment of State Affairs as his secretariat (zhongshu sheng, they were in Tibet. abbreviated sheng), the central bureaucratic organ of his Modern Mongolian poetry has used both folk poetry state. In North China the secretariat controlled 10 Pacifi- prosody based on isochronic lines and the Tibetan-style cation Commissions covering the area of Ögedei’s original prosody based on isosyllabic lines, although the former 10 routes together with Shaanxi and Henan. In Shaanxi tends to predominate. Free verse forms have also become and Sichuan, which faced multiple military emergencies, common, although most poetry still alliterates. The Com- he organized a Branch Secretariat (xing zhongshu sheng, munist-era poet-laureate D. Sengee (1916–39) experi- abbreviated xingsheng but usually called simply sheng by mented with Russian-influenced iambic meter but found foreigners). This use of branch secretariats for emergency few imitators. situations was the origin of the subsequent Yuan regional See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; LITERATURE. administrative system. In the following decades branch Further reading: György Kara, “Stave Rhyme, secretariats were repeatedly created and dissolved in Head-Rhyme, and End-Rhyme in Mongolian Poetry,” in Shaanxi, Sichuan, Gansu, and Henan, depending on mili- Altaic Affinities, Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of the tary vicissitudes. With the final conquest of South China, Permanent International Altaistic Conference (PIAC), military emergencies dissipated, but the branch secretari- Provo, Utah (1997), edited by David B. Honey and David ats had proven their utility, and those in the areas outside C. Wright, Indiana University Uralic & Altaic Series, the dynasty’s North China base were retained. Vol. 168 (Bloomington: Indiana University, Research By 1299 the borders of the Yuan dynasty’s nine Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2001), 267–280; John branch secretariats and the one central secretariat were R. Krueger, Poetical Passages of the Erdeni-yin tob^ci: A fixed. While several secretariats, such as YUNNAN, Gansu, Mongolian Chronicle of the Year 1662 by Sagang Se^cen and Shaanxi, were relatively similar to modern provinces, (The Hague: Mouton, 1961). others, such as Henan and Jiangxi, were much larger, and Liaoyang, Jiangzhe, and the Central Secretariat combined several modern provinces. Only the Mongolian heartland provinces in the Mongol Empire The current and Tibet remained outside the rule of branch secretari- provinces of China date back, in their rough outlines, to ats. In 1312 Mongolia was reorganized as the Lingbei the branch secretariats established by the Mongol YUAN Branch Secretariat. DYNASTY after its conquest of all China. The Central Secretariat in the capital, DAIDU (modern With the initial Mongol pacification of North China Beijing), had two grand councillors (chengxiang or under MUQALI (1170–1223), local Han Chinese and Kitan chingsang) and four managers (pingzhang or pingjang), administrators under Mongol rule set up “branch depart- but after 1286 two managers alone headed the branch ments of state affairs” (xing shangshu sheng). Such early secretariats. These managers were either Mongols or departments were set up first in Xijing (modern Datong) SEMUREN (Central and West Asian immigrants). Although and Zhongdu, or Yanjing (modern Beijing) and later in the Central Secretariat controlled appointments, the Dongping and Hezhong (near modern Yongji). Given the branch secretariats had wide autonomy in their ordinary chaotic conditions of the time, they carried on little but operations, handling taxation, garrison troops, trans- military and paramilitary functions. portation, and other aspects of rule. Local administration provinces in the Mongol Empire 443 was based on counties (xian) and urban administrations repeated reorganizations before the fall of the dynasty in under metropolitan and rural prefectures (fu and zhou), 1368. The succeeding MING DYNASTY built on the Yuan which in turn were usually supervised by 185 or so precedent and divided its territory into shengs (now routes (lu), headed by a commander (zongguan) and a translatable simply as provinces) very similar to China’s DARUGHACHI. Up to 24 surveillance commissioners and current provinces. many pacification commissions (xuanweisi) and/or myri- See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARGHUN AQA; BAYAN; archy commands in strategic or unruly areas exercised HARGHASUN DARQAN; KÖRGÜZ; LIAN XIXIAN; MAHMUD overlapping jurisdiction. YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG; MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL After the outbreak of widespread rebellions in 1351, EMPIRE; ÖCHICHER; QARA-QORUM; SAYYID AJALL; YELÜ the provincial governments underwent another bout of CHUCAI. Q qa’an See KHAN. gated the Chaghatay khan Baraq (1266–71) to attack him. Baraq defeated Qaidu in 1268, but after the GOLDEN HORDE khan Mengü-Temür (1267–80) sided with Qaidu, qaghan See KHAN. the three, Baraq, Qaidu, and Mengü-Temür, came to an agreement, swearing an alliance at Talas (spring 1269) Qahar See CHAKHAR. and charging Qubilai with having abandoned the old Mongol JASAQ (laws) and yosun (customs) for Chinese Qaidu Khan (1235–1301) Heir of Ögedei who defied institutions. After Baraq’s defeat by the IL-KHANATE and Qubilai Khan and took over the Chaghatay Khanate, domi- his subsequent death, Qaidu was elected khan of a nating Central Asia for three decades revived Ögedeid house (September 1271) and seized con- Qaidu was the son of Qashi (or Qashidai), heir apparent trol over the Chaghatay Khanate. Despite revolts by dis- of ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41). Qashi inherited his father’s satisfied Chaghatayid princes, Qaidu won the loyalty of alcoholism and died early. Qaidu’s mother, Sebkine, was Mas‘ud Beg (d. 1289), the CHAGHATAY KHANATE’s most of the Turco-Mongolian Mekrin mountaineers of the east- experienced administrator (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND ern Tian Shan. Qaidu was raised first by one of CHINGGIS MAS‘UD BEG). Meanwhile defections from Qubilai’s Yuan KHAN’s empresses and then in his senior relative Möngke’s dynasty swelled Qaidu’s army. In 1274 an Ögedeid prince, ORDO (palace-tent). In 1251 MÖNGKE was elected khan Hoqu, in Gansu deserted to Qaidu. In spring 1277 several (1251–59) and purged the Ögedeids. He spared Qaidu sons of ARIQ-BÖKE and Möngke, then garrisoning in and gave him Qayaligh (near modern Taldyqorghan in Almaligh (near modern Huocheng) for Qubilai, rebelled Kazakhstan). As early as 1256, however, Qaidu showed and imprisoned Qubilai’s son Nomuqan and his chief signs of discontent. minister, Hantum. The rebellion gave Qaidu control of Perhaps in reaction to his father’s and grandfather’s Almaligh and a large force under Ariq-Böke’s son Min- excess, Qaidu was a teetotaler, eschewing even KOUMISS. gliq-Temür; he shared the hostages with Mengü-Temür Qaidu adhered to the native Mongol religion, rising Khan. before dawn to meditate and bowing down to the sun In response Qubilai and his YUAN DYNASTY strength- several times daily. He and his able daughter Qutulun ened the garrisons in Uighuristan and the Tarim basin. (MARCO POLO’s Ay-Yaruq, d. 1306) had unusually close Only after finally driving out the dissident Chaghatayids relations, which gave rise to rumors of incest. While at and appointing Baraq’s son Du’a (1282–1307) the war with virtually all the Mongol rulers, Qaidu rarely Chaghatay khan did the merged Chaghatayid-Ögedeid took the offensive, preferring to exploit his enemies’ mis- Khanate expand. Du’a served as Qaidu’s spearhead, cap- steps. turing Besh-Baligh (near modern Qitai, 1286) and forcing When MÖNGKE KHAN’s brother QUBILAI KHAN Yuan armies to evacuate the Tarim Basin (1288–89). (1260–94) secured his throne, he insisted Qaidu come Although he failed to take full advantage of NAYAN’S personally to court. Upon Qaidu’s refusal, Qubilai insti- REBELLION in 1287, Qaidu defeated a major Yuan army in 444 Qara-Khitai 445 the KHANGAI RANGE in 1289, briefly occupying QARA- rounding them to build up a core of supporters. He QORUM. Later Nawroz’s 1289 rebellion in Khorasan facili- gained support of the UIGHURS of Qara-Qocho (modern tated Du’a’s 1295 invasion of Mazandaran in eastern Iran. Turpan), and in 1133 he founded his capital, Ghuzz- This expansion cost Qaidu his support from the Ordo, on the Chu River (near Bishkek in modern Kyr- Golden Horde. In 1283–84 Mengü-Temür’s successors gyzstan). In 1141, after crushing the Seljük Turks in the returned Nomuqan as a peace overture to the Yuan, and Battle of Qatawan, he made KHORAZM and Mawarannahr Qaidu felt obliged to return Hantum as well. By 1288 (roughly, modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) and the Qubilai’s envoys were in contact with Qonichi, khan of Tarim basin tributary. As a member of the Liao imperial the BLUE HORDE, the Jochid khanate along Qaidu’s north- family, he proclaimed a revived Liao dynasty. The KITANS ern frontier. When Qonichi died Qaidu and Du’a sup- were called Khitayans by the Turks, and they called his ported a rival prince, Köbeleg, in a protracted civil war new empire the Qara-Khitai, or “Black (i.e., commoner) against Qonichi’s son Bayan (fl. 1299–1304), the candi- Kitans,” to distinguish them from the earlier Liao dynasty date of Toqto’a (1291–1312), khan of the Golden Horde. in the east. From 1298 on Bayan insistently advocated a unified The Qara-Khitai state was very loosely organized. attack of the Mongol khanates of Qaidu and Du’a. The ruling core, numbering perhaps 40,000 families, In 1293 Qubilai’s general TUTUGH counterattacked, lived a seminomadic life in the steppe around Ghuzz- clearing Qaidu’s forces out of Tuva, and in 1296 defec- Ordo. The formal structure of government was that of a tions gave the Yuan the Baarin tümen (10,000) on the Ob Chinese dynasty, but military- and clan-based Kitan insti- River. From 1300–01 the Yuan forces under Prince Hai- tutions also had great importance. The Kitans were Bud- shan and Tutugh’s son Chong’ur attacked Qaidu’s main dhist in the Chinese tradition. Most of their subjects were force in the ALTAI RANGE. Although vastly outnumbered Muslim, although the Uighurs were mostly Buddhist, and and ill, Qaidu won a victory at Qaraqata (September 4–5, there were Christian communities in Ghuzz-Ordo and 1301, near Zawkhan River) but died soon after. elsewhere. The tributary states governed their own affairs Qaidu had groomed his son Orus as his successor, under the supervision of overseers, called jianguo in Chi- but Du’a elevated Chabar (d. 1328) instead. Orus, Qutu- nese, shahna in Persian, and basqaq in Turkish. The Kitan lun, and Hoqu’s son Tökme (d. 1308) opposed Du’a, and rulers made no attempt to impose their language or reli- by 1306 Qaidu’s armies and children were deserting gion on their subjects. either to the Il-Khanate or the Yuan. Chabar’s surrender to Emperor Haishan in 1310 ended the independent THE MONGOL CONQUEST Ögedeid Khanate. When CHINGGIS KHAN unified the Mongolian Plateau in See also ÖCHICHER; SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. 1204, refugees from the MERKID and NAIMAN tribes spilled Further reading: Michal Biran, Qaidu and the Rise of west across the ALTAI RANGE. Further campaigns in 1206 the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia (Richmond, and 1208 sent the refugees farther into Qara-Khitai terri- Surrey: Curzon Press, 1997). tory. One refugee, Küchülüg, son of the Naiman khan Tayang, came to Ghuzz-Ordo in 1210. After winning the Qalqa See KHALKHA. favor of the last Liao emperor, Yelü Zhilugu, Küchülüg proposed to collect the Naiman and Merkid refugees to strengthen the regime. Instead, he conspired with ‘Ala’ud- qan See KHAN. Din Muhammad, the sultan of Khorazm, to rebel against Qara-Khitai rule and divide the regime between them. Qaracin See KHARACHIN. The Kitans defeated Küchülüg’s refugee force but were in turn defeated by the Khorazm shah’s armies, and chaos Qara-Khitai (Qara-Kitan, Kara Khitay, Caracathay) ensued. In 1211 Küchülüg captured Zhilugu during his The Qara-Khitai Empire (1131–1213) dominated autumn hunt in Kashghar. The adventurer ruled in Turkestan during the rise of the Mongols and pioneered Zhilugu’s name until the emperor’s death in 1213, marry- some early Mongol institutions. The empire appeared out ing Zhilugu’s stepdaughter and converting to Buddhism. of the wreckage of the Liao dynasty (907–1125), which Meanwhile, from 1209 on the Buddhist Uighur ruler had dominated Manchuria, Mongolia, and northernmost in Qara-Qocho and the Muslim rulers of the cities of China for two centuries. The Liao dynasty had been Qayaligh (near modern Taldyqorghan in Kazakhstan) and founded by the KITANS, a seminomadic people of eastern Almaligh (near modern Huocheng in Xinjiang), all weary Inner Mongolia who spoke a language related to but not of heavy Qara-Khitai demands, had submitted to Ching- identical to Mongolian. When the Liao dynasty was over- gis Khan. The Uighur ruler and Arslan Khan of Qayaligh thrown by the rival Jurchen people of eastern Manchuria, went to Mongolia in person in 1211 and received Mongol Yelü Dashi, a Kitan of the Liao ruling family, escaped princesses as tokens of their alliance. north into Mongolia. In 1129 he rallied both the men of As the Qara-Khitai regime crumbled, Küchülüg the Kitan garrisons stationed there and of the tribes sur- crushed resistance in Kashghar and Khotan, the only 446 Qara-Kitan cities left to the empire apart from Ghuzz-Ordo itself. In Khotan he forced the Islamic population to embrace Bud- dhism, martyring an Islamic cleric. In 1217 Chinggis Khan returned from his campaigns in North China and dispatched his cavalry vanguard under JEBE to destroy Küchülüg. The Kitan ruling elite supported Jebe against the usurper, and Küchülüg fled south into the Pamir Mountains. In 1218 shepherds in Badakhshan seized him and handed him over to Jebe, who beheaded him, while Kashghar and Khotan surrendered to the Mongols. QARA-KHITAI IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE The Mongols employed a certain number of Qara-Khitai Kitans as scribes and administrators, but the main contri- bution of the Qara-Khitai to Mongol rule was the model of a steppe-centered empire loosely controlling sedentary peoples through tributary rulers supervised by overseers (shahnas or basqaqs), with control that did not interfere with the local peoples’ religion or customs. Chinggis Khan seems to have preferred this sort of rule, and the shahnas/basqaqs were the institutional prototypes for the Mongol DARUGHACHI system. The submission of Khotan and Kashghar was immediately followed by the first- Stone turtle at Qara-Qorum, 13th–14th centuries. The turtle originally carried a stela with an inscription. (From known proclamation of the Mongols’ policy of religious N. Tsultem, Mongolian Sculpture [1989]) toleration. While the Kitan model of decentralization would later prove impractical in most cases, the institu- tion of darughachis and the principle of cultural and reli- gious toleration became main planks of Mongol imperial no more populous than the village of St. Denis in France. policy. As found in the 1948–49 excavations of S. V. Kiselev, the After the empire’s division the Qara-Khitai heartland, city was about 1.6 kilometers (0.99 miles) east to west with most of the ethnic Kitans, came under the Jochid and 2.4 kilometers (1.49 miles) north to south, with the BLUE HORDE. The (Qara-) Qitay clansmen found among Wan’angong palace in the southwest corner of the city. the modern Uzbek, Kazakh, Karakalpak, and Bashkir The population settled in two districts, one of Chinese (Bashkort) nationalities are their descendants. craftsmen and the other of Muslims, mostly merchants. See also QARLUQS. Markets were in the Muslim sector and outside the four gates. Chinese farmers grew grains and vegetables, but the city depended on imports of foodstuffs from North Qara-Kitan See QARA-KHITAI. China. William of Rubruck noted there were 12 “pagan temples,” that is, Buddhist and Taoist monasteries, two Qara-Qorum Begun in 1235, Qara-Qorum served as mosques, and a church. Ögedei’s minister YELÜ CHUCAI the capital of the empire only until 1260 but for the next had built a Confucian temple and observatory in 1233, 100 years or so remained the administrative center for apparently in Qara-Qorum or its vicinity. Mongolia. The 1948–49 excavations of the palace quarter found From 1235 to 1238 ÖGEDEI KHAN constructed a series all the palaces built on raised platforms of pounded earth of palaces and pavilions at stopping places in his annual and sand and connected by raised walkways. The nomadic route through central Mongolia. The first Wan’angong, floored with green tiles, measured about 55 palace, Wan’angong (Palace of Ten-Thousandfold Peace), by 45 meters (180 by 148 feet) and had six rows of seven and its irrigated garden were constructed by North Chi- wooden pillars resting on granite pedestals. Glazed green, nese artisans. Ögedei regularly stayed at the Wan’angong red, and dark blue tiles and molded dragons and other for a month in March and April and again briefly in the animals ornamented the roof. Palace frescoes had mostly summer. The emperor urged his relatives to build resi- Buddhist themes and were painted in a style reminiscent dences nearby and settled the deported craftsmen from of Uighur and XIA DYNASTY art. Excavated houses were China near the site, thus starting the city of Qara-Qorum. warmed with Chinese-style kangs, or warming stoves. Its mud walls were completed in summer 1251. The “House at the Crossroads” contained smithies in Even at its height, under MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59), which steel was forged with blasts driven by waterwheels Qara-Qorum was, said the visitor WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK, connected to a canal from the ORKHON RIVER. Metal items Qara’unas 447 found included axle boxes for the YURT carts, three-footed MARCO POLO claimed they also learned the famous magi- cauldrons, scissors, sickles, plowshares, pickaxes, arrow- cal techniques of Kashmir and Tibet. heads, and spearheads. Pottery kilns produced finely When MÖNGKE KHAN dispatched his brother HÜLE’Ü glazed Cizhou, Junyao, and Liuli pottery as well as (r. 1256–65) to Iran, he ordered Sali and his units to celadon. Large numbers of cast copper coins, almost all of serve Hüle’ü. By 1261, however, Negüder Noyan, acting the SONG DYNASTY (960–1279), were found. on the orders of Batu’s brother Berke (1257–66), was After 1260 Qara-Qorum became the center for opposing Hüle’ü in Sistan. The next year Berke’s partisans ARIQ-BÖKE’s resistance to QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94). in Hüle’ü’s entourage escaped east to Ghazni, where they Qubilai, whose base was North China, blockaded the merged with Negüder’s troops. Eventually, the Chaghatayid city, which led to starvation. By 1263 Ariq-Böke was Alghu Khan (1261–66) intervened, inciting the noyans to confiscating goods even from the religious leaders, but arrest Sali. By around 1275 a junior Chaghatayid prince, Qubilai’s victory in 1264 reopened trade with China. In Mochi, ruled the Qara’unas in the area of Ghazni. (A 1289 as QAIDU KHAN again challenged Qubilai’s control Chaghatayid prince Tegüder, is, through an erroneous of Mongolia, the Mongol general BAYAN CHINGSANG reading as Negüder, often confused with the Negüder established a Pacification Commission and a Chief Mil- Noyan of Sistan. In fact, Prince Tegüder had nothing to itary Command there. More than 100,000 bushels of do with the Qara’unas.) grain were budgeted annually to supply the city. In Despite these setbacks, the IL-KHANATE were able to 1307 the Pacification Commission was elevated to a recruit three tümens of soldiers among Sali’s Qara’unas. Branch Secretariat (effectively a provincial government) Around 1262 Hüle’ü recruited for his son Abagha based at Qorum. With a massive infusion of cash, (1234–82), then viceroy in Khorasan, a KESHIG (royal refugees were resettled and farms and workshops guard) one tümen strong of Qara’unas under the com- reopened. In 1312 the city’s Chinese name, Helin (pro- mand of Mönggetü’s son. When Abagha became khan, he nounced in the Middle Ages as Holum) was changed to brought this Qara’una tümen west with him. After Hening (Peaceful and Pacified). Abagha’s death this Qara’una tümen, governed by In 1370 after the Mongol rulers fled from China, TA’ACHAR of the Suqai’ud Baarin, became a turbulent inde- Ayushiridara Khan (1370–78) reestablished his capital at pendent force in Il-Khanid politics. As khan Abagha Qara-Qorum. Sometime after 1400 wars between the recruited another keshig for his own son Arghun Northern Yuan emperors (1368–1636) and the OIRATS (1260–91), who replaced him as viceroy of Khorasan. A finally ruined Qara-Qorum. In 1585 the ruins of the town third tümen of Qara’unas, under the commander NAWROZ, were reused to build the new monastery ERDENI ZUU. existed by 1284. Nawroz’s 1289 rebellion broke up these Today Qara-Qorum (Kharkhorin in modern Mongolian) two tümens into small bands, some loyal, some rebellious. is a state farm with irrigation-based agriculture as well as Arghun’s son Ghazan (1271–1304), first as viceroy of a cultural and tourist site. Mongolians revere two stone Khorasan and then as khan, reunified the Qara’unas in turtles, Qara-Qorum’s only visible remains, for their heal- Khorasan and in the west under Sali’s son Uladu. ing powers. In addition to using the services of Toluid-aligned See also ARCHAEOLOGY. Qara’unas, the Il-Khans vainly tried to control the Chaghatayid-aligned Qara’unas. After defeating a Chaghatayid invasion in 1270, Abagha Khan installed a Qara’unas A mixed group of Mongols on the frontier dethroned Chaghatay khan, Mubarakshah (r. 1266), over of India, the Qara’unas were turbulent but valued for the Negüderis (Negüder’s old troops in Sistan) and rein- their fierceness by both the Chaghatayid and Il-khanid stalled Mubarakshah’s son over them in 1279. Even so, states. ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) first dispatched Mongol Chaghatayid-aligned Qara’una and Negüderi forces con- TAMMACHI troops to garrison the area of Afghanistan fac- tinued to raid Fars and Kerman in southern Iran until ing the sultanate of Delhi in Hindustan. Each branch of about 1300. the imperial family sent non-Chinggisid commanders After 1300 the Chaghatay khans solidified their con- (NOYAN) of their own entourage. Thus, CHA’ADAI sent trol over the Qara’unas nomadizing between Qonduz and Dayir Ba’atur (d. 1241–42) of the Qongqotan, and BATU Ghazni. From 1292 on raids on India resumed, and soon sent Negüder (fl. 1238–62). Ögedei and his successors Du’a Khan (1282–1307) replaced Mochi’s Muslim son gave command of these two tammachi tümens (10,000s) ‘Abdullah with his own sons, first Qutlugh-Khoja and to two Toluid noyans, first Mönggetü Sa’ur of the Besüd, then Esen-Buqa. From then on the Chaghatay khans and then Sali of the TATARS, with campgrounds in Taloqan appointed either a crown prince or a great emir (com- and Qonduz (northeast Afghanistan). Military campaigns mander) as Qara’una viceroy. Thus, under Du’a’s sons against Hindustan and KASHMIR yielded vast numbers of Kebeg (1318–26/7) and Eljigidei (1327–30) their brother slaves. Most were sold, but intermarriages with captive Tarmashirin ruled the Qara’una. When Tarmashirin Indian women produced by about 1270 a new generation became khan (1331–34) he appointed over the Qara’unas who were called Qara’unas, from Mongolian qara, “dark.” his commander in chief, the giant Emir Burundai 448 Qarluqs (Boroldai) of the Oronar, whom MUHAMMAD ABU ‘ABDUL- Uighur khans soon drove the Qarluqs west until they LAH IBN BATTUTA described as a pious Muslim who gave occupied the Chu and Ili valleys, between the Tianshan alms to Sufi brethren and kept the roads safe. Mountains and Lake Balkhash (see TÜRK EMPIRES; UIGHUR From 1306 on, as dissension weakened the EMPIRE). The local sedentary population there spoke Sog- Chaghatayids, Il-Khan Sultan Öljeitü (1304–16) settled dian, a language of the Iranian family. By 900 the Assyr- dissident Chaghatayid and Ögedeid princes in Khorasan ian Christian Church of the East had churches in the and by manipulating internecine conflicts briefly reoccu- area, but in the 10th century military pressure and com- pied Sistan and subdued the Negüderis in the east. In the mercial penetration won many converts to Islam. Several backlash against Il-Khanid expansion, however, previ- Qarluq clans also began to farm. ously loyal Toluid Qara’unas fell under the influence of By the early 13th century the Muslim Qarluq khan the resettled Khorasan Chaghatayids. Bektüt, the son of held Qayaligh City (near modern Taldyqorghan in Kazakh- Uladu, joined the Chaghatayid prince Yasa’ur stan) as a vassal to the Buddhist QARA-KHITAI (1131–1213). (1288–1320)’s rebellion in 1318–20. By this time the for- Resenting the Qara-Khitai’s increasingly burdensome mer Qara’unas of Nawroz had probably reformed as the rule, the Qarluq khan, Arslan, submitted peacefully when Ja’un-i Ghurban (Three from a Hundred) near Tus. After CHINGGIS KHAN’s (Genghis, 1206–27) commander, Qubi- the 1335 disintegration of the Il-Khanate the southward lai Noyan of the Barulas clan, appeared in the area. In migration of the core Chaghatayid tribes intensified as spring 1211 Arslan Khan went to Mongolia for an audi- the Qara’unas absorbed tribes from both the Chaghatayid ence. Chinggis, planning the conquest of North China, and former Il-Khanid realms. could not immediately assist his new ally but granted him In 1346–47 the Qara’una emir Qazaghan (perhaps of an imperial princess as a wife. Meanwhile, a Qarluq ban- Tibetan origin) overthrew the Chaghatayid Qazan Khan dit, Ozar, had seized the cities of Almaligh (near modern and controlled the khanate through puppet khans until Huocheng in Xinjiang) and Bolad (Fulad, near modern his assassination in 1257/8. He and Burundai’s son having Bole in Xinjiang) from Qara-Khitai rule. He, too, submit- married sisters, Qazaghan took over Burundai’s tümen ted to Chinggis Khan and was to receive a Mongol while rallying the southern Chaghatayid tribes in Kho- princess as a bride. Although the Qara-Khitai captured rasan and the upper Amu Dar’ya. Qazaghan’s son ‘Abdul- and killed Ozar, Chinggis finally overthrew the Qara- lah was murdered after attempting to move his base from Khitai in 1216 and restored Ozar’s son Siqnaq Tegin to the upper Amu Dar’ya to Samarqand. ‘Abdullah’s nephew Almaligh. When Chinggis Khan went to war against KHO- Emir Husain rebuilt the Qara’unas’ influence until he was RAZM in 1219, Arslan Khan and Siqnaq Tegin joined his defeated in 1369 by his former friend and rival TIMUR campaign; Arslan Khan’s 6,000 Qarluq troops joined the (Tamerlane, 1336?–1405) of the northern Chaghatayid Mongols in the two lengthy sieges in northeast Barulas tribe. Afghanistan. Temür gave the Qara’unas, still one of his empire’s Before his death Chinggis Khan gave the Qarluq most powerful components, to his Barulas commander in region to his second son, CHA’ADAI, as his territory. For chief (amir al-umaara’) Chekü. Chekü’s son Jahanshah fiscal purposes ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) assigned the area inherited this still-considerable “army of Qonduz and to the Besh-Baligh province or department under Mah- Baghlan,” the term that now replaced the derogatory mud Yalavach (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG; “Qara’una.” The more isolated Negüderis of Sistan also PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE). The Qarluq vassals came under Timür’s rule in 1383. As late as Babur’s time coexisted with Cha’adai and his family and the governor (1483–1530) significant communities among both the at Besh-Baligh until 1252. In that year, after purging his “army of Qonduz and Baghlan,” by then called Hazaras, enemies, MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) gave Qayaligh to and the Negüderis, ancestors of today’s Mogholi people, QAIDU KHAN (1236–1301), the grandson of Ögedei. In still spoke Mongolian. compensation, Arslan’s son received the city of Özgön in See also HAZARAS; INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; MOGHOLI the Ferghana valley, beginning a southwestward move- LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. ment of the Qarluqs. QUBILAI KHAN occupied Almaligh Further reading: John Andrew Boyle, “The Mongol from 1268 to 1276, when a princely rebellion gave con- Commanders in Afghanistan and India according to the trol once again to Qaidu. After Qaidu’s death Almaligh Tabaqat-i Nasiri of Juzjani,” Islamic Studies (Islamabad) 2 again became the Chaghatayid (Cha’adaid) capital. (1963): 235–247; Hirotoshi Shimo, “Qaraunas in the His- Visitors to Almaligh in the 13th century noted the torical Materials of the Ilkhanate,” Memoirs of the apple orchards and irrigated fields that grew cotton, while Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 35 (1977): Qayaligh drew attention for its thronging markets. Reli- 131–181. giously, the population was mostly Muslim, particularly the Qarluq nomads, but significant colonies of Uighur Qarluqs The Qarluq, a small nomadic Turkish tribe on Buddhists, Assyrian Christians, Manicheans, and Chinese the upper Irtysh River, participated in the Uighur rebel- Taoists also existed. Qayaligh and Almaligh fell victim to lion of 742 that overthrew the Türks’ Ashina dynasty. The the BLACK DEATH and the general crisis of the mid-14th Qing dynasty 449 century and were in ruins before 1400. Moving south- riage alliances with Nurhachi and presented tribute. In west, the Qarluqs appear in Transoxiana in the 15th cen- 1616 Nurhachi proclaimed himself “bright KHAN” (geng- tury and today in northwest Afghanistan. giyen han) of the revived Jin dynasty, and in 1621 he con- Further reading: Peter Golden, An Introduction to the quered Liaodong. History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-For- In 1624 the Khorchin under their senior chief Uuba mation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Mid- (d. 1632) revolted as a block against the suzerainty of dle East (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1992). LIGDAN KHAN (1604–34), the last emperor of the NORTH- ERN YUAN DYNASTY (1368–1634), and allied with qatun See KHATUN. Nurhachi. From 1626 to 1629 the Three Guard Uriyangkhan (later the KHARACHIN) and the southern Khalkha did the same with Nurhachi’s son and heir, Hong Qidan See KITANS. Taiji (b. 1592, r. 1627–43). In 1632 Hong Taiji and his eastern Mongolian allies launched a grand expedition Qing dynasty (Ch’ing) China’s last dynasty, the Qing against the CHAKHAR. Ligdan fled to ORDOS and then dynasty (1636–1912) originated among the Inner Asian Kökenuur (Qinghai), where he died of smallpox. In 1635 Manchus, and by both persuasion and force it extended his sons led Ligdan’s Chakhar people to surrender to its sway over almost all the Mongolian peoples. While Hong Taiji’s armies. In that year and the next Hong Taiji Qing rule is often excoriated as a period of stagnation renamed his people the “Manchus” and his dynasty the and decline, it saw the creation of most of Mongolia’s tra- Qing (Pure) and organized all of Inner Mongolia into ditional literary and folk cultural heritage. BANNERS (appanages). Mongolian cultural influence on the early Manchus ORIGINS AND CONQUEST OF INNER MONGOLIA was very important. The scholars of the early Manchus The Qing dynasty originated among the Jurchen people were the baksis (from Mongolian bagshi), who knew both of Manchuria (present-day Northeast China), who had the Mongolian and the Chinese languages. In 1599 earlier founded the JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234). After the Erdeni and Gagai baksis adopted the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN Mongol YUAN DYNASTY fell in 1368 (see MANCHURIA AND SCRIPT to write Manchu. From around 1620 to 1633 other THE MONGOL EMPIRE), the Jurchen became tributary to baksis such as Dahai, Kara, and Kûrchan extended con- the MING DYNASTY (1368–1644) in 1387. Like the Mongol temporary ideas on reforming the Mongolian script to THREE GUARDS to their east, they enjoyed the rights both create a new Manchu script. Hong Taiji was closely famil- to present “tribute” (really a form of state-subsidized iar with the biligs (wise sayings) of CHINGGIS KHAN, trade) and to participate in horse fairs. While the Jurchen which he quoted to his entourage. had earlier had their own script modeled on the Kitan Both Nurhachi and Hong Taiji viewed their empire as script (see KITAN LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT), it went out of in part a successor to the Mongol Northern Yuan Dynasty. use sometime after 1525. Mostly living by farming, the The proclamation of the revived Jin dynasty in 1616 was Jurchens were also fully part of the Inner Asian horse- preceded by marital alliances with Mongol rulers, and archer and hunting culture. The Qing founder, Nurhachi that of the Qing on May 15, 1636, was preceded by the (b. 1558, r. 1616–26), sometimes emphasized his Jurchen submission of all Inner Mongolia. Ligdan Khan’s sons people’s difference from the Mongols, telling eastern brought to Hong Taiji’s capital, Mukden, the “precious Inner Mongolian chiefs in 1619 that since the Mongols jade seal,” which Mongolian legend said had been born in were pastoralists and the Jurchens farmers they were two the hands of Chinggis Khan, and the Mahakala image of different people. At other times, however, he also stated QUBILAI KHAN’s chaplain ’PHAGS-PA LAMA (1235–80). They that compared to the Chinese and the Koreans, the also presented Ligdan’s two queens, who Hong Taiji made Jurchen and Mongolian clothes and way of life were as his senior wives alongside his three Khorchin queens. one and only their language different. This ambivalence Imperial titles and reign years were all proclaimed in between East Asian and Inner Asian identity would Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese, a practice that contin- remain with the Qing almost to its end. ued to the end of the dynasty. In 1583 Nurhachi succeeded his father, Taksi, who The early oaths of alliance of the Khorchins and had been treacherously killed by the Ming, as head of the Uriyangkhan (Kharachin) in 1624 and 1628 were both Aisin (Golden) Gioro clan (hala) near the (ethnic Chi- sealed with an offering of a white horse, a black ox, and a nese) Han-settled Liaodong area (modern Liaoning). bowl of liquor. After the coronation of 1636, the relation During Nurhachi’s rise he alternately allied and battled was no longer one of equal alliance, but rather one in with the rival Jurchen tribes and the Mongols of both the which the emperor (Bogda Khaan, Holy Khan in Mongo- KHORCHIN and southern KHALKHA (later eastern Inner lian) gathered around him both inner (Manchu) and Mongolia’s JUU UDA league) tümens. In 1593 he defeated a outer (Mongol) noblemen, to whom he granted titles as Khorchin-Jurchen “league of nine tribes.” From 1612 princes and dukes and who in return strove to win com- Khorchin and southern Khalkha chiefs contracted mar- mendation through meritorious service. The new Mongolia under the Qing Dynasty, 1820 R U S S I A N E M P I R E Amur R. Barnaul Yenisey R . O b’ R. Ang a Lake Baikal ra R. R. Alt Nerchinsk Aihui an Nuu rU TANNU Irkutsk Ergüne ( riya Verkhneudinsk CO RUSSO ngk ND hai Mergen OM -QING URIYANGKHAI . Hulun Buir INI Lake nR UM no (Hailar) ) Uws Lake Kyakhta O So ¨ ¨ Dorbod B u th a Khöwsgöl . lo ai R n a ngkh n ge Ky Uriy S el e ak hta New Altai Mingghad Khotoghoid Barga Qiqihar Öölöd ¨ Dorbed R. Ja Ir t y sh Khowd r l en la R. Khüriye Kh e Gorlos id TIER Uliastai K HOWD FRON SETSEN KHAN Uj JIRIM Torghud um Gorlos uc Ja Zakhachin hi n Khorchin ru Dariganga M A N C H U R I A d Kh M ara ör ¨¨ ¨ uu Oolod Sh en ch ZASAGTU id Baarin SHILIIN GOL t KHAN SAIN NOYAN ¨ en ig TUSHIYETU ¨ KHAN h Ab Naiman es ag Ongni'ud a Kh Kh o s h u d Sö JUU UDA Mukden U ni d OT M Mu R Kh HA a JOS in u K ra XINJIANG gg A ch Chengde i n an CH Ejene ad ULAANCHAB Capital of the Qing Dynasty Torghud Ur Suiyuan Zhangjiakou Huang Tümed Beijing Great Wall (Ye l l o w ) R. Alashan International frontier Khoshud YEKHE JUU Bo Gulf Border of league or comparable unit Ordos TANNU League or comparable unit KÖ Ningxia K Baarin Tribe or sub-ethnic group of the Mongols EN U Kökenuur 0 200 miles U C H I N A P R O P E R R 0 200 km Xining Qing dynasty 451 emperor promised to treat the Mongols and Manchu right to engage in trade. The Qing enfeoffed eight princes equally. Likewise, the direction of marriage Khalkha noblemen as zasags (rulers) of eight Khalkha alliance changed. At first it was the Khorchins who hon- banners. In reality, however, “tribute relations” meant ored the Manchu emperors and nobles with their sisters only a subsidized trading relationship and a forswearing and daughters. After 1636 the honor went the other way, of active hostilities. Beyond the Khalkhas, the OIRATS, too, and Mongols were eager to become efu (imperial sons-in- were allowed to present “tribute,” receiving “gifts” in law) of the Manchu emperors. return (see TRIBUTE SYSTEM). Hong Taiji also constructed the institutions by which After Shunzhi’s death the regent for his son, the the Qing would rule the Mongols until 1911. Already the Kangxi emperor (personal name Xuanye, 1662–1722), Manchu army had been organized into eight banners, immediately restored the high rank of the Lifan Yuan. each named after the color of its battle standard. From Kangxi had a strong personal interest in Inner Asia, but 1622 more and more Mongol noblemen and subjects from 1673 to 1681 he was occupied with a great rebellion were directly attached to the Manchu armies. In 1635 in China and the 1675 rebellion of Ligdan’s grandson Hong Taiji organized these units into EIGHT BANNERS, par- Burni in Chakhar. After the suppression of Burni’s rebel- allel to the earlier Manchu Eight Banners units. A year lion the Chakhar aristocracy was stripped of its rights, earlier he had dispatched two commissioners to survey and its banners were integrated into the Eight Banners Inner Mongolia, define the Mongols’ traditional territo- system under an appointive official hierarchy. ries, and confirm submissive noblemen in their rule. The By 1681, when the Qing was again at peace, GALDAN nobilities’ appanages were renamed banners (khoshuu) BOSHOGTU KHAN (b. 1644, r. 1678–97) of the Zünghar but unlike the Eight Banners largely retained their tradi- tribe of the Oirats had overthrown the previously domi- tional structure. At each banner’s head was a hereditary, nant Khoshud tribe, something Kangxi had publicly cen- and usually Chinggisid, ZASAG, or ruler. To supervise sured. The Oirats had been bound in a collective security these autonomous banners he created in 1636 the Mon- agreement with the Khalkhas since 1640 (see MONGOL- golian Department, soon renamed the LIFAN YUAN (Court OIRAT CODE) and this agreement now brought both them of Dependencies). From 1638 Hong Taiji had been hear- and the Qing into the quarrel between the Khalkhas’ ing appeals from Mongols, and in 1643 he promulgated Tüshiyetü Khan Chakhundorji (r. 1655–99) in the east the Qing’s earliest law code for the Mongols (see LIFAN and the Zasagtu Khan Tsenggün (r. 1670–86) in the west. YUAN ZELI). Eventually, Chakhundorji attacked Tsenggün’s young son, provoking Galdan to undertake a full-scale invasion of SHUNZHI AND KANGXI, 1644–1722 Khalkha in spring 1688. Pushed by events, Kangxi In 1644 the regent Dorgon led the Manchu forces to vic- accepted the full submission of Chakhundorji, his tory against rebels fighting over the corpse of China’s brother, the great INCARNATE LAMA the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA Ming dynasty. In Beijing he proclaimed Hong Taiji’s son KHUTUGTU (1635–1723), and the Khalkha nobility at the by his first Khorchin wife, Empress Xiaozhuang DOLONNUUR ASSEMBLY in 1691, but not until 1694 did he (1613–88), the new Shunzhi emperor (personal name prepare for a final war on Galdan. In 1696 and 1697 Fulin, r. 1644–61). After the conquest of China the Qing Kangxi personally participated in the expedition against began to see itself more as a successor of the Ming than Galdan’s weakening forces until the news came of Gal- as an Inner Asian state. Inner Asian Buddhism remained dan’s death by disease in April 1697. important, but with Shunzhi’s reception of the Fifth Dalai Galdan’s overreaching pushed several blocks of Mon- Lama in 1653, the Sa-skya-pa sect with its connotations gols into the Qing orbit. The Khalkhas were now orga- of Mongol Yuan legitimacy was replaced by the Dalai nized into 34 banners, this time under tight control from Lama’s up-and-coming dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) order Beijing. The UPPER MONGOLS of Kökenuur (Qinghai), (see TWO CUSTOMS). In 1659 the Lifan Yuan was put mostly Khoshud Oirats, had resented Galdan’s usurpation under the Board of Rites, which normally handled foreign and submitted to Qing suzerainty in 1697. Several envoys, thus downgrading Mongolian ties. Khoshud and Zünghar princes in the Oirat heartland of In 1635–37 the northern Khalkhas of Mongolia Zungharia also deserted and were resettled in ALASHAN proper sent missions to open “tribute” relations. Khalkha and central Khalkha, respectively (see ÖÖLÖD). In 1715 raids on Inner Mongolia, the rebellion of the SHILIIN GOL border conflicts in Khalkha with Galdan’s rival and suc- prince Tenggis in 1646, who received Khalkha assistance, cessor, TSEWANG-RABTAN (r. 1694–1727) led to the second the rebellion of the prince Jamsu in Ordos in 1649, and Qing-Zünghar war. Kangxi defended the Qing positions the defection of the Khalkha ruler Bondar with his sub- in Khalkha, Hami, and Turpan while using conflicts over jects to the Qing in 1653 all complicated relations. In the Dalai Lama to install Qing troops in Lhasa in 1720. 1655, however, the Khalkha became regular tributaries of The struggle with Galdan also invigorated Kangxi’s the Qing. In return for an oath of allegiance and a tribute religious policy. Trained in piety by his beloved Khorchin of “nine whites” (one white camel and eight white grandmother Empress Xiaozhuang, who had raised him horses), the Khalkha princes received gifts and also the after his parents’ early deaths, he was profoundly 452 Qing dynasty impressed by the First Jibzundamba Khutugtu, who 1739. In 1753, however, with the political disintegration remained at his court from 1691 to 1701. Kangxi cre- of the ZÜNGHARS, Qianlong mustered a massive army that ated the position of JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU as the supreme in 1755 effortlessly occupied the Zünghar heartland with authority over all Inner Mongolian monasteries and the assistance of the defecting Oirat nobleman AMUR- sponsored the publication of both a special red-letter SANAA. When Amursanaa rebelled, the Zünghars were Tibetan bKa’-’gyur (Buddhist canon) and a Mongolian almost exterminated, while Qianlong resettled Chakhars, version in 1720. The emperor also transmitted his devo- Solons, and Shibes (a Manchu-related people) in Xin- tion to his sons, such as Prince Yunli (Kheng-ze, jiang. The FLIGHT OF THE KALMYKS from the Volga back to 1697–1738), who developed his own coterie of nonsec- Xinjiang in 1777 was taken by Qianlong as the ultimate tarian Buddhists and wrote two Buddhist treatises in confirmation of the rightness of his policies, which Mongolian. While Manchu patronage of Mongolian brought virtually all the Mongolian people under Qing Buddhism has often been seen as a cynical but effective rule. act of realpolitik, in Kangxi’s case his undoubted sincer- The collapse of the Zünghars coincided with the ZUD ity helped win over many of the most prestigious noble (winter disasters) and smallpox in Khalkha, and provi- families. sioning the Qing expeditionary forces had been very expensive. In 1756 the public debt of the Khalkha RESISTANCE AND SOCIAL CHANGES, 1723–1796 leagues and banners to Chinese merchant companies Despite the Qing’s strong position among the Mongols at amounted to 155,700 taels of silver. Chinese merchants Kangxi’s death, serious opposition developed under his had entered Mongolia with Kangxi’s armies in 1696, and son and successor, the Yongzheng emperor (personal the opening of KYAKHTA on the border as an entrepôt for name Yinzhen, r. 1723–35). The 1723–24 rebellion of the Russian trade in 1728 had increased the attractions of Lubsang-Danzin of the Upper Mongols of Kökenuur commerce in Mongolia. Despite Qing efforts to limit mer- drew in not only many Mongol princes but also vast cantile activity, debts to Chinese traders were already seri- numbers of Tibetan nomads and monks. In 1724 the sur- ous by mid-century. In that year, widespread hardship viving Upper Mongol nobles were organized into ban- and Qianlong’s execution of a Khalkha prince sparked the ners, and their former Tibetan subjects were organized as widespread and uncoordinated unrest known as CHING- independent tribes. In Khalkha, during the deep incur- GÜNJAB’S REBELLION. Numerous executions were followed sions of the Zünghar ruler GALDAN-TSEREN (r. 1727–45) by serious efforts from the court to liquidate the Mongols’ in 1731–32, the Zasagtu Khan Tsewangjab (r. 1703–32) debt to Chinese merchants. abandoned his army rather than fight and had to be Through his intimate relationship with his classmate cashiered; almost two-thirds of a Khalkha detachment and chaplain the Second Jangjiya Khutugtu Rolbidorji sent to ERDENI ZUU deserted; previously surrendered (1716–86), Qianlong became the Qing emperor most Öölöds defected back to the invaders; and unspecified deeply involved in Buddhist practice. Precisely due to his disturbances roiled Setsen Khan AIMAG. Although most of own high initiations, however, Qianlong confidently the Khalkha princes remained loyal and fought off the directed Buddhist affairs with an eye to increasing his invaders, the cost of sustaining the war evidently bore dynasty’s authority. The emperor began to control the heavily on them. SECOND JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU’s movements, and after Throughout his empire the Yongzheng emperor vig- the death of the Second Jibzundamba Khutugtu in 1758, orously centralized his rule, and he did the same in Inner whose loyalty had wavered in Chinggünjab’s Rebellion, Asia. Inner Mongolia was already tightly controlled, but he ordered all future incarnations of his lineage found in in Khalkha he created the office of assistant general to be Tibet. In 1793 he sent a golden urn to Lhasa to be used in filled by loyal Khalkha princes, organized the princes a random drawing to decide the final candidates for the there into LEAGUES, split off Sain Noyan aimag from highest incarnations. Qianlong’s reign also saw the final Tüshiyetü Khan aimag, and appointed new AMBANs and multiplication of banners in Khalkha to 86 and the generals in chief for Kökenuur, Lhasa, and Khalkha. His replacement of Mongolian legal principles by Chinese. In 1727 treaty of Kyakhta with Russia sacrificed traditional 1781, as a reward to the Mongols, Qianlong decreed that Khalkha claims over the Buriat Mongols but secured him all of their princes would inherit their titles in perpetuity. a firm and well-policed northern frontier. He also By this time the Manchu emperor was being regu- strengthened the border by settling Daur, Ewenki larly identified in texts, popular songs, and religious art (Solon), BARGA, and Öölöd bannermen in HULUN BUIR, a as an incarnation of the bodhisattva Manjushri, tradition- fertile pasture at the strategic point where Khalkha, ally the special protector of China. He was thus on a level Manchuria, and Russia met. with the Dalai Lama, the incarnation of Avalokieshvara, Yongzheng realized the strain in Khalkha and did not the protector of Tibet, and Chinggis Khan the incarnation follow up his victories against the Zünghars. His son, the of Vajrapani, the protector of Mongolia. The cult site of Qianlong emperor (personal name Hongli, r. 1735–96), Wutai Shan Mountain in Shanxi, also associated with confirmed this cease-fire with an official peace treaty in Manjushri, became a major pilgrimage destination for the Qing dynasty 453 Mongols; its attractiveness was increased by the frequent lower even than that of the taijis’ “serfs” (khamjilga) and residence there of the Jangjiya Khutugtu. The capital of far lower than the wealthy ecclesiastical subjects (shabi). Beijing was also identified in both political ritual and After 1840 the troubles of the Qing court with Euro- song as the mandala (a geometrical representation of a pean gunboats and the Taiping rebellions drew Qing “Buddha field,” or perfected world) of the Buddha attention away from Inner Asia. At one point of financial Vairochana. embarrassment during the Opium War (1840–42), the Qing court was reduced to paying the Mongolian zasags’ SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DRIFT, 1796–1862 regular salaries in silver-plated copper ingots. From the With the retirement of Qianlong in 1796 and his death period of the death of the Third Jangjiya (1846) and the three years later, the heroic phase of the Qing Empire Fourth Panchen (1854) to about 1890, none of the great passed. The traditional incarnate lama leadership also incarnate lamas in Tibet and Mongolia were of age. declined. None of the Jibzundamba Khutugtus between Despite this lack of strong leadership, the Mongols 1813 and 1870 reached 30 years of age, nor did any of remained loyal to the Qing dynasty. The Khorchin prince the Dalai Lamas between 1804 and 1876. This left the Senggerinchin (known to the British as Sam Collinson, Third Jangjiya Khutugtu (1787–1846) and the Fourth 1811–65) led a Mongol volunteer cavalry against the Chi- Panchen Lama (1781–1854) as the most active figures in nese Taipings from 1853, against the invading British- Mongolia and Tibet. French army at Tianjin in 1859, and against the Nian The new Jiaqing emperor (personal name Yunyan, r. rebels until his death in battle. The celebration of his bat- 1796–1820) reversed his predecessor’s restrictions on tles in the Khorchin folksong “Seng Wang” (Prince Seng) Chinese trade in Mongolia, allowing merchants to trade showed the strength of popular Qing loyalism. on the spot in the Mongolian banners. In 1811 the minis- ter of the Lifan Yuan advocated the compilation of a new SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DECLINE, 1862–1901 law code, one that resulted in the 1819 promulgation of In 1868–70 bands of Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslim), the Lifan Yuan zeli. The long peace saw the apex of wealth rebels from Gansu, and Turkestani rebels from Xinjiang of the religious institutions in Khalkha and new con- entered Alashan (Alxa), Ordos, the Khowd frontier, and struction at Erdeni Zuu, Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR), and western Khalkha, seizing livestock and burning monas- elsewhere. From the 1776 introduction of the full teries and sanctuaries. Turkestani rebels besieged KHOWD Mahakala services in Erdeni Zuu to the 1811 inaugura- CITY and sacked ULIASTAI before being stopped on the tion of TSAM dances in Khüriye’s main monastery, Nom- road to Khüriye, while small bands reached as far at un Yekhe Khüriye, virtually all the institutions and Mergen Wang banner (modern East Gobi province) and services current in Tibet were introduced into Khalkha’s almost 150 kilometers within (100 miles) of Ulaan- monasteries. In the 1830s the Qing government took sig- baatar. Swarms of beggars testified to the devastation of nificant steps to limit the expansion of the clerical estate. the decade. The ravages of the Muslim rebels were suc- During the succeeding period, from 1820 to 1850, ceeded by the security issue of Russian expansion. In for the first time published figures give a picture of 1860 a Russian consulate was opened in Mongolia. demographic and economic trends in one of Khalkha’s Already in 1862 a Russian government commission pub- four aimags (provinces). Figures for Setsen Khan licly announced that Russia should strive for a natural province show the lay population rising from about evolution of Mongolia away from Qing control and into 106,000 in 1828 to 130,000 in 1835 and dropping to Russian hands. Thus, Qing military mobilization in 124,000 in 1841. Livestock figures for the same years, Mongolia, begun in response to the Muslim rebellion, however, show a sharp drop, from 1,820,000 head to continued in response to the chronic Russian threat. 1,320,000 and then 1,225,000. Figures from the Jibzun- Muslim raids, cattle murrain, the cost of Qing expenses damba Khutugtu’s personal herd and for the herd of his for fortifications, and the permanent garrisoning of sol- subjects, while difficult to interpret, show peaks around diers in Khüriye may have been responsible for the steady 1773–78 and 1794–97 and declines thereafter. The cause decline in livestock and population figures in the decade of this decline is unclear but is probably linked to after 1864 for the Jibzundamba Khutugtu’s estate and the increasing the indebtedness of Mongolia as a whole, GREAT SHABI (his personal subjects). While the population which led to higher offtake of livestock to China proper. of beggars later declined, population and livestock num- At the same time, influences from the consistent cooling bers continued to drop. Figures for Setsen Khan show the trend in Mongolia from around 1780 to 1870 cannot be lay population having declined from 122,000 in 1841 to excluded (see CLIMATE). 90,000 in 1907. While this population decline has often Traditional status distinctions began to be blurred. been blamed on monasticism, the Mongolian herd size The position of the petty nobility (the TAIJI class) declined declined even faster than the population, suggesting that sharply, while the banner officials, who were often com- monasticism was not the cause of economic decline but a moners, expanded their wealth. The economic position of response to it. The already staggering indebtedness of the the state commoners remained stagnant at the bottom, Mongols to Chinese merchants and moneylenders made it 454 Qing dynasty impossible for them to halt the growing export of animals in 1900, began to conspire with his Khalkha nobility, and animal products generated by China’s entry into the ecclesiastical officials, and emigré Inner Mongolian world market for wool. dukes and princes on an approach to Russia. By August 1911 the last amban in Khüriye, Sandô (b. 1875), had NEW POLICIES AND REVOLT, 1901–1911 become aware of the Khutugtu’s plans, yet the Qing After the Qing dynasty’s disastrous defeat at the hands of dynasty’s position in Mongolia was too weak and the Japan in 1894–95, Beijing faced the possibility of immi- incarnate lama’s prestige too high for him even to nent partition by the powers. Europeans and Japanese attempt punishment. divided the empire into spheres of influence within On October 10 a republican Chinese uprising broke which each power had preferential rights in the construc- out against the Qing in Wuchang (modern Wuhan) in tion of railways and in forming direct relations with the central China. The Jibzundamba Khutugtu exploited the local government. Mongolia, Inner and Outer, fell at first uncertainty to call Mongolian troops into Khüriye, while entirely into the Russian sphere. The Trans-Siberian Rail- the Russians shipped weapons to their consulate. road was extended through the Hulun Buir district and Although the Qing defeated uprisings in northern China, northern Manchuria as the Chinese Eastern Railway in the Khalkhas declared independence from the Qing on 1900. With the outbreak of the anti-Christian Boxer December 1 and enthroned the Jibzundamba Khutugtu as movement, the Russians occupied all of Manchuria and the new Bogda Khan, “Holy Emperor,” on December 29. began cultivating friendly princes in eastern Inner Mon- Meanwhile, in Inner Mongolia the princes waited to golia. The Russian advance into Korea, however, pro- see whether the Qing court would survive. Modernizing voked the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. Southeastern eastern Inner Mongolian princes such as Güngsangnorbu Inner Mongolia immediately moved into the Japanese were skeptical that a Tibetan cleric could deliver the kind sphere, although a formal division of spheres was not of modernization Mongolia needed. They would have achieved until 1912. preferred to remain with a rump Qing state including After the Boxer movement was crushed in 1900 and Manchuria and Mongolia, yet a south Chinese republic a crippling indemnity imposed on Beijing, the Qing court was ethnically and politically anathema as well. Other moved in a radically new direction. The NEW POLICIES Inner Mongolian princes eagerly supported the Khalkha (Xinzheng) in Inner Asia completely reversed the previ- declaration of independence. By January 1912 the Qing ous policy of keeping Mongols and Chinese separate. court’s chief general, Yuan Shikai, was negotiating with CHINESE COLONIZATION, which had been proceeding all the republicans. On February 12, 1912, he forced the last along the Inner Mongolian border since the 18th century, Qing emperor, Puyi (the Xuantong emperor, 1909–12), to was suddenly taken over and vigorously promoted by the abdicate and recognize the republican regime. Most of the Qing government. New schools, hygiene bureaus, army Inner Mongolian princes and commoners as well sup- units, and schools were all to be established and paid for ported union with Khalkha, while Prince Güngsangnorbu by the proceeds of colonization and the opening of and others vainly pursued the idea of a Qing restoration mines, either by Qing or foreign investors. with Japanese assistance. Within a few months Yuan The Mongols strongly resisted these policies. The Shikai forced all the Inner Mongolian banners to submit approval of government-sponsored Chinese colonization to the Republic of China, leaving invasion from Mongolia seemed to mark the death knell of the Mongols as a peo- as their only option for independence. ple. In Tibet as well the New Policies caused violent opposition, eventually driving the Dalai Lama into exile LEGACY OF THE QING in India. Opposition included bureaucratic obstruction By the 1920s the “Young Mongols” in Mongolia and and protests from the Khalkha princes, popular DUGUILANG Inner Mongolia and the Chinese nationalists were united movements in Ordos, insurrections in eastern Inner Mon- in excoriating Manchu rule as a period of evil and regres- golia, and riots in the streets of Khüriye. sive tyranny. The Qing were seen from the hindsight of Even where the substance of the policies was not 300 years as pursuing a planned policy of imperial expan- objectionable, the court put them in the hands of ambans sion in Mongolia. The Manchus were blamed for cyni- and new frontier officials, effectively stripping the Mon- cally encouraging Buddhism to sap the Mongols’ morale golian banners of their autonomy. In southeast Inner and to decrease their numbers. The animosities and mis- Mongolia Prince Güngsangnorbu (1871–1931) and oth- understandings among Mongols of various groups were ers responded by creating their own modern-style schools denounced as fruits of the Qing’s “divide and rule” policy, and police bureaus, funded and controlled by their own exemplified in the banner system. The policy of preserv- banners with Japanese assistance. However, the Qing gov- ing the Mongols’ separation was treated as a deliberate ernment refused to recognize officially such locally con- device to keep the Mongols stupid and ignorant of the trolled New Policies (see NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS). outside world. Most significantly, the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, who However, few of the extreme accusations against had appealed to the Russian government for protection Qing policies hold up to critical scrutiny. Caution more Qipchaqs 455 than aggressiveness marked the Qing’s dealings with the Qipchaq Khanate See GOLDEN HORDE. Ligdan Khan, the Khalkha Mongols, and the Zünghars. Once involved in all-out war, the Qing armies were ruth- Qipchaqs (Kypchaks, Comans, Polovtsi) A sprawl- less and thorough in crushing opposition. Nevertheless, ing, disunited tribal confederacy, the Qipchaqs formed in each new theater it took literally decades of conflict to the base population of the Mongol GOLDEN HORDE. provoke the final decision to pursue total conquest. Reli- The Qipchaqs first appeared around 750 as a Turkish giously, the Qing court’s support for grassroots monasti- tribe occupying the ALTAI RANGE. Later they moved west cism was more nominal than real, and the emperors and joined the Kimek confederacy in western Siberia. focused on increasing Mongolian martial abilities, not Beginning around 1017 tribes fleeing the growing Kitan weakening them. Moreover, the most active religious Empire in Mongolia pushed the Qipchaqs south and east. policy was pursued precisely by emperors such as From 1070 until the rise of the Mongols, the Qipchaqs Kangxi and Qianlong, who acted as devout Buddhist ini- dominated the vast steppe from central Kazakhstan to the tiates, not cynical manipulators. The banner system grew Danube River. The Qipchaqs had no unified state and out of the already existing rule by a decentralized con- never attempted to conquer their settled neighbors. federation of Chinggisid nobility. While undoubtedly Instead, clans, each under its own chief, either raided designed to maintain Qing control, it was not a radical their neighbors or served them as mercenaries. Qipchaq deviation from the pre-Qing political order. While the warriors buttressed rulers in Bulgaria, Hungary, and later part of Qing rule saw clear demographic and eco- GEORGIA, as did the Qangli (eastern Qipchaqs) in KHO- nomic decline, that must be balanced against both the RAZM. Russia and CRIMEA, being less unified, suffered maintenance of peace and the just as clear prosperity of more from Qipchaq raids, although interethnic marriage the late 18th–early 19th centuries. among the chiefly families occurred there, too. Christian Virtually all the policies and attendant social prob- influence on the western Qipchaqs was significant, but lems found among the Mongols in 1900 were also found most adhered to their native religion. among the Manchu peoples of Manchuria and the Buriats The first Mongol contact with the Qipchaqs came and Kalmyks of Russia. The Qing dynasty’s system of after 1216, when Qodu, a defeated chieftain of the Mon- legal and social separation was seen as the best way gol MERKID tribe, took refuge among the Ölberi chiefs by peacefully to integrate hierarchical, kinship-oriented, and the Ural Mountains. The Ölberi rejected CHINGGIS KHAN’s barely monetized peoples like the Mongols into a larger, (Genghis, 1206–27) demand to surrender the fugitive, socially mobile, impersonal, and commercialized polity and the khan dispatched SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR, who raided like China’s. Rulers have independently invented analo- the Qipchaqs and killed Qodu before returning. After the gous systems many times, from the Jesuit mission com- Mongols’ great campaign against Khorazm, Sübe’etei and munities of Paraguay to the Speransky reforms in Siberia. JEBE again swung north through Derbent to reconnoiter While often far from ideal in their results, critics have the territory. After they defeated the Qipchaqs of the generally offered few real alternatives. Kuban steppe, the western Qipchaq leader Köten (Kotian, See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; CHINESE Kötöny) received aid from his Russian son-in-law Msit- TRADE AND MONEYLENDING; JAM; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, slav of Halych, but Jebe and Sübe’etei crushed the com- EIGHTH; KINSHIP SYSTEM; LAMAS AND MONASTICISM; LITERA- bined Russian-Qipchaq army at Kalka River (May 31, TURE; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD; SUM; TIBETAN 1223) before turning east. Meanwhile, Chinggis Khan CULTURE IN MONGOLIA; XINJIANG MONGOLS. had assigned to JOCHI, his eldest son, the conquest of the Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “‘Worship- Qipchaqs. Jochi (d. 1225?) subdued the Qangli by 1224 ing Grace’: The Language of Loyalty in Qing Mongolia,” but refused to move west, angering his father. Late Imperial China 21 (2000): 86–139; C. R. Bawden, In 1229 Chinggis’s son ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) sent The Modern History of Mongolia (1969; rpt., London: Kökedei and Sönidei to conquer the Qipchaqs and other Kegan Paul International, 1989); Nicola D. Cosmo and people along the Volga River and in the Ural Mountains, Dalizhabu [Darijab] Bao, Manchu-Mongol Relations on the such as the BULGHARS, Saqsin, and Bashkir (Bashkort). Eve of the Qing Conquest: A Documentary History (Leiden: The Mongol force proved too small for the fierce resis- E. J. Brill, 2003); Evariste-Régis Huc and Joseph Gabet, tance of the Qipchaq chief Bachman, and in 1235 Ögedei Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, 1844–1846, trans. mobilized a much larger expedition headed by his William Hazlitt (1928; rpt., New York: Dover, 1987); nephews BATU (son of Jochi) and Möngke and his son Hidehiro Okada, “The Yuan Seal in Manchu Hands: The Güyüg together with Sübe’etei. Some Ölberi Qipchaq Source of the Ch’ing Legitimacy,” in Altaic Religious chiefs surrendered and joined the Mongol army, but most Beliefs and Practices, ed. Géza Bethlenfalvy et al. fled the area; some joined Bachman’s guerrilla resistance. (Budapest: Research Group for Altaic Studies, 1992), Möngke finally captured Bachman’s island base in the 267–271; A. M. Pozdneyev, Mongolia and the Mongols, ed. Volga delta in winter 1236–37. By autumn 1238 other John R. Krueger, trans. John Roger Shaw and Dale Plank princes had conquered the Qipchaqs of Crimea and the (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1971). Ukrainian steppe. Köten led a large number of Qipchaqs 456 Qiu Chuji in flight to Hungary, which the Mongols invaded next. Mongol great khans. The Qonggirad as a great QUDA (in- Qipchaq chiefs in the Caucasus resisted until 1242. law) clan became powerful and influential in the Mongol Batu and the sons of Jochi divided up the entire YUAN DYNASTY and the GOLDEN HORDE. (The alternate Qipchaq steppe among them. Batu on the Volga headed form Unggirad, without the initial Q-, may be a pronunci- the “Princes of the Right Hand,” west of the Ural River, ation influenced by Manchurian languages.) while his elder brother Hordu headed the “Princes of the The Qonggirad first appear in Chinese records in Left Hand,” in the old Qangli territory. Together they 1126. In the succeeding years Qonggirad attacks often formed what Russian historians termed the GOLDEN troubled the JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) in North China. HORDE but which Islamic sources always call the Qipchaq At first the Qonggirad were not part of the MONGOL ulus (realm). Under ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) the Jochids TRIBE, and legends spoke of ancient hostility between became Muslim, yet as late as 1330 MUHAMMAD ABU- them and the Mongols. Qabul Khan, the Mongol khan ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA considered the Qipchaqs primar- around 1140, however, took a Qonggirad as his principal ily Christian. The merging of the Muslim Mongols and wife, and Qabul Khan’s sons allied with their mother’s the Turkic Qipchaqs eventually produced a new Turkic- clan in its feud with the Tatar tribe. In the end the Qong- speaking, Islamic, nomadic people, commonly called the girad clans came to be an important component of the TATARS. Their modern descendants include the Crimean, Mongol tribe. Astrakhan, and Siberian Tatars, the Kazakhs, the Nogays, The Qonggirad people in the broad sense contained and the Karakalpaks. many sublineages, descended in legend from three sons. After Jebe’s and Sübe’etei’s campaigns Qipchaq pris- The eldest son fathered the Qonggirad in the strict sense oners served the Mongols in North China as warriors (or Bosqur clan), the second son fathered the Ikires and and as horse herders for the khans, known also as Olqunu’ud clans, and the third son fathered four other Qarachi from their task of making clarified fermented clans. The Qonggirad clans all lived along the GREATER mare’s milk (Turkish, qara-qumiz). Under QUBILAI KHAN KHINGGAN RANGE, stretching north to the Ergüne (Argun’) (1260–94) TUTUGH (1237–97), an Ölberi Qipchaq, won River. distinction in battles against QAIDU KHAN, and the CHINGGIS KHAN’s father, YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, seized as a Qipchaqs were gathered under his command as a special wife Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN of the Olqunu’ud clan. He first thought guards corps. Qangli guards were also formed in to marry his son to an Olqunu’ud girl, but in the end 1308–09. The Qipchaq guards achieved great political married him to a Bosqur Qonggirad girl, BÖRTE ÜJIN. power, and Tutugh’s grandson EL-TEMÜR led the 1328 Despite Yisügei’s death soon after, Börte become Ching- coup d’état that put Tuq-Temür (titled Wenzong or Wen- gis’s principal wife. Chinggis later married his sister and tsung, 1328–32) on the throne. These Qipchaq guards his eldest daughter to Botu of the Ikires and married his retreated to Mongolia with the Yuan emperors in 1368, fifth daughter to an Olqunu’ud. and under the name KHARACHIN (the modern plural of Despite these marriages, most of the Qonggirad clans Qarachi) they nomadized in central Inner Mongolia. allied early on with Chinggis’s enemies. In the years lead- See also BULGHARS; CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MON- ing up to 1201, they supported JAMUGHA of the Jajirad GOLS; KALKA RIVER, BATTLE OF; OSSETES; RUSSIA AND THE clan, possibly seeking to break BORJIGID hegemony over MONGOL EMPIRE; “STONE MEN.” the Mongol tribe. Qonggirad hostility was also blamed on Further reading: Th. T. Allsen, “Prelude to the West- Chinggis’s brother Qasar, who had unwisely plundered ern Campaigns: Mongol Military Operations in the Volga- them. Ural Region, 1217–1237,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 3 In 1203, when Chinggis Khan’s uncles and cousins (1983): 5–24; Peter B. Golden, “Nomads in the Sedentary had turned against him and ONG KHAN had defeated him, World: The Case of Pre-Chinggisid Rus’ and Georgia,” in the Qonggirad and the Ikires suddenly rallied to Ching- Nomads in the Sedentary World, ed. Anatoly M. Khazanov gis’s standard. The support of these Qonggirad clans in and André Wink (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1203 gave Chinggis much needed numbers, and he hon- 2001), 24–75. ored their chiefs highly. In 1227 Börte’s younger brother Alchi Noyan was titled “imperial maternal uncle,” and a Qiu Chuji See CHANGCHUN, MASTER. decree was issued by Chinggis and Börte’s sons that in every generation a Qonggirad girl would be made an empress and a Qonggirad boy would be granted an Qiyat See BORJIGID. imperial princess. This pattern continued virtually to the end of the Yuan dynasty. Chinggis Khan gave his Qobdu See KHOWD CITY. daughter Temülün to Alchi Noyan’s son Chigü and sought Qonggirad princesses for his son JOCHI and Qonggirad (Unggirad, Qunqirat, Qunghrat, Kongrat) grandson Qubilai. The Qonggirad were the classic example of a Mongol clan In 1214, after the invasion of North China, Chinggis building its fame and fortune as marriage partners of the Khan gave the land of south-central Inner Mongolia to Qubilai Khan 457 the Qonggirad tribes as their appanage. Alchi Noyan, Religious and Lay Symbolism in the Altaic World and Other with a more gentle reputation than the brutal MUQALI, Papers, ed. Klaus Sogaster and Helmut Eimer (Wies- became commander of a tümen (10,000) in North China. baden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1989), 284–292. Under QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) the Qonggirads build two cities, Yingchang and Quanning, on their appanage. Alchi Qorcin See KHORCHIN. Noyan’s daughter and Qubilai’s chief wife, CHABUI, was very influential. Qubilai’s son JINGIM also married a Qo´sot See KHOSHUDS. Qonggirad wife, Bairam-Egechi (Kökejin). Despite Jingim’s early death, his wife retained great influence over Qubilai, became regent after his death, and secured the Qubilai Khan (Khubilai, Kublai, Kubla) (b. 1215, succession to her son Temür (titled Chengzong, r. 1260–1294) Reformer of Mongol institutions and con- 1294–1308). The ORDO (palace-tents and associated queror of South China who established Mongol rule over a estates) of Kökejin became a center of power for the next unified China few decades. In the succession struggles that followed As the Mongol emperor in China who welcomed MARCO Temür’s death, powerful Qonggirad empresses such as POLO, Qubilai Khan became a legend in Europe. Despite Targi (d. 1322) and Budashiri exercised a dominant role. his fame for adopting Chinese institutions, Qubilai was The coup d’état of 1328, however, that enthroned Tuq- the only Mongol khan after 1260 to win new conquests, Temür (titled Wenzong, 1330–33), son of a Tangut and when he died in 1294 his closest advisers were all empress, injured Qonggirad influence, which ended with Mongols of old aristocratic families. the fall of Budashiri in 1340. CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH The Qonggirad also played a powerful role in the Golden Horde. Chinggis’s oldest son, Jochi, had two Qubilai Khan was the second son of TOLUI, CHINGGIS Qonggirad queens, and their sons Hordu and BATU both KHAN’s youngest son, and of SORQAQTANI BEKI, a KEREYID married Qonggirad princesses, as did most of their princess. When Qubilai was born, Chinggis Khan said, descendants. Settled in KHORAZM, the clan (called “All of our children are of a ruddy complexion, but this Qunghrat in Turkish) retained its local power throughout child is swarthy like his [Kereyid] maternal uncles. Tell the Golden Horde’s turbulent disintegration. The so- Sorqaqtani Beki to give him to a good nurse to be reared.” called Sufi dynasty of Qunghrat emirs dominated Kho- Sorqaqtani Beki chose as Qubilai’s nurse a Tangut razm from 1364 to as late as 1464, submitting alternately woman, whom Qubilai later honored highly. to Timurid and Jochid rule. After a period of direct Jochid As was common in the Mongol imperial family, rule by the local ‘Arabshahid dynasty (1511–c.1700), Qubilai’s first marriage was arranged when he was very Qunghrat emirs in Khiva (late medieval Khorazm), hold- young. His most beloved wife and life’s companion was ing the title inaq, “companion,” ruled through Jochid his second wife, CHABUI (d. 1284), of the QONGGIRAD and puppet khans until 1804, when they assumed the title of mother of his sons JINGIM (1243–85), Manggala (d. khan themselves. The Qunghrat today are an important 1280), and Nomoqan (d. 1301). clan among the Karakalpaks of Khorazm as well as the Sorqaqtani Beki followed the Christian Church of the KAZAKHS and Uzbeks. East, yet Qubilai’s Tangut nurse, for whose soul he often After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China, sponsored prayers, possibly nourished Qubilai’s belief in the Qonggirad lost their role in Mongolia as imperial con- Buddhism. Around 1242 Qubilai invited Haiyun, the sorts and became widely scattered. In 1371 a body of leading Buddhist monk in North China, north to his Qonggirads and Olqunuds on the ORDOS plateau of ORDO in Mongolia. Qubilai made Haiyun’s attendant LIU southwestern Inner Mongolia surrendered to the Ming. BINGZHONG his permanent adviser. Qubilai soon added Their descendants formed an OTOG (camp district) of the the Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi (1220–76) to his entourage, TÜMED tümen. Another Qonggirad otog belonged to the even telling Chabui to sew clothes personally for him. southern KHALKHA tümen of eastern Inner Mongolia (see Accounts such as Zhang Dehui’s Lingbei jixing (Notes on JUU UDA); their descendants are in modern Jarud banner. a journey north of the ranges, 1248) established Qubilai’s The Olqunu’ud branch is scattered over Khalkha terri- reputation as a Mongol prince sincerely interested in tory. The Qonggirad also appear as a clan of the small sagely governance. Turko-Mongolian Yogur nationality in Gansu. Finally, Börte’s Bosqur sublineage may be preserved as the VICEROY OF NORTH CHINA Boskochaina clan among the Daur in northeastern Inner The coronation of Qubilai’s brother Möngke as khan in Mongolia (see DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. 1251 catapulted Qubilai to a high position. Qubilai Further reading: C. E. Bosworth, “Kungrat,” in Ency- received the viceroyalty over North China and moved his clopaedia of Islam, 2d ed., Vol. 5 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960 ordo south to central Inner Mongolia, which was his on) vol. 5, 391–392; Hidehiro Okada, “The Chinggis home base for the next decade or more. Along with con- Khan Shrine and the Secret History of the Mongols.” In quering the Dali kingdom in YUNNAN in southwestern 458 Qubilai Khan China (winter 1253–54), Qubilai built the new city of Ezhou and Yuezhou to extricate themselves as best they Kaiping (later SHANGDU) and allowed his Confucian could; large numbers of Mongols surrendered. entourage to begin a series of experiments in govern- CORONATION AND CIVIL WAR ment. Conflict with MÖNGKE KHAN’s regular administra- tion stymied these innovations. In 1252 Qubilai and Zhao After easily eliminating all opponents from the Hebei- Bi forced out the long-time Khorazmian official Mahmud Shandong-Shanxi-Inner Mongolia area, Qubilai’s Chinese Yalavach (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG), but in staff eagerly encouraged him to ascend the throne, and 1257 Möngke ordered Qubilai’s new Pacification Com- virtually all the senior princes and great commanders mission abolished. (NOYAN) resident in North China or Manchuria also sup- Already suffering from gout, Qubilai was attracted by ported Qubilai’s candidacy. On April 15, 1260, a hand- the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he picked QURILTAI at Kaiping containing supporters of exploited his new rank to order ’PHAGS-PA LAMA Qubilai from all the Chinggisid and fraternal lines except (1235–1280), a Tibetan monk of the Sa-skya-pa order, to that of JOCHI elected Qubilai khan. A month later join his entourage. ’Phags-pa also bestowed on Qubilai Möngke’s old officials elevated Qubilai’s brother ARIQ- BÖKE as khan near QARA-QORUM. and Chabui a Tantric Buddhist initiation. In 1258 Qubilai The following civil war was fought on four fronts. presided over a Buddhist-Taoist debate in Kaiping and First in Shaanxi and Sichuan, where Möngke’s army was judged that the Taoist clergy were guilty of defaming still stationed, Qubilai had to seize control of the civil Buddhism. administration and win over or defeat units of Möngke’s On campaign on the Chang (Yangtze) River, Qubilai army sympathetic to Ariq-Böke. This was achieved by received news of Möngke’s death in September 1259. autumn 1260 largely through the efforts of his Uighur Fearing to return home empty-handed, he vainly official LIAN XIXIAN (1231–80). Second, on the homefront besieged Ezhou (modern Wuhan) and Yuezhou, but by already exhausted by Möngke’s campaign, revived pacifi- December Qubilai had to retreat, leaving the besiegers in cation commissions staffed by Confucian officials drafted every available man and horse, rebuilt fortifications, and manned the strategic passes. Despite LI TAN’S REBELLION in 1262, Qubilai was able to rely on the loyalty of his North Chinese generals and officials. Third, Qubilai personally led two Sino-Mongolian armies to Mongolia in autumn 1260 and autumn 1261, but both invasions proved indeci- sive, while losses in the cold to both armies were massive. Fourth, Qubilai eventually defeated Ariq-Böke by winning over Alghu, the Chaghatayid khan in Turkestan, and HÜLE’Ü in the Middle East, depriving Ariq-Böke’s base of its economic foundation. Ariq-Böke surrendered to Qubi- lai at Kaiping on August 21, 1264, and was pardoned, although at least 10 of his chief supporters were executed. QUBILAI AND HIS OFFICIALS Until around 1275 Qubilai relied heavily on the Chinese advisers from his days as a prince in both civil and mili- tary roles and appreciated the knowledge of those he often called “you fellows who read books.” New court rit- uals designed by Liu Bingzhong established an arena in which the Chinese officials felt more comfortable. Qubi- lai’s rebuilding of Yanjing (modern Beijing) as his new capital, DAIDU, begun in 1267, and his proclamation of a Chinese dynastic name, Yuan, in December 1271 marked the culmination of the Confucian period of governance. At the same time, however, tensions grew. When Qubilai founded a censorate in 1268, he was chagrined to find that his first choice, the Chinese Confucian Zhang Dehui (1197–1274), refused to serve as long as Qubilai did not bind himself with a formal law code. Eventually, he turned to a Mongol nobleman, Öz-Temür, to fill the Qubilai Khan (1260–1294). Anonymous court painter position. Qubilai’s dismissal of Lian Xixian in 1270, (Courtesy of the National Palace Museum, Taipei) together with the deaths of Liu Bingzhong (1274), Shii Qubilai Khan 459 Tianze (1275), Zhao Bi (1276), and Dong Wenbing Jingim, at least, sought Buddhist names for his children, (1278), ended Qubilai’s early reliance on Chinese offi- and despite occasional criticism from Qubilai’s Confucian cials. When Qubilai heard that Lian in exile was still advisers, Buddhism permeated court life. reading books, he said, “We have certainly been taught to read books, but if you read them and are not willing to FOREIGN CONQUESTS AND OPPOSITION IN THE have them applied, what is the use of reading a lot?” MONGOL HEARTLAND Replacing the Chinese comrades of his youth, Qubi- Qubilai’s first foreign conquest was Korea. After the lai turned to non-Chinese officials offering technical reigning king died in 1259, Qubilai used the Korean skills. From 1262 one of Chabui’s ORDO servants, AHMAD king’s son and heir, Wang Ch˘on (titled W˘onjong, FANAKATI (d. 1281), ran the government monopolies. 1260–74), a hostage at the Mongol court, to bring Korea Qubilai admired his undoubted abilities, yet Chinese col- into submission. Despite the necessity for later military leagues loathed his nepotism and corruption. In 1281 an interventions there, Qubilai saw this as a triumph of abortive coup d’état killed Ahmad, and the subsequent peaceful Confucian conquest through virtue. The pacifi- revelation of the scale of his corruption shocked and cation of Korea gave the Mongols a significant maritime embittered Qubilai. In 1286 the Tibetan SANGHA became force, and Qubilai drew on Korean shipbuilding heavily the empire’s chief fiscal officer. After Ahmad’s fall Qubilai during his campaigns against Japan and Song China. The was less trusting, and five years later Sangha was exe- first Mongol-Korean expedition against Japan ended in cuted for corruption. failure in 1274, and Qubilai turned to opportunities in With Sangha’s execution, Qubilai came to rely South China. wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats, descendants of After the fall of the great fortress of Xiangyang (mod- the NÖKÖRs (companions) of Chinggis Khan. Qubilai ern Xiangfan) in 1273, Qubilai’s Uighur general ARIQ- loved the hunt and the pageantry and feasting at the QAYA and the Mongol general AJU proposed the final quriltais of the Mongols, and these Mongol aristocrats conquest of the Song. In the following court debate there shared that world with him. Despite relying on princes was significant opposition, although the opponents’ and noyans (commanders) of his own generation to names are not recorded. Most likely the Confucian party defeat Ariq-Böke, Qubilai had kept them out of central opposed the Song expedition, just as it had the 1274 administration. To the younger generation of noyans, expedition against Japan. Qubilai appointed Bayan however, he gave high positions in both the bureaucracy Chingsang and Aju his commanders and ordered 100,000 and the royal family. Hantum (1245–93) of the JALAYIR soldiers drafted. Qubilai’s primary concern from the and BAYAN CHINGSANG (1236–95) served as grand coun- beginning was to preserve the tremendous wealth of cillors (chengxiang or chingsang) from 1265; Öz-Temür South China from possible destruction by the Mongol (1242–95) of the Arulad headed the censorate from armies. He thus gave command of the final advance on the 1275; and ÖCHICHER (1247–1311) headed the palace Song capital of Lin’an (modern Hangzhou) to Bayan establishment from 1281. Hantum, Öz-Temür, and Chingsang, whose diplomatic finesse he trusted. In March Öchicher also supervised KESHIG, or imperial guard, 1276 Lin’an and most of the Song imperial family surren- shifts, thus overseeing Qubilai’s daily life. Hantum was dered; operations to 1279 were in the nature of mop-up. the son of Chabui’s elder sister, and Qubilai married The victorious campaign against the Song, however, Bayan Chingsang to Hantum’s sister. These officials sym- coincided with disaster on the northern frontier. There, pathized with the Confucians and strongly opposed the an Ögedeid prince, QAIDU KHAN (1236–1301), had from financier cliques. 1269 rallied an alliance of the CHAGHATAY KHANATE and Qubilai and Chabui’s eldest son, Dorji, was sickly the GOLDEN HORDE and raided the YUAN DYNASTY’s posses- and died young. Qubilai early groomed Jingim as his suc- sions in Mongolia and East Turkestan (modern Xinjiang). cessor, making him titular director of the Secretariat and In spring of 1277 Möngke Khan’s son Shiregi rebelled, head of the Bureau of Military Affairs from 1263 on. kidnapping Prince Nomuqan and Hantum Noyan and Nomuqan was sent out to garrison the frontier at Alma- turning them over to the Golden Horde and Qaidu, ligh (near modern Huocheng in Xinjiang) in 1271, and respectively. Unrest from Shiregi’s rebellion briefly spread Manggala was given a fief in Shaanxi in 1272. In 1273 as far as Yingchang in Inner Mongolia, but by February Qubilai formally designated Jingim heir apparent. 1278 Bayan Chingsang and the Qipchaq general TUTUGH A final part of Qubilai’s entourage was religious lead- had driven Shiregi’s partisans west of the ALTAI RANGE. ers. In 1260 Qubilai made ’Phags-pa his state preceptor (guoshi) and head of all Buddhist monks in China. ’Phags- QUBILAI’S LATER YEARS pa’s primary appeal to Qubilai seems to have been intellec- Jingim’s Confucian education distanced him from his tual, and after 1264 ’Phags-pa spent only two years (1269 father’s later court, dominated by Ahmad and Sangha. and 1274) at court. In his place ’Phags-pa recommended After Chabui died in 1281, Qubilai married her Qonggi- the lama Dam-pa Kun-dga’-grags (1230–1303), whose rad cousin Nambui and began to withdraw from direct magical accomplishments greatly impressed Qubilai. contact with his advisers, issuing instructions through 460 quda her. In 1284 the Golden Horde sent back Nomuqan and later his funeral cortege set out for the burial place of the induced Qaidu to return Hantum. Nomuqan expressed khans in northeast Mongolia. his resentment that Jingim had been made heir apparent, Qubilai’s seizure of power in 1260 pushed the MON- and Qubilai banished him to the north again. When an GOL EMPIRE in a new direction. In his contest with Ariq- official in the south proposed in 1285 that Qubilai abdi- Böke, Ariq-Böke stood for continuity with Möngke’s cate in favor of Jingim, only Jingim’s sudden death at age self-conscious Mongol nativism. Qubilai was rather a new 42 averted a crisis between father and son. After Jingim’s ÖGEDEI KHAN, magnanimous and willing to experiment death, however, Qubilai remained very close to Jingim’s with non-Mongol ideas. Qubilai’s controversial election, widow Bairam-Egechi (also known as Kökejin), and in at first supported by no one outside North China and 1293 Jingim’s third son, Temür (b. 1265, titled Cheng- Manchuria, accelerated the breakup of the MONGOL zong, 1294–1307), was proclaimed heir apparent. EMPIRE. At the same time, Qubilai’s willingness to formal- Despite the gesture of peace from the Golden Horde, ize the Mongol realm’s symbiotic relation with North hostilities on the frontier increased. In 1285 Qubilai’s China gave the Mongol Empire a cultural and administra- Central Asian rival Qaidu destroyed an army at Besh- tive brilliance that impressed the world. Baligh, and Qubilai evacuated the Tarim Basin. In 1287 Despite the vast amount of information about Qubi- the princes of the fraternal lineages in Manchuria, headed lai’s reign and administration, his ultimate beliefs and by Nayan, rebelled. Warned in advance, Qubilai, now character remain enigmatic. Even as a prince, Qubilai grossly overweight, took to the field to defeat NAYAN’S excelled at making people of diverse backgrounds believe REBELLION, riding on a palanquin born by elephants. With that he shared their deepest desires, inspiring very differ- the death of Nayan, Qubilai returned home, but scattered ent people to devoted service. Only Chabui shared with rebellions continued until 1289. From 1286 on Qaidu him these varied personalities. Apart from her he pre- also began regularly raiding Mongolia; his brief occupa- ferred to surround himself with men who either by back- tion of Qara-Qorum brought Qubilai out of his palace for ground or by age were unlikely to penetrate into the the last time, but Qaidu was long gone by the time he inner sanctum of his thought. Officials who pressed arrived at Qara-Qorum. Supply and morale among the Qubilai too insistently for commitment to one vision, defenders were poor; in 1292 Bayan Chingsang had exe- such as Lian Xixian, eventually found their access cut off cuted soldiers for refusing to advance. Qubilai replaced and not restored until they recognized the emperor’s right Bayan Chingsang with Öz-Temür and ordered Qipchaq and obligation to be an emperor of all persuasions. troops under the aggressive general Tutugh to occupy See also KOREA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; JAPAN AND Kem-Kemchik (Tuva) and attack Qaidu’s positions. This THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SOUTH SEAS. advance would eventually break the back of Qaidu’s Further reading: Morris Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His opposition, but only after Qubilai’s death. Life and Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, In the South Seas Qubilai overrode repeated warn- 1988). ings from experienced officials and put together a vast second expedition against Japan, which was likewise destroyed by storms. A small maritime invasion of quda This term, used for marriage allies or two men Champa in 1281 and a massive land-sea invasion of VIET- whose children have married each other, marked a key NAM in 1284–88 both failed. Simultaneous invasions of political relationship in Mongolian society and politics. BURMA (Myanmar) (1282–87) and a smaller seaborne At the time of the empire, the Mongols were orga- expedition against Java (1292–93) also brought no lasting nized into patrilineal lineages. These lineages were gains. strictly exogamous. Thus, parents had to contract mar- Domestically, several quixotic campaigns of religious riage alliances for their children with other lineages. repression against Taoists and Muslims marked the later Once two lineages contracted such a tie, the two sets of years of Qubilai’s reign. This late anti-Islamic attitude fathers would call each other quda, or “marriage allies” also influenced his diplomacy, leading him to support the (modern Mongolian, khud); qudaghui (modern, khudgui) Buddhist Arghun over the Muslim Sultan Ahmad in the was used by the mothers. Preferably, the tie was recipro- IL-KHANATE’s succession conflict of 1282–84. cal, so that a father of one lineage, having received a bride for his son in a second lineage, would give a bride QUBILAI’S CHARACTER AND SIGNIFICANCE to someone in the second lineage. This sort of exchange On the lunar new year’s day (January 28, 1294) Qubilai could go on for generations. was too ill to hold the customary ceremonies. Having Thus, for example, CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, ruled as great khan for 34 years, Qubilai was now some- 1206–27) gave his sister Temülün to Botu of the Ikires thing of a relic from an earlier era. Seeking an old com- clan. Botu’s son Sorqaq received as a bride Altu, the panion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff daughter of Köchü, the son of Chinggis’s son Ögedei. could chose only Bayan Chingsang, more than 30 years Meanwhile, Ula’adai, Botu’s son, gave his daughter Qutuq- his junior. On February 18 Qubilai died, and two days tai to Möngke, the son of Chinggis’s son TOLUI. Sorqaq’s quda 461 son Jaqurchin married Yisünjin, the daughter of Alchidai, exchange with the khan. In the Chaghatay Khanate the son of Chinggis’s brother Qachi’un. Several genera- TIMUR Kürgen (son-in-law), the famous Tamerlane, of the tions later this intermarriage continued. The chief wife of Barulas lineage, reduced his father-in-law to a puppet and Emperor Shidebala (titled Yingzong, 1320–23) was an opened the way for his sons to replace the Chinggisid Ikires princess, Sügebala, whose father was Ashi, son of line in that khanate. Jaqurchin’s son Qurin; her mother was Ili-Qaya, the After the expulsion of the Yuan from China in 1368, daughter of Emperor Temür, son of JINGIM, son of Tolui’s the Chinggisid rulers of the Mongols found themselves in son Qubilai. Given the Mongol practice of polygamy and a similar situation with the Oirats, who forced them to the lack of Chinese concern about contracting marriages continue in quda relations. Repeatedly, Chinggisid khans in higher or lower generations, the quda established an came into conflict with their quda partners among the extraordinarily complex web of relations. Oirats. During the Mongol-Oirat wars of the 15th cen- When a bride of noble family went to her new home, tury, the Mongol rulers responded by reemphasizing the she would be given from her father’s subjects an INJE, or higher call of blood and lineage over marriage affinity, an dowry, of maidservants to accompany her. In ruling fami- emphasis reflected in chronicles such as the ERDENI-YIN lies this inje included menservants as well and numbered TOBCHI and the ALTAN TOBCHI. When BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN in the 100s. The quda relationship thus brought about KHAN (1480?–1517?) decisively defeated the Oirats and substantial and repeated exchanges of subject popula- reunified the Mongols proper in the east, he divided the tions as well. Mongol peoples among his sons. Since the Mongol peo- Even before the rise of Chinggis Khan, all the con- ples (with the exception of the Oirats and BURIATS) tenders for leadership of the Mongols were branches of mostly came to be ruled by Dayan Khan’s descendants, the BORJIGID lineage. As a result, the theoretically recip- the role of quda relations declined in intra-Mongol poli- rocal relation of quda became a way for nonruling but tics. The revived Chinggisid aristocracy descended from wealthy clans to be attached to the warlike ruling clans Dayan Khan’s sons preferred to contract marriage with as clients. While theoretically Chinggis could have estab- the more prominent of their own subjects rather than lished quda relations with any non-Borjigid lineage, he with those outside their power. Called tabunangs, these generally preferred to do so with the ruling families of sons-in-law of the new Chinggisid aristocracy formed an semiautonomous tribes and peoples who surrounded the important, although definitely subordinate, part of the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU rather than with his intimate servi- Mongol ruling class. tors. Only a few leading generals, such as SÜBE’ETEI The Manchus of the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912), BA’ATUR and CHORMAQAN, received imperial princesses. who conquered Inner Mongolia in 1636 and received the To the east the QONGGIRAD, the Ikires, and the submission of KHALKHA (Outer Mongolia) in 1691, Olqunuds, to the northwest the OIRATS, and to the south shared a social structure of exogamous patrilineages with the ÖNGGÜD tribes all became firm quda relations of the the Mongols and also used marriage ties to secure allies. Borjigid, ties that lasted through the YUAN DYNASTY to In this case, however, it was the Mongols who became 1368. Those lineage chiefs who received Chinggisid “son-in-law” people. Mongol aristocrats, particularly princesses bore the title of kürgen, “son-in-law.” The from the KHARACHIN and KHORCHIN Mongols in eastern Chinggisids also used the quda alliance as a preferred Inner Mongolia, often received Manchu princesses. These method to tie friendly non-nomadic peoples to the princesses, according to Manchu and Mongol custom, realm. Chinggis Khan established quda relations with the came with inje, or a human dowry. These dowry servants, UIGHURS and the Muslim QARLUQS of Almaligh (near usually from Beijing, helped spread Chinese customs modern Huocheng in Xinjiang). After Korea surrendered among the Mongols. to the Mongols in 1260, QUBILAI KHAN and his descen- During the Qing dynasty the monopoly of local dants established quda relations with the ruling Wang authority by an almost purely Borjigid aristocracy caused family of the Koryo˘ dynasty. a decline in clan structures and exogamy among the com- While during the Yuan dynasty the khans preferred moners. Only the Kharachin and Monggoljin (Fuxin) to keep the ranks of quda separate from those of the gen- banners in the southeast of Inner Mongolia retained their erals and ministers, in the three western khanates (the non-Borjigid nobles and thus became favored marriage CHAGHATAY KHANATE, the GOLDEN HORDE, and the IL- partners for the Borjigid nobility. By 1900 Mongol com- KHANATE) and their successors, the same families that moners were even beginning to forget their CLAN NAMES. dominated the KESHIG, or imperial guard, also came to Even so, among commoners the idea of two groups dominate the ranks of the khan’s quda. The Qonggirad exchanging brides retained its importance. Oftentimes it were represented in these ranks in several khanates, and was reinterpreted as an exchange not between clans or the Oirats were quda to the Il-Khans, but other families, lineages but between BANNERS or sumus (local administra- such as the Barulas and the Suldus, also held this posi- tive districts). In this sense it can still be found today tion. By the 15th century the leading bey (chief or lord), among some rural Mongols. or beglerbegi, often monopolized the right to marriage See also FAMILY; KINSHIP SYSTEM; WEDDINGS. 462 qumyz Further reading: Hirotoshi Shimo, “The Central emperor removed their hats and slung their belts around Organization of the Il-Khanate Governments.” In Pro- their necks as a sign of obedience. Clergy of the various ceedings of the 35th Permanent International Altaistics Con- religions of the empire offered prayers for the KHAN and ference, ed. Chieh-hsien Ch’en (Taipei: Center for the realm. Coronation and new year’s quriltais were fol- Chinese Studies Materials, 1993), 443–446. lowed by full prostrations of all present before the khan. The early MONGOL TRIBE in the mid-12th century qumyz See KOUMISS. undoubtedly held regular summer quriltais, although the rituals differed. The quriltai at the Branching Tree of Qorqonaq valley, a tributary of the ONON RIVER, was leg- Qunghrat See QONGGIRAD. endary. Following the powerful Qutula Khan’s election, he danced with his people until his pounding feet dug a Qunqirat See QONGGIRAD. ditch to his knees. The quriltai of 1201 that raised JAMUGHA to the throne swore a covenant of unity over a quriltai (quriltay, kuriltai) The quriltai was a grand sacrificed stallion and mare. assembly at which the Mongol ruling class elected their Little is known of the ceremonial during the quriltai khans, planned campaigns, and distributed rewards. that elected Chinggis Khan emperor in 1206. He dis- In the 13th and 14th centuries the Mongol rulers played a new nine-footed banner, and some say that held annual quriltais during the sixth lunar month (late seven Mongol clan chiefs lifted him up on a piece of June or early July) and at the WHITE MONTH, or lunar black felt. RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH states that this coro- new year (late January or early February). Those in the nation quriltai was held at the new year, not in the sum- summer, when the mares were milked and the horses mer. The 1229 quriltai that enthroned his son ÖGEDEI fattened, were the more splendid occasions, sometimes KHAN established regular rituals, including prostration of lasting two months. The greatest assemblies brought all relatives to the new emperor, which were further codi- together under a single pavilion the entire ruling class: fied in 1234. princes and princesses of the blood, imperial sons-in- In later generations coronation quriltais proved par- laws, captains of 1,000 and of 10,000 and their ladies, ticularly controversial. The Mongols had no rule of suc- and scribes and stewards and their wives. Each partici- cession, and quriltais considered a wide range of pant was allowed 10 followers. One observer estimated Chinggisid princes. The prolonged feasting and drinking the attendance at the summer coronation quriltai of aimed to produce frank discussion and eventual consen- 1246 at 5,000. Governors of the conquered peoples and sus. Since the aim of the election was to discern which envoys of foreign nations remained outside the pavilion candidate was truly destined by heaven to rule, the deci- and were allowed in only by special invitation. Entrance sion had to be unanimous, putting strong pressure on and seating followed strict order. According to Mongol dissidents to support the majority. Once a candidate was custom, the great palace-tents (ORDO) faced south, and chosen, he usually demanded written guarantees the lords sat in descending seniority on the right (west- (möchelge) from the princes that they would abide by the ern) side, while the ladies sat facing them on the left choice. After the controversial election of MÖNGKE KHAN (eastern) side. Approach to the hitching posts (kirü’ese) in 1251, quriltai organizers frequently faced the choice of outside the pavilion, where the horses with their valu- either following the quriltai with a purge of opponents or able trappings were tied, was also strictly regulated. restricting it to supporters only. At the summer quriltais, often held at the Shira Ordo, The successor states maintained the quriltai institu- or “Yellow Palace-Tent,” all present wore a different color tions. In the YUAN DYNASTY under QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), every day, but at the new year’s quriltai they wore white the quriltais grew more frequent and more splendid, with only. The emperor’s KESHIG or imperial guard served assemblies added to celebrate the emperor’s birthday as liquor, carved the meat, and guarded the door. Singing well as each lunar month. The western khanates and elaborate rituals of toasting accompanied the day- observed the summer and new year’s quriltais even after long drinking of KOUMISS and wine. Those attending converting to Islam, which has its own lunar calendar. brought gifts and rarities (tangsuqs), while the emperor Drinking of koumiss and mead also continued, although bestowed on the guests suits of baldachin (gold brocade) some khans prohibited grape wine. Some of the later and other colors for the occasion as well as gold ingots Islamic successor states excluded women, with the and raw fabrics. exception of the khan or sultan’s immediate family, from When a coronation quriltai had decided on a candi- the quriltais. The quriltai disappeared from the historical date, a senior prince of the right hand (representing the record after the 14th century. The later Mongol NAADAM families of Chinggis’s sons JOCHI and CHA’ADAI) and of the was also a seasonal assembly with a religiopolitical focus, left hand (representing the families of CHINGGIS KHAN’s but it was not called a quriltai or modeled on it. brothers) led him to the throne, while another senior See also CALENDARS AND DATING SYSTEMS; FOOD AND prince offered a cup of ÖTÖG, or offering wine. All but the DRINK. Mongol khan and his khatun (lady) enthroned at the quriltai. From an illustrated version of Rashid-ud-Din’s Compendium of Chronicles (Courtesy Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin—Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Orientalabteilung) 464 Qutuqu, Shigi Further reading: Ron Sela, Ritual and Authority in but this account must refer to some later event. Accompa- Central Asia: The Khan’s Inauguration Ceremony (Bloom- nying Chinggis Khan on his campaign against KHORAZM, ington, Ind.: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Shigi Qutuqu was defeated by Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi at 2003). Parwan in Afghanistan. After Chinggis’s death Shigi Qutuqu also participated in TOLUI’s campaigns against the Qutuqu, Shigi (1178?–1260) Tatar captive and first Jin in North China in 1230–31. In 1234 ÖGEDEI KHAN chief judge of the Mongol Empire appointed Shigi Qutuqu chief judge (JARGHUCHI) for North The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS and RASHID-UD-DIN China, responsible for enforcing taxation and other laws. FAZL-ULEAH agree that Shigi Qutuqu was found as a small Arriving at Yanjing (modern Beijing), Shigi Qutuqu child in a Tatar camp after a successful attack by the Mon- ordered another census of North China, completed in gols. They differ, however, on when this happened (1196 1236. The SONG DYNASTY envoy Xu Ting considered Shigi or the early 1180s) and on whether it was Chinggis’s Qutuqu’s taxation oppressive, but the Confucian scholar mother, Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN, or his wife BÖRTE ÜJIN who adopted Zhang Dehui later praised Shigi Qutuqu as a model civil him. Chronology indicates Rashid-ud-Din is correct. Shigi official, and Rashid-ud-Din notes that he encouraged sus- Qutuqu trained early on in writing. In 1215, when pects not to incriminate themselves out of fear of punish- Zhongdu, the capital of the JIN DYNASTY in North China, ment. His court practice formed the basis for judicial surrendered to the Mongols, he was sent to make a com- procedures all over the empire. plete record of the booty for CHINGGIS KHAN, who praised See also CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; JARLIQ; JASAQ. his scrupulous devotion (see ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF). The ^ Qutuqu,” in In Further reading: P. Ratchnevsky, “Sigi Secret History of the Mongols states that Chinggis Khan the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early made Shigi Qutuqu his chief scribe, chief judge, and over- Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz seer of all sedentary cities at the great QURILTAI in 1206, et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 75–94. Rashid-ud-Din Fazl-ullah (Rashid al-Din, Rashid ad- Din) (1247–1318) Vizier of the Mongols in Iran and R pleted his history and was commissioned to add the chronicles of all the known world, thus creating the first world historian truly multicivilization history, the Jami‘ al-tawarikh, or Rashid-ud-Din was born in Hamadan, Iran, the son of a COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES. Receiving a supposed mil- Jewish pharmacist, and was trained as a physician. In lion gold dinars as a reward, he invested it in wasteland 1295, as Rashid-ud-Dawla, he served as steward to the he improved through his agronomic expertise. Chief of court of Geikhatu Khan (1291–95) but eventually his investments were several tax-exempt pious founda- absconded when financial chaos made his task impossible. tions (waqf) and especially his tomb complex at Rab‘-i Later Rashid-ud-Din was sharing shifts in the Mongol Rashidi, outside Tabriz. Here, through the production of prince Ghazan’s KESHIG (household guard) with a Mongol illuminated and illustrated manuscripts, including the commander, Qutlughshah. By 1297 GHAZAN KHAN Compendium, Rashid’s patronage greatly advanced the (1295–1304) was in power, Qutlughshah was his chief Persian miniature tradition. Rashid-ud-Din’s generosity to commander, and Rashid-ud-Din was at court hearing the petitioners was widely praised. petitions of the Christian patriarch MAR YAHBH-ALLAHA. In 1312 Öljeitü executed Sa‘d-ud-Din, and Rashid Rashid-ud-Dawla’s name change to Rashid-ud-Din proba- was accused of leading a Jewish clique that had poisoned bly marks his conversion to Islam, although a late Arab Ghazan Khan. Rashid’s youthful new colleague as vizier, biographical source dates his conversion to his 30th year. Taj-ud-Din ‘Alishah, began to intrigue against him and His history shows the exaggerated contempt of a would- under Abu-Sa‘id (r. 1317–35) brought accusations of hav- be landed gentry for the ambitious Jewish “hucksters” ing poisoned Öljeitü. Rashid’s Mongol patron, Emir who had flourished before 1295 as ortoq agents of the Sevinch, died, and Rashid was dismissed in 1317 and Mongol nobility. Rashid-ud-Din leaned toward the ratio- executed in 1318, as Mongol soldiers looted Rab‘-i nalist Mu‘tazili school of Islam, and court intriguers later Rashidi. After Taj-ud-Din’s death Rashid’s son Ghiyas-ud- denounced his commentary on the Koran as a Jew’s philo- Din Muhammad revived the family’s fortunes, serving sophical falsification of the word of God. Abu-Sa‘id as vizier. In 1298 Rashid-ud-Din’s superior, Sadr-ud-Din Zan- jani, was executed, and Rashid-ud-Din became the sec- religion The two main organized religions in Mongolia ond-ranked vizier in the empire, under Sa‘d-ud-Din have been SHAMANISM and Buddhism. Shamanism was Savaji. Rashid-ud-Din and his sons served GHAZAN KHAN dominant at the court of the MONGOL EMPIRE and among as his most trusted and intimate stewards. Ghazan Khan the Mongols up to around 1575. From 1260 on Tibetan commissioned Rashid-ud-Din to write a complete history Buddhism also became an important influence on Mon- of the Mongols, giving him unprecedented access to con- golian religious life, coexisting with shamanism. After fidential Mongolian records. Under Ghazan Khan’s 1575 a new wave of persecution from the dGe-lugs-pa, or brother Sultan Öljeitü (1304–17) Rashid-ud-Din com- “Yellow Hat” Buddhists, progressively drove shamanism 465 466 religion out of central Mongolia. By the beginning of the 20th eschewed the previous compromises of the other orders century only the Daurs, western BURIATS, DARKHAD, and a and tried to destroy shamanism completely. Shamanist few other peripheral peoples were still predominantly ONGGHON figurines were burnt in great bonfires. Friendly shamanist. Mongolian rulers championed the “TWO CUSTOMS” idea At the same time, a large number of lay rituals have of mutually supportive church and state. The dGe-lugs- shown substantial continuity from the time of the Mon- pa monasteries became the single most influential institu- gol Empire to the present. While these rituals, including tion for educating the Mongols. libations of mare’s milk to heaven (TENGGERI), the FIRE By the mid-18th century shamans were difficult, if CULT, and the worship of standards are often interpreted not impossible, to find in most of Mongolia. Less exclu- as “shamanist survivals,” these cults are best seen as a sivist approaches toward the native religion began emerg- separate “elders’ religion” (Caroline Humphrey’s term), ing that viewed conversion as a process of converting the distinct from shamanism and Buddhism but antagonistic local spirits and putting them under oath to protect the to neither. Buddhism aims to improve one’s reincarnation superior Buddhist faith. The THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN, Lub- through building merit and ultimately to cease the round sang-Dambi-Jalsan (1717–66), composed a whole liturgy of incarnation and achieve birthlessness through detach- of prayers to specifically Mongolian deities and spiritual ment from all desire, and shamanism aims to embody powers: local mountains, CHINGGIS KHAN and his stan- spirits nursing grudges for insults done in the past so that dards (see EIGHT WHITE YURTS), the WHITE OLD MAN, the they can be propitiated and reconciled with the living. OBOO and fire cult, and so on. The “elders’ religion,” however, aims to show forth and The conflict between shamanism and Buddhism was celebrate the social orders of clan, neighborhood, family, joined again in the late 18th and 19th centuries among and state and to give them eternal and cosmic status. the eastern Buriats in southern Siberia. The 19th-century Since both shamanism and Buddhism recognize and Buriat chronicles, written by Buddhist partisans, record accept these social groups, both are compatible with the that from the 1780s shamanism was steadily driven back “elders’ religion.” by literacy and more effective medicine, especially the In the 20th century Communist persecution harshly live-virus smallpox vaccine long taught in monasteries. repressed all forms of Mongolian religious life (see BUD- By 1819 shamanist, ongghon figure were being burned DHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST; INNER MONGOLIANS; KALMYKS). among the Buriats as well. At the same time, the method Since 1985 traditional religious practice has revived. of putting local spirits, such as mountains, under oath to The new religious scene differs, however, from the pre- protect Buddhism was also being applied to take over and revolutionary era in the presence of new ideals of reli- Buddhicize traditional cult sites. gious tolerance and secular government. In Mongolia In the 20th century Buddhism went from achieving proper, particularly in the capital, ULAANBAATAR, evan- the height of its power under the EIGHTH JIBZUNDAMBA gelical Christianity is also a significant new factor in KHUTUGTU from 1911 to 1921 to suffering virtual destruc- religious life. tion under the Communist regime from 1936 to 1944. Similar campaigns were waged in Mongol areas of Russia BUDDHISM AND SHAMANISM and China. The period of persecution improved Bud- Under the Mongol Empire and the succeeding YUAN dhism’s relations with shamanism. In Buriatia some Bud- DYNASTY (1206/71–1368) the shamans, organized in a dhist clergy even recommend that those with peculiar hierarchy under the beki, or senior clan leader, handled illnesses see shamans for treatment. At the same time, the rituals of the ancestral temple and the seasonal festi- other lamas and devout Buddhist laymen, whether vals. Clergy of other religions, such as Buddhism and among Buriats, KHALKHA Mongols, or Inner Mongolians, Christianity, also participated. From the time of QUBILAI often look askance at shamanists and avoid contact with KHAN (1260–94) Tibetan Buddhism became the dominant shamanic spirits. influence on the court, but judging from personal names and other pieces of evidence it was less influential on the THE “ELDERS’ RELIGION” ordinary Mongols in China than were native traditions or Regardless of whether an area is Buddhist or shamanist, even CONFUCIANISM. Certainly the Buddhists did not shamans no longer handle the local calendrical and life- repress the shamanist court ceremonies. Coexistence of cycle rituals that form the traditional “elders’ religion.” court Buddhism with shamanism continued at least into Today these rituals are carried out either by lamas or by the 15th century, if not longer (see BUDDHISM IN THE MON- lay elders known for their command of the old traditions GOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE). and the ability to speak the traditional blessings well. The SECOND CONVERSION of the Mongols to Bud- They are called by different names in different places: dhism, which began around 1575, introduced a new, khadashan übegen (old man of the cliffs) or medelshe fiercely exclusivist view of Buddhism’s rightful role in akhamad khün (knowledgeable elders) among the Buriats, society. Missionaries of the new dGe-lugs-pa, or “Yellow khondon (KHORCHIN), khonjin (ORDOS), or baksh (teacher) Hat” order, founded by Tsong-kha-pa (1372–1419), among the Daurs. Details of the cults of the elders reli- religion 467 gion vary from region to regions, but they are everywhere MODES OF WORSHIP broadly similar both to one another and to the ancient Traditional lay religion in Mongolia has a common vocab- rituals of the Mongol Empire and before. ulary of worship of both ancient Inner Asian and Bud- From the ancient TÜRK EMPIRES through the Mongol dhist origin. Many such practices evidently stem from the Empire, the peoples of Mongolia worshiped “Eternal ancient Eurasian traditions. Heaven” (möngke tenggeri) and “Mother Earth,” named in The most ancient and powerful of these forms of ancient Mongolian prayers Mother Etüken. In later cen- worship were human and horse sacrifices. The former is, turies Eternal Heaven had a varying relation with the “99 of course, defunct, and the horse sacrifice is still prac- gods/heavens” divided into two camps, white to the west ticed regularly only among the western Buriats. Cooked and red to the east, sometimes being one of the 99, some- sheep continue to be offered to the household Buddhas times the head of all of them, and sometimes a sort of on the eve of the WHITE MONTH (lunar new year) and in summation of them. oboo worship, even if performed for a monastery. Another Another important cult was what the SECRET HISTORY ancient Eurasian custom encouraged under Buddhism OF THE MONGOLS calls the “masters and sovereigns of land was the practice of dedicating horses and other livestock and water” (ghajar usun-u ejed khad), especially associ- to the ancestral or local spirits. Once dedicated, such ated with mountains and large bodies of water. Chinggis livestock wandered freely, were not sold or ridden, and Khan daily worshiped and prayed to Mt. Burqan Qaldun could be killed only for sacrifice. Originally called ong- in the KHENTII RANGE of his homeland, where he had ghola- (to make into an ongghon, or sacred vessel), it was taken refuge from his enemies. In recent centuries both renamed in Buddhist Mongolia seterle- (to decorate with the Buddhist church, the secular rulers in the BANNERS seter, or colored strips, from Tibetan se-ter). (appanages), and the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) AMBANs The practice of decorating sacred things with strips of conducted regular worship of the major mountains. cloth is ancient. At the election assembly (QURILTAI) of Another form of this worship is that at the oboo, or cairn, Qabul Khan, decades before Chinggis Khan, the great lone where both the masters of the land and the dragons that tree there was dedicated with colored strips of cloth. As in inhabit atmospheric water are worshiped. While the mountains are often seen as sons or messengers of the Tibet, colored cloth strips (dartsug, from Tibetan dar-lchog) upper heaven(s), the waters are linked to the underworld or whole KHADAG scarves are still used to dedicate all sorts gods, ruled by Erlig Khan. Hunters viewed game as gifts of sacred and protected things: Buddhist temples, oboos, from the “Lord of the Forest” (see HUNTING AND FISHING). grave sites, clan burial spots, or barisa, wrestlers, horse- Since clans occupied particular areas and buried or head fiddles, hats, and so on. The ultimate form of such exposed their dead there, mountains and trees at the strips is the kheimori (modern khiimori), or “wind horse” vicinity of such an ancestral spot (called barisa by the or prayer flag, printed with Tibetan prayers surrounding a Buriats) also became associated with ancestral lineages. horse carrying the chindamani (wishing jewel). The horse sacrifice (tailgan) to the ancestors was one Liquid offerings are made by aspersions or sprinkling aspect of the elders’ religion that the Buddhists virtually (Inner Mongolian, sachul, Khalkha, tsatsal, Buriat, sasal). always opposed. (An exception was at the shrine of Usually offered to heaven and all the 99 deities without Chinggis Khan in Ordos.) Thus, in Buriatia places distinction, such aspersions are made before drinking any where the tailgan sacrifice took place would be replaced liquor with the ring finger of the right hand in the four by a clan oboo cult with mutton or sometimes bloodless directions. In large outdoor ceremonies special ladles offerings. with nine built-in cups are used so that the 99 aspersions Within the family the fire cult and the ongghons can be performed conveniently. Spoken blessings are formed two parts of the ancient Inner Asian elders’ reli- made concrete in an anointing (milaa-/myalaa-): horses gion. Curiously, among the Turkish Inner Asian nomads with KOUMISS, or fermented mare’s milk, and children and the Muslim missionaries extirpated the fire cult (per- yurts with butter. Fire is “anointed” by pouring butter or haps due to its similarity to the rival religion of Zoroas- sheep fat on it. trianism) but long tolerated the ongghons, while the While running water is pure, its purity is passive and Buddhist missionaries destroyed ongghons but encour- sullied by contact with dirt. Fire, however, is actively aged the fire cult. pure and is still used for purification. Shamans also use a The larger political structures were embodied in the burning juniper (arts) branch for purification. Fire is also cult of the standards, large spears planted vertically with used to send things to the dead. In this sense, burning knotted horsehair tails tied below the spearhead. These powdered juniper or incense are used in Buddhist wor- standards were often worshiped in black (war) and white ship as an offering (Mongolian, sang or ubsang, from (peace) forms. In the Qing dynasty every banner (local Tibetan bzang). district) also kept its own trident standard. During the Movement around sacred places is always clockwise, 1911 RESTORATION prisoners of war were even sacrificed or as the Mongols call it, naran züg (sun direction), follow- to these war standards. ing the movement of shadows inside the YURT. Only when 468 religion carrying a corpse from the yurt is counterclockwise motion Kalmyk intellectuals who cannot speak their own lan- prescribed. This is another aspect in which Buddhist pat- guages, while observance of traditional rituals at oboo, terns were already congruent with traditional Inner Asian barisa, and other traditional religious sites is widespread, patterns. Another form of clockwise motion was the beck- sometimes even attracting Russian patronage as well. The oning motion (dallaga) of the upward-facing hands, sum- Russian state currently encourages all traditional faiths moning good fortune. This motion is accompanied by the both as a reaction to the Communist past and to combat repeated cry of khurui. what are seen as divisive missionary sects. This encour- The Mongolian calendar of worship has long been agement also makes devotion to the Mongolian religions divided into two basic seasons: the winter of meat (red a politically and socially safe way of expressing ethnic food), the White Month, hunting, and EPICS, and the identity. summer of dairy products (“white food”) milk asper- In Inner Mongolia the anticlerical and anti-Buddhist sions, the three manly games, and the oboo offering. In current begun in eastern Inner Mongolia in the late 19th the pre-Buddhist period, ancestral sacrifices took place in and early 20th centuries is still strong (see NEW SCHOOLS all seasons but with different characters. Although several MOVEMENTS). Many nationalist intellectuals believe Bud- calendars and astrological conceptions were at work, all dhism was responsible for weakening and pacifying the were lunar-solar in nature and involved timing with the Mongols and diminishing their population. Inner Mongo- seasons, the moon, and the major stars (see ASTROLOGY; lian scholars often write with deep bitterness about the CALENDARS AND DATING SYSTEMS.) Buddhist clergy’s attempts to influence Mongolian tradi- Ritual activities are also governed by powerful num- tions and, for example, turn Chinggis Khan into “nothing bers and color dualities. The most important number is but a Lama-Buddhist deity.” Thus, while a limited Bud- 9, or in its multiplied form 99. Other important numbers dhist revival has occurred in Inner Mongolia as well, few are 5, linked with the five directions (including center) of the intelligentsia and virtually none of the large Chi- and five colors, 12, linked to the 12-ANIMAL CYCLE, and nese-speaking Mongol minority are believers. 7, linked to the five visible planets with the sun and In independent Mongolia from 1990 to 2000 opinion moon. Colors are organized into dualities: white versus polls showed the number of those who considered them- black (noble versus base), white versus red (milk versus selves believers in some religion rose from 30 percent to meat), and yellow versus black (Buddhist versus lay). 70 percent. Of those 70 percent, Buddhists account for 80 White and nine are often used to express the acme of percent. Monastic education has been revived, and young pure offerings. child-lamas in their religious garb in the street are a cher- Finally, the verbal forms of prayers, addresses, bless- ished sign of the new freedom for Mongolia’s Buddhists. ings, and praises (see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL) all share cer- Shamanism has also been revived, both in traditional tain features: groups of alliterative lines with seven or form among the Buriat and Darkhad ethnic groups and in eight syllables with a parallel grammatical structure and a kind of synthetic neoshamanism in the capital. While meaning (see PROSODY). The content of such prayers fre- the intense anti-Buddhist feeling frequently found in quently shows a combination of cosmic scale and repeti- Inner Mongolia is rare, shamanism’s comparatively tive description. The form of these addresses parallels the greater antiquity and “Mongolness” has attracted much function of the “elders’ religion”: to celebrate the firm, attention. Since 1990 traditional community and family eternal nature of the social groups involved. rituals, such as sacrificing at oboos, making aspersions to Heaven, observing the White Month (lunar new year), MODERN RELIGION and worshiping the household fire, have become mass Despite the persecutions of the Communist era, the pre- phenomena once again in both cities and the countryside, revolutionary religious scene of the distinctive Mongolian although devotion is less widespread than among the regions is reemerging. Everywhere the “elders’ religion” Mongols of Russia. At the same time, Christian mission- has shown paradoxical strength and weakness. During ary efforts have also met a strong response from Mongo- the Communist era much of its practice was treated as lia’s urban population. Polls show 7 percent of the “folklore” and hence preserved, albeit in bowdlerized population now consider themselves Christian, despite form. In the post-Communist era it has gained immense the high dropout rate among converts. The Christian prestige from its role as a repository of Mongolian tradi- population is mostly young, urban, female, and almost tion. At the same time, the way it is embedded in the pas- exclusively low-church evangelical in belief. toral cycle and closed clans or local communities makes See also BARIACH; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; it seem irrelevant to some urban and socially mobile DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; FUNERARY CUSTOMS; JIBZUN- Mongols. DAMBA KHUTUGTU; LAMAS AND MONASTICISM; RELIGIOUS In Russia Buddhism has long been a bulwark of POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. national identity for the Buriats and Kalmyks. Today one Further reading: E. P. Bakaeva, “Buddhism in commonly finds committed devotion to Buddhism (or Kalmykia (Excerpts),” Anthropology and Archeology of shamanism among the Buriats), even among Buriat and Eurasia 39, no. 3 (winter 2000–2001): 11–85; C. R Baw- religious policy in the Mongol Empire 469 den, “Notes on the Worship of Local Deities in Mongo- icy that early. Anti-Islamic persecutions had contributed lia,” in Mongolian Studies, ed. Louis Ligeti (Budapest, to the fall of the QARA-KHITAI Empire in Turkestan, and in 1970), 57–66; ———, “An Oirat Manuscript of the 1218 the victorious Mongols announced that “each ‘Offering of the Fox,’” Zentralasiatische Studien 12 (1978): should abide by his own religion.” Since it is always the 7–34; Krystyna Chabros, Beckoning Fortune: A Study of first religion mentioned in Chinese edicts of exemption, the Mongol Dalalga Ritual (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras- Buddhism was probably the first religion to receive offi- sowitz, 1992); Walther Heissig, Religions of Mongolia, cial status. In 1219, on the recommendation of his trans. Geoffrey Samuel (Berkeley: University of California viceroy in North China, MUQALI, Chinggis Khan ordered Press, 1980); Caroline Humphrey, Shamans and Elders: two Dhyana (Zen) Buddhist monks made DARQAN (tax Experience, Knowledge, and Power among the Daur Mon- exempt) because they “truly were speakers to Heaven.” gols (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Magdalena From 1220 MASTER CHANGCHUN, a Taoist priest, was sum- Tatar, “Two Mongolian Texts concerning the Cult of the moned to an audience and made both darqan and head of Mountains,” Acta Orientalia 30 (1976): 1–58; N. L. all the monks of China, causing controversy with the Zhukovskaia, “Neo-Shamanism in the Context of the Buddhists. No specific decrees are known for Christian Contemporary Ethno-Cultural Situation in the Republic and Muslim clergy, but in 1219 Chinggis Khan spared of Buryatia,” Inner Asia 2 (2000): 25–36; N. L. Samarqand’s chief Islamic clergy and their dependents Zhukovskaia, “Revival of Buddhism in Buryatia: Prob- from the general pillage, and in 1222 he was inquiring lems and Prospects,” Anthropology and Archeology of about the traditions of Muhammad’s life. Such encounters Eurasia 39, no. 4 (spring 2000–01): 23–47. defined Chinggis’s legacy to his descendants in religious policy. In later contacts other religions were added to the religious policy in the Mongol Empire In return for policy, although the list of the first four religions the prayers of their clergy, the Mongol khans extended remained canonical. ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) took great tax exemptions and favor at court to the major religions interest in CONFUCIANISM. Confucian scholars, along with of the empire. physicians and diviners, were exempted from taxation, Mongol religious policy developed from the political while those enslaved in the conquest were freed, policies theology of CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) and his that were continued in the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in successors, who believed firmly that “Eternal Heaven” China. However, the Confucians were only occasionally (möngke tenggeri), or God (the Mongols used TENGGERI for listed in the edicts along with Buddhism or Taoism. the Islamic and Christian God as well) governed all Judaism, Manicheism, Zoroastrianism, and other minor- human affairs and had given world rule to the Mongols. ity religions of the Middle East were not recognized at The great religions of Eurasia, specifically Buddhism, first, although the Il-Khans and possibly the Yuan later Christianity, Taoism (Daoism), and Islam, all worshiped accorded exemption to Judaism. this same God, who listened to the prayers of holy men Despite this policy of tolerance, Mongol rulers did from all these religions. Thus, in return for the clergies’ erratically enforce on non-Mongols their prohibition on prayers, he granted them and their dependents exemption bathing in summer and their peculiar customs of from all taxes. The Mongols khans, confident in their obe- slaughtering and levirate marriage. The first two directly dience to “heaven,” at first sought primarily the worldly contradicted Islamic observances, while the third blessings of long life, prosperity, and victory in war. shocked most Christian peoples. Chinggis’s second son, After Chinggis Khan overthrew the rival shaman TEB CHA’ADAI (d. 1241/2), proved notoriously rigorous in TENGGERI around 1210, he reorganized the Mongols’ Central Asia in enforcing these rules. If convinced that a native shamans (bö’e, Turkish, qam) under a timid sup- given religion was dangerous, the Mongols had no com- porter, Old Man Üsün. The shamans served the court punction about suppressing it; MÖNGKE KHAN decreed through divination and suppressing hostile magic. After the extermination of the Islamic ISMA‘ILIS (“the Assas- the death of Chinggis Khan, his tomb and tent also sins”) in 1257 and allowed his brother Qubilai to pro- became the site of a religious cult, something continued scribe certain anti-Buddhist Taoist writings in 1258. In by his descendants to the present (see EIGHT WHITE 1264 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) ordered religious estab- YURTS). These cults and divination were still practiced at lishments to pay the grain and commercial taxes, and court, and the Mongols occasionally demanded that con- late in his reign he showed a strong streak of intoler- quered leaders participate. It is unknown if the shamans ance, decreeing the death penalty for those practicing also received tax exemptions. Islamic-Jewish ritual slaughter or circumcision in 1280 By the 1203 BALJUNA COVENANT Chinggis’s entourage and prohibiting all Taoist writing except the Daodejing included Muslims, Christians, and Buddhists. Intermar- (Tao Te Ching) in 1281. In 1291 he prohibited yin-yang riage with the KEREYID and ÖNGGÜD royal families after fortune-tellers from contacting imperial princes, lest 1203–05 brought intimate contact with Christian peo- they encourage sedition. All but the last of these decrees ples, yet there is no evidence of an explicit religious pol- was later revoked, however. 470 Republic of Mongolia As the MONGOL EMPIRE began to divide and interac- order, led by the Bogda (Holy One, the Khutugtu’s usual tion with other cultures became more intense, many title among Mongols). The Bogda began to think of Rus- khans personally adopted various religions. Abagha Khan sia as a possible protector for Mongolia’s traditional reli- of the IL-KHANATE (1265–82) was baptized a Christian, gion and society. His first appeal for Russian aid in 1900, and Berke Khan (1257–66) and Sultan Ahmad (1282–84) as the Qing court embarked on the disastrous Boxer in the Il-Khanate embraced Islam, yet none of them with- adventure, was met, however, with counsels of patience. drew patronage from clergy of other religions. In the In March 1910 the new AMBAN Sandô arrived in Yuan dynasty Qubilai Khan made the Tibetan Buddhist Khüriye to implement the NEW POLICIES. While there was ’PHAGS-PA LAMA his state preceptor and directed govern- support for some aspects of modernization, the New Poli- ment patronage to Tibetan Buddhist monasteries. The cies’ centerpiece of state-sponsored agricultural coloniza- Yuan emperor Ayurbarwada (titled Renzong, 1312–21), tion was anathema. In July 1911, during the regular while reinstating the examination system in 1315, made DANSHUG offerings ceremony, the Bogda secretly con- Zhu Xi’s philosophy the official school of Confucianism. sulted with the top princes and lamas of the KHALKHA Nevertheless, after the revocation of Qubilai’s later repres- Mongols and secretly dispatched PRINCE KHANGDADORJI, sive measures, the general Mongol religious policy con- Da Lama Tserinchimed, and the Inner Mongolian official tinued in the Yuan to the end of the Yuan dynasty. Even Haishan (1857–1917) to appeal to St. Petersburg for pro- after the coup d’état of 1328, when sentiment against tection. Although the Bogda informed the Russian consul SEMUREN (Central and West Asian immigrants) grew, the V. N. Lavdovskii of this decision on July 28, the delega- Buddhist and Taoist monasteries merely received special tion did not follow his advice to delay. On August 16 the exemptions from the commercial tax (tamgha) in 1331. delegation presented their petition to Russia’s foreign In the western khanates, however, the adoption of Islam minister. eventually resulted in the proscription of Buddhism, offi- The Russian government did not accept the proposal cially sponsored iconoclasm, and the reduction of Chris- of Mongolian independence but informed the Chinese tianity to the subordinate status traditional in Islam. This government of the Mongols’ mission and Russia’s opposi- happened first in Iran under GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304), tion to the New Policies. It also decided to strengthen the then in the GOLDEN HORDE under ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41), consular guard in Khüriye by 800 men, thus vastly out- and lastly in the CHAGHATAY KHANATE in Central Asia numbering the Manchu amban (imperial resident) under Tarmashirin (1331–34). Sandô’s 130-man garrison. By August 24 Beijing informed See also ASTROLOGY; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL Sandô what had transpired, but he did not feel secure EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CLOTHING enough to crack down on the Mongols. AND DRESS; FOOD AND DRINK; ISLAM IN THE MONGOL In October and early November the Qing’s position EMPIRE; RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH; RELIGION; SA’D-UD- in Mongolia deteriorated on every side. The delegation to DAWLA; SCAPULIMANCY; SHAMANISM; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE St. Petersburg returned to Mongolia, a republican rebel- MONGOL EMPIRE; TAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET lion broke out in central China on October 10, and in AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. early November the Russian government transferred Further reading: Francis Woodman Cleaves, “The 15,000 single-shot Berdan rifles with 7,500,000 rounds of Rescript of Qubilai Prohibiting the Slaughtering of Ani- ammunition to the Mongols. On November 13 the mals by Slitting the Throat,” Journal of Turkish Studies 16 Khalkhas set up a Provisional Administrative Office for (1992); 67–89; Elizabeth Endicott-West, “Notes on Khüriye Affairs, and on November 28 4,000 militiamen Shamans, Fortune-tellers and Yin-Yang Practitioners and from eastern Khalkha were ordered to converge on Civil Administration in Yüan China,” in The Mongol Khüriye. Finally, on December 1 the formal declaration of Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and independence from the Qing dynasty was issued. Sandô David O. Morgan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999), 224–239. took asylum in the Russian embassy and was deported back to China on December 4. On December 29 (16th of the 12th lunar month) the Republic of Mongolia See MONGOLIA, STATE OF. Bogda was enthroned in a vast YURT covered with yellow silk and blue designs as the new Holy Emperor (Bogda 1911 Restoration The 1911 Restoration secured Mon- Khagan), the Qing emperor’s traditional title. Added, golia’s independence from the Manchu QING DYNASTY however, was the title “dual ruler of religion and state,” (1636–1912) and the succeeding Republic of China which expressed the theocratic nature of the new govern- (1912–49) and made the country a theocratic monarchy ment. His consort, Dondugdulma, was enthroned as the under Mongolia’s great incarnate lama, the EIGHTH White Tara (the great female bodhisattva) and “mother of JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU (1870–1924). the nation.” From November 13 the use of Qing reign By the late 19th century, there was a growing feeling years for dating was discontinued, and now, following that the Qing dynasty was not only uninterested in but East Asian imperial custom of reign-titles, 1911 was pro- actively out of sympathy with Mongolia’s Buddhist social claimed year one of Olan-a Ergügdegsen, or “Elevated by 1921 Revolution 471 the Many,” the title of the first Indian monarch Mahasam- April 1918 brought two battalions into Mongolia in mata in Buddhist legend (see CALENDARS AND DATING SYS- September. More serious threats from the Buriat-led pan- TEMS). While the new government enjoined its subjects Mongolist DAURIIA STATION MOVEMENT, sponsored by the to respect the property of peaceful Chinese merchants, notoriously violent White (anticommunist) Russian Cos- commoners and soldiers in the west and the countryside sack commander Grigorii Semenov, led the upper house spontaneously looted and burned many shops. of the Mongolian parliament, composed of high nobles When first declared, the new state controlled only and banner zasags, to ask for Chinese protection and eastern Khalkha. Soon the HULUN BUIR bannermen who troops on August 13, 1919. had driven Chinese troops out of Hailar (January 2) and The August debate in the parliament revealed the Manzhouli (January 22) were incorporated, and on Jan- existence of a powerful faction of nobles in favor of thor- uary 12 the Qing officials in ULIASTAI surrendered. Mean- oughly revising the government of Mongolia. After 1915 while, revolutionaries in China declared a republic on the GREAT SHABI, or personal subjects of Mongolia’s theo- January 1, 1912, and the last Qing emperor abdicated on cratic ruler, the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, or Bogda (Holy February 12. One), had exploded in size, leaving steadily fewer and The garrison in KHOWD CITY proved more stubborn poorer commoners to fulfill state duties. Meanwhile, the than that in Uliastai, and in May 1912 the JALKHANZA nobles felt excluded by the Bogda’s favorites. Chen Yi and KHUTUGTU DAMDINBAZAR (1874–1923) was ordered to the Chinese government assiduously courted the dis- pacify the west. From August 5 to 7 the 2,000 Mongolian gruntled nobility with honors and promises. By October soldiers under the Barga GRAND DUKE DAMDINSÜRÜNG and 1 Chen Yi and Mongolia’s leading secular officials had the Khalkha Duke MAGSURJAB victoriously stormed the drawn up 63 articles for a new regime in Mongolia that city. Meanwhile, officials of the imperial herds of DARIG- prohibited Chinese colonization or the conversion of ANGA petitioned to join the new country on March 3 and Mongolia into a province, yet put the nobility directly were officially confirmed in early July. On the other hand, under the Chinese high commissioner and eliminated an effort in August to take over Inner Mongolia’s Jirim Russia’s role. On October 19 the Bogda sent an envoy league by Togtakhu Taiji and Prince Utai ended in failure. directly to Beijing to oppose this proposal, but it was The conquest of Khowd thus rounded out the territory of approved by the Chinese parliament on October 28. the new state. On October 29 a Chinese frontier general, “Little” See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Xu Shuzheng (1880–1925), arrived in Mongolia from Further reading: Thomas E. Ewing, Between the Beijing with the 6,000-strong mixed brigade requested Hammer and the Anvil? Chinese and Russian Policies in on August 13. Xu, who had the Chinese president’s Outer Mongolia, 1911–1921 (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- backing, canceled Chen Yi’s cautious approach and versity, 1980); Mei-hua Lan, “The Mongolian Indepen- advocated modernizing Mongolia, encouraging colo- dence Movement of 1911: A Pan-Mongolian Endeavor” nization, and exploiting its natural resources. On (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1996); Tatsuo Nakami November 15, with troops threatening to arrest the “A Protest against the Concept of the ‘Middle Kingdom’: Bogda, the upper house yielded to force and voted to The Mongols and the 1911 Revolution,” in The 1911 Rev- petition for the revocation of Mongolia’s autonomy, and olution in China: Interpretive Essays, ed. Etô Shinkichi and the government confirmed the petition two days later. Harold Z. Schiffrin (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, Xu was officially confirmed on December 1 as the 1984), 129–149; Urgunge Onon and Derrick Pritchatt, supreme authority in Mongolia, replacing Chen Yi. The Asia’s First Modern Revolution: Mongolia Proclaims Its Inde- Bogda’s secret appeals to the American legation went pendence in 1911 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989). unanswered, and on January 1, 1920, the Bogda and his officials publicly swore allegiance to the Republic of China. Opponents formed several groups that merged in Revocation of Autonomy In 1919 Outer Mongolia’s June to form the secret Mongolian People’s Party and autonomous government, led by a faction of lay nobles, begin the 1921 REVOLUTION. petitioned to revoke its autonomous status. This act dis- See also BADMADORJI; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, credited the traditional authorities and led to the forma- EIGHTH; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. tion of Mongolia’s first political party. The KYAKHTA Further reading: Thomas E. Ewing, Between the TRILATERAL TREATY of 1915 had given Russia the position Hammer and the Anvil? Chinese and Russian Policies in of guaranteeing Outer Mongolia’s autonomy, but the Rus- Outer Mongolia, 1911–1921 (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- sian Revolution, beginning in March 1917, plunged Rus- versity, 1980). sia into anarchy. Threats from war-torn Russia several times prompted the Chinese high commissioner Chen Yi to pressure the vacillating Mongolian government into 1921 Revolution In the 1921 Revolution the Soviet accepting troops in Mongolia beyond the Kyakhta Trilat- Red Army installed in power in Mongolia a government eral Treaty limits. Rumors of a Bolshevik invasion in whose revolutionary reforms fed off the popular anger 472 1921 Revolution and disillusionment with both the REVOCATION OF tector” (Jamsrang, or Beg-tshe) in ABATAI KHAN’s old AUTONOMY by the Chinese and the violence of BARON shrine. Many were personally religious, although all, even ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON UNGERN-STERNBERG’s White Rus- the lamas such as Chagdurjab, preferred life outside the sian occupation. monasteries. SOCIAL ORIGINS OF THE REVOLUTIONARIES APPEAL TO SOVIET RUSSIA The 1921 revolutionaries were creatures of Mongolia’s From the night of November 15, when the parliament’s capital, Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR), and the post- Upper House voted to abolish autonomy, the officials’ 1911 theocratic government. They were virtually all com- group made fruitless appeals to the Bogda and the (anti- moners, often without any secure social position (several Bolshevik) Russian consul for assistance. By March to were illegitimate children), whose parents or they them- April 1920 the “officials’ faction” had linked up with the selves had migrated to the city to make a living. There “commoners’ faction” and local Bolsheviks in Khüriye. In they were employed in the new government offices as January 1920 the Red Army occupied Irkutsk, and in army officers, customs officials, telegraph operators, June the two factions merged as the “People’s Party of interpreters, and bureaucrats, both civil and monastic. Outer Mongolia” and contacted Bolshevik representatives Several had connections to the Russian consulate and from Irkutsk. knew the Russian language, and a few had been to On July 26 the Bogda, disappointed with the possi- Europe or Japan. All were under 40, and all owed what bilities of aid from elsewhere, finally gave the People’s social position they had to Mongolia’s autonomy. Another Party a stamped appeal to Soviet Russia. Seven delegates group involved in the revolutionary activities from the traveled to Irkutsk to ask for assistance: Danzin, Dogsum, beginning were Buriat Mongols from southern Siberia. and Sükhebaatur from the “officials’ faction” and These BURIATS had had experience in Mongolia after 1911 Choibalsang, Bodô, Chagdurjab, and Losal (D. Losol, working for Russian diplomats and expeditions. 1890–1940) from the “commoners’ faction.” They met both local Soviet leaders and Buriats such as TSYBEN FORMATION OF THE EARLY “PARTIES” ZHAMTSARONOVICH ZHAMTSARANO, and ELBEK-DORZHI The 1921 Revolution grew out of three different “fac- RINCHINO. While Bodô and Dogsum returned to Khüriye tions,” or nam (the word was later used for parties) that to organize the party, Danzin, Changdurjab, and Losal formed in opposition to the threatened Revocation of went to Omsk and then Moscow to pursue the request for Autonomy, which was publicly discussed from August aid. Sükhebaatur and Choibalsang, left behind in Irkutsk, 1919 on. The “officials’ faction” (tüshimed-un nam, also helped the Buriats in the Siberian Communist Party called the East Khüriye Group), founded by Danzin, design propaganda for Mongolia. Dindub (Ö. Dendew, 1882–1922), and Dogsum (D. Dog- Meanwhile, in Khüriye the Chinese police arrested som, 1884–1941), was composed of lower-level officials the leaders of both the People’s Party and the “nobles’ fac- in the theocratic government, many of whom were in the tion” in September. When the White Russian commander parliament’s lower house. The “commoners’ faction” Baron Roman F. Ungern-Sternberg invaded Mongolia with (arad-un nam, also called the Consulate Terrace Group), a call to free the land from the Chinese, several members founded by BODÔ, Choibalsang, and Chagdurjab (D. of the People’s Party, including Bodô and Dogsum, even- Chagdarjaw, 1880–1922), was a discussion group linking tually joined his forces. On February 4 the baron Mongols employed at the Russian consulate and their marched into Khüriye and released the imprisoned anti- friends. Bodô, its leader, was friendly with a Bolshevik- Chinese conspirators, while the Chinese fled north to the leaning mechanic at the consulate, M. Kucherenko (d. border town of KYAKHTA CITY. The baron formed a new 1921). The Bogda (Holy One), or EIGHTH JIBZUNDAMBA government from the “nobles’ faction.” KHUTUGTU (1870–1924), Mongolia’s theocratic ruler, called together the “nobles’ faction” (noyad-un nam), BATTLE FOR KYAKHTA including MAGSURJAB, the Jalkhanza Khutugtu, and oth- In early November Moscow’s Communist International ers, with the aim of appealing to the United States or promised military aid to Danzin and company. Danzin Japan. returned to Irkutsk, while the others moved on to the From the beginning the officials’ and commoners’ border town Troitskosavsk (in modern Kyakhta) with factions mixed nationalist and antiaristocratic goals. The their Buriat allies, where they began recruiting partisans role of the aristocrats and the Upper House in the aboli- from frontier pickets and BANNERS (appanages) along the tion of autonomy had discredited the old ruling class. A border. They were still poorly armed but were drilled spring 1920 poster written by Dogsum used Confucian intensively by Soviet instructors. On the night of March language to call for the election of banner rulers. There 17 Sükhebaatur, a former platoon commander in theo- was no opposition to Buddhism, however. Indeed, in cratic Mongolia’s army, led 400 Mongolian partisans in an 1919 the officials’ faction’s members swore to defend the assault on the Chinese at the Mongolian border town of Mongolian religion and people before the fierce “Red Pro- Kyakhta. After tough fighting the 2,000–2,500 dispirited revolutionary period 473 Chinese soldiers fled. The revolutionaries made the ing, demobilized veterans, youth leagues, and especially smoking ruins of Kyakhta (renamed Altanbulag) their by economic expansion, which brought increasing pros- center. Elected at an assembly on March 1–3, the new perity until 1930. leadership troika was Danzin as party chairman, Sükhe- See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; CHOIBALSANG, baatar as commander in chief, and Chagdurjab as provi- MARSHAL; DANZIN, GENERAL; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, sional prime minister. During the preparations the EIGHTH; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; SÜKHEBAATUR, GENERAL; partisans used the letter from the Bogda to aid their THEOCRATIC PERIOD. recruitment, and in the siege raised both yellow (Bud- Further reading: Thomas E. Ewing, Between the dhist) and red (revolutionary) flags. Hammer and the Anvil? Chinese and Russian Policies in Outer Mongolia, 1911–1921 (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- DESTRUCTION OF THE WHITES versity, 1980); Hiroshi Futaki, “A Re-examination of the With the Chinese gone, the conflict now involved Soviet Establishment of the Mongolian People Party Centring Russia and the People’s Party on one side, which pro- on Dogsom’s Memoir,” Inner Asia 2 (2000): 37–62; posed comprehensive reforms and the gradual elimina- Urgunge Onon, ed., Mongolian Heroes of the Twentieth tion of hereditary privileges, and Ungern-Sternberg’s Century (New York: AMS Press, 1976). Whites with the Bogda, the “nobles’ faction,” and a few People’s Party members on the other. Dogsum and Bodô, revolutionary period From 1921 to 1940 successive however, had escaped to rejoin their comrades in Altan- waves of revolutionaries wrestled in an extremely turbu- bulag. In April Bodô replaced Chagdurjab, who had a lent period with issues of modernization, the role of reli- reputation as an overly sociable lightweight, as provi- gion, the rise of Japan, and dependence on the Soviet sional prime minister, and the People’s Party sent repre- Union. Not until the creation of the Choibalsang dictator- sentatives to the northern KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE and the ship by 1940 was the revolutionary period succeeded by a western DÖRBÖDS to widen the struggle. stable Communist-style government. (For subsequent From June 5 to 13 a mixed ethnic force of Ungern- developments, see MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC.) Sternberg’s troops, 5,000 strong, attacked Altanbulag but were driven back by the 700 Mongolian partisans and INTERNATIONAL STATUS Russian reinforcements. Finally, on June 28 a Red Army After the 1921 REVOLUTION Mongolia reverted to the force of over 13,000 directly invaded Mongolia, taking same uncertain status as after the 1911 RESTORATION of Khüriye on July 6. In western Mongolia separate Red independence: claiming independence but treated by Army columns entered Mongolia around Khöwsgöl and China and other powers as a rebellious province. Even the Khowd frontier to destroy the 4,000 remaining more complicated was the fact that neither China nor Whites. Magsurjab, of the “nobles’ faction” switched many of the other powers had yet recognized Mongolia’s sides and massacred the White Russians outside Uliastai patron, Soviet Russia. In its own program, the Mongolian on July 21, and a revolutionary government was formed People’s Party spoke both of pan-Mongolian unification among the Dörböds in July. A small Red Army force com- and of joining a loosely confederated China. However, posed of volunteers from the KALMYKS remained in Ulaan- the first was a distant aspiration and the second only a baatar until 1925, despite Chinese protests. concession to Russian concerns. On September 14, 1921, the new prime minister, THE NEW REGIME BODÔ, announced Mongolia’s independence to the world. The revolutionaries enthroned the Bogda as the “consti- On November 5, 1921, in a relatively simple “agreement” tutional monarch” on July 11, the day celebrated as (the Russians deliberately did not use the word treaty), National Day in Mongolia. From then on a steady Soviet Russia recognized Mongolia’s “people’s govern- stream of reforms were enacted, directed at abolishing ment” as the sole legitimate government. Even so, influ- the Qing social hierarchies and separating religion and ential “China hands” in Soviet diplomacy preferred to state. While the old “nobles’ faction” joined the new court China at Mongolia’s expense. On May 30, 1924, in regime enthusiastically, the revolution remained an a treaty with China, the Soviet Union received recogni- affair principally of Khüriye, viewed with great skepti- tion in part for recognizing Chinese sovereignty (i.e., full cism by the rural elites. Within the revolutionary ranks control) over Mongolia. In spring 1925 the last Soviet violent controversies soon broke out. As early as April troops were removed from Mongolia. In fact, the Soviet some Mongolian officials complained that Russian authorities were confident that China was too weak to advisers were interfering in government business. In fall recover Mongolia. and winter 1921 conflicts developed around the unpre- Mongolia proved unable to develop formal relations dictable Bodô, which ended with his execution as well with countries outside the Soviet Union. Visits in as that of Chagdurjab, Dindub, and other party founders 1921–22 by the American consul in Zhangjiakou ended on August 31, 1922. Despite these conflicts, the new in fiasco as his interlocutor, Bodô, was executed as a regime steadily built up rural support through school- supposed traitor. Unofficial links with outside powers, 474 revolutionary period however, grew steadily. From 1923 to 1933 Mongolia The Mongolian power elite in this period can be covertly supported Inner Mongolian revolutionaries. divided into roughly four groups: 1) the 1921 revolution- From 1924 to 1927 Mongolia was also allied with the aries, city-bred commoners who served as clerks, stu- Soviet-aligned Guomindang or Nationalist Party in dents, and petty officials in the theocratic period, called China, while the Soviet-supported Chinese warlord Feng the “city” (khota; Russian, khoton) faction after 1925; 2) Yuxiang maintained an office in ULAANBAATAR from 1925 patriotic officials, older, higher officials under Qing and to 1928. Mongolian students and technicians studied in theocratic governments supplying institutional continu- Germany from 1926 to 1929. Nevertheless, the attempts ity; 3) the rural (khödöö; Russian, khudon) faction, uned- by the Mongolian leader DAMBADORJI to open relations ucated commoners who entered political life through with Japan in 1926–28 led the Soviet Union to consider organizing rural party, youth league, and cooperative cells him a dangerous “rightist.” after the 1921 Revolution; and 4) students with no work After 1929 the leftist policy enforced on the Mon- or study experience under the old regime, but who grad- golian government by Moscow’s Communist Interna- uated from party or military schools after 1921. In tional (Comintern) closed down all these ties with 1928–29 the rurals and the students linked to overthrow non-Soviet countries. The June 17, 1929, Soviet-Mon- the remaining 1921 revolutionaries, and they ruled Mon- golian Agreement laid the basis for an almost complete golia until the GREAT PURGE annihilated all four groups Soviet monopoly on Mongolian trade. The Japanese and created a new elite. invasion of Manchuria and Inner Mongolia widened The Mongolian leaders were an extraordinarily from 1931 to 1937, and border incidents from 1935 youthful lot: Until Marshal Choibalsang’s rise not a single snowballed into an undeclared war (see KHALKHYN GOL, leader (the “patriotic officials” functioned as career BATTLE OF). On March 12, 1936, Mongolia signed the bureaucrats, not political leaders) reached age 40 in Protocol on Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union, office. Frequently, they began by ranting Soviet slogans in and the Red Army reentered Mongolia’s territory. Not their early 20s yet were sobered by officeholding into until 1946, after Mongolia had joined the Red Army’s pragmatic national-minded rulers in their 30s, at which destruction of Japanese forces, did China recognize point Soviet pressure would bring in a new group of slo- Mongolia’s independence. gan shouters. Until 1924 the Soviet influence on Mongolian policy GOVERNMENT was exercised through individual advisers, many of From 1921 to 1924 Mongolia was a constitutional whom were ethnic BURIATS. ELBEK-DORZHI RINCHINO, a monarchy, with the Bogda Khan (Holy Emperor; see Buriat member of the presidium and chairman of the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH) as the head of state. party’s military commission, at times was a virtually dic- Although draft constitutions were prepared, the Com- tator. After 1925 Soviet influence was formalized through intern and the more radical Mongols feared that a consti- the Communist International, whose delegation in Mon- tution would lock the government into an excessive golia virtually ran the country in the LEFTIST PERIOD from conservative legal framework. After the Bogda’s death in 1929 to 1932. After the leftist debacle in 1932 Joseph May 1924, Mongolia was made a people’s republic in Stalin’s Politburo (the Soviet Communist Party’s ruling November with a new constitution written by the govern- organ) assumed direct supervision over Mongolia, punc- ment’s Soviet legal adviser. The 1924 CONSTITUTION con- tuated by Stalin’s semiannual meetings with the Mongo- firmed Mongolia as a secular state and abolished the old lian leaders in Moscow. hereditary estates. At the same time, however, it desig- nated a new category of “exploiting classes” (old aristo- ECONOMY AND FINANCE crats, monks, rentiers), who were separated from the The first decade of the new regime saw sudden growth in “real people” and disenfranchised. These provisions were herds and population. Available figures show livestock not consistently applied until 1929. increasing from 9.6 million in 1918 to 13.8 million in The constitution’s formal government structure did 1924 and approximately 24 million in 1930. Population not, however, have anything to do with the real power rose from about 540,000 in 1918 to 651,700 in 1925 and relations, which throughout this period are best 727,400 in 1930. While the statistical evidence is some- described as the rule of a revolutionary conquest elite. what equivocal, the impression of observers is that this Before the rise of MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG in 1936, this increase was also reflected in growing foreign trade. This elite was not dominated by one man nor was power growth was the foundation for the stability of the regime, vested in one particular position. Top leaders were all regardless of the conflicts among the men at the top. members of the presidium of the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S The attempt at collectivization, begun in late 1930, REVOLUTIONARY PARTY’s Central Committee, a seven- to reversed these positive trends. The number of livestock 17-man body that met weekly. The top leader, however, collapsed from 24 million to 17.6 million in 1933, while could hold various positions: prime minister, party chair- the population, due to emigration and civil war, declined man, or commander in chief of the military. to 723,600 in 1935. While the cancellation of collec- revolutionary period 475 tivization and the NEW TURN POLICY allowed livestock to in the economy was reflected in the maintenance of the increase to 22.6 million head in 1935 and 26.2 million in ulaa, or the traditional postroad corvée duty, with posts 1940, the catastrophic Great Purge and the liquidation of every 48 kilometers (30 miles) until 1949. the lama population kept the population stagnant, reach- ing only 725,500 in 1940. The antifeudal campaigns and CULTURE, ARTS, AND EDUCATION progressive livestock taxes equalized wealth, making The crisis of 1919–21 put an end to the last flowering of Mongolia, pastorally speaking at least, a “middle-class” Buddhist art and architecture in Mongolia. After 1921 the country. Mongolian statistics measured animals in bod, a court painter “BUSYBODY” SHARAB, for example, famous unit equivalent to one horse or cow, three-fourths of a for his guru portraits, switched to posters and cartoons camel, five sheep, or seven goats. In 1927 the 6 percent of lampooning the greed and treason of the old feudal households with more than 101 bod held 41.7 percent of classes. Party pamphlets, journals, and textbooks not the livestock, while the 63.7 percent with less than 20 only expounded immediate political tasks but also pub- bod owned only 14.4 percent. By 1939 the 4.3 percent of lished in translation Marx’s and Engels’ shorter works and households with more than 101 bod held only 18.8 per- classics of general European and American culture. Up to cent, and the 41.4 percent of households with less than 1928 the Revolutionary Youth League was a major center 20 bod held 14.0 percent. The rural middle class with of literary production, particularly Beijing-opera-style 21–100 bod made up 54.3 percent of the population and plays and propagandistic songs and anthems by BUYAN- held 67.2 percent of the livestock. NEMEKHÜ, NATSUGDORJI, and others. The more traditional Despite this growth there was little industrialization “patriotic officials” such as Jamyang (O. Jamiyan, of the Mongolian economy. In 1932 total industrial pro- 1864–1930), Shagja (S. Shagj, 1886–1938), Batuwachir duction was 3.5 million tögrögs, of which 2.4 million (Ch. Bat-Ochir, b. 1874) and the Buriat TSYBEN ZHAMT- came from the recently collectivized handicrafts work- SARANOVICH ZHAMTSARANO (1881–1940) founded the ers, largely Chinese, while only 1.1 million came from “Philology Institute” (Sudur bichig-ün khüriyeleng), the state-owned factories, mostly mines. In 1931 plans were precursor of the modern ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, and made to develop a significant light industrial plant. focused on the collection and publication of traditional Delayed by the crisis of 1932, the Ulaanbaatar Industrial Mongolian works directed to a lay audience as well as Combine began operation in 1934 as a Soviet-Mongolian newer textbooks. The combination of a traditional fam- joint-stock company, processing animal products to pro- ily-based loyalism toward the new government with a duce washed wool, shoes, felt, and leather goods and secular, antimonastic trend created a peculiarly Confu- containing its own heat and power station. This com- cian cast to conservative thought in this era, exemplified bine, the Khatgal wool-washing plant, and other smaller by Batuwachir’s didactic treatise Mandukhu naran-u factories elevated the production of state-owned factories tuyaga (Rays of the rising sun). to 12.8 million tögrögs in 1935 and 53.7 million in The leftist period marked a revolutionary break in 1940. The laicization of the lamas supplied 5,543 new culture as well as in economics and government. The members to the craft cooperatives, whose output jumped regime’s conservative supporters were silenced, and some, to 23.3 million tögrögs in 1940. Through the 1930s the such as Zhamtsarano, were deported to Russia. The for- ethnic composition of the workers and artisans was mation of the “Writers’ Circle” (Zokhiyalchid-un bülgüm) nativized. In 1927 only 26 percent were Mongolian, in in January 1929, a precursor of the later official Writers 1935 about half, and by 1940 87.7 percent of the 33,100 Union, sparked a tremendous expansion of revolutionary workers were Mongolian. The balance was Chinese and literature and the opening of new genres, particularly to a lesser degree Russian. short stories. The creation of revolutionary literature con- The leftist period affected finance as well. Up until tinued during the New Turn policy, although during that 1928 customs receipts made up 40–50 percent of the time Shagja and other conservatives again criticized slav- budget, while direct taxation, mostly on livestock, took ish imitation of European cultural forms. in 10–15 percent. During the leftist period these percent- The leftist period also saw a vast expansion in the ages almost reversed. Deficit spending covered the more government budget devoted to education, mass culture, than doubling of the budget from 1928 to 1931, until the and entertainment. The share of the budget for cultural- crisis of 1932 forced drastic retrenchment. In this crisis educational expenditures jumped from 11 percent in bonds and a state lottery were temporarily used to raise 1928 to 23 percent in 1929. The number of public money for needed military expenditures. In the succeed- schools and students rose from 40 students in one school ing New Turn Policy customs receipts (almost wholly in 1921 to 24,341 students in 331 grade schools in 1940. from trade with Russia), direct taxes, and sales and excise Only with the destruction of the monasteries did the pub- taxes supplied the bulk of revenues in roughly equal lic school system acquire a monopoly. parts. During the final phase of the antireligious persecu- In a special “Cultural Offensive” in 1930–31 about tion, taxes on lamas and monastic funds became major 28,100 adults were taught to read and write, 20,000 of revenue sources as well. The lack of fundamental change whom were in the provinces. Female literacy remained 476 Rinchen, Byambyn extremely low, and even in this campaign only 8,100 Altanbulag) and supported both the pan-Mongolist 1919 were female. Among the lamas, most of whom could at DAURIIA STATION MOVEMENT and the 1921 REVOLUTION. least recognize the Tibetan alphabet and many of whom Born in Troitskosavsk (in modern Kyakhta) on used it freely to write Mongolian, about 20,000 were December 21, 1905, Rinchen learned Mongolian and taught the Mongolian script in 1935–37. By 1940 20.8 Manchu before he entered the Russian school there from percent of the population was literate in Mongolian. 1914 to 1920. (Early on, Rinchen used the Russian-style In medicine proponents of the Tibetan and European surname Bimbaev from his grandfather’s name and some- methods violently denounced each other, with only a few, times his full name, Rinchendorji.) From 1923 to 1927 like Zhamtsarano, urging the selection of the best from Rinchen studied at the Oriental Institute in Leningrad both. With only 27 European-trained doctors and 81 (St. Petersburg) and worked at the Philology Institute paramedical personnel in 1930, however, Tibetan (later Institute of Sciences) after his return. Writing medicine was the only alternative for most of the popula- poetry from 1923, he joined the leftist “Writers’ Circle” in tion. By 1940, with the elimination of the lamas, 108 doc- 1929, publishing his anticlerical poem “For the Yellow tors and 923 paramedical staff had to serve the entire Parasites” (Shira khubalza nar-tu). In 1931 Rinchen mar- nation’s medical needs. ried the Buriat Ochiryn Ratna (Russian, Maria Ivanovna Particularly for the educated and urban youth, the Oshirov, b. 1900), former wife of an arrested Buriat spe- whole “feel” of life was changing with the rapid adoption cialist Dashi Sampilon. They had three daughters and one of European customs. Students studying in Russia son, Rinchenii Barsbold, who became one of Mongolia’s learned new ways of dressing, new foods, new sports, and leading paleontologists. new ways of entertainment, which they carried home On September 10, 1937, he was arrested by order of with them (see CLOTHING AND DRESS). Movie theaters MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG as a “pan-Mongolist Japanese spy.” were also opened in the early 1930s, and a craze for Spared execution by chance, he was released on March social dancing swept the young people during the height 30, 1942, at Choibalsang’s own behest and became an of the Great Purge. Despite these changes, ULAANBAATAR editor at Ünen newspaper with TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN, in 1940 still looked physically much like the same as in with whom he had many disagreements. From 1944 until 1921; the great construction projects that would utterly his retirement he worked at the State University, the State transform the urban landscape began only after 1945. Publishing House, and the ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. See also ANTHEM; ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; FLAGS; Rinchen was a poet, essayist, short story writer, nov- MONEY, MODERN. elist, and translator. His 1944 screenplay for the film Further reading: Baabar [Bat-Erdene Batbayar], Tsogtu Taiji (Tsogt Taij) won a state award. His most Twentieth-Century Mongolia, ed. C. Kaplonski, trans. D. famous work was his trilogy Üriin tuyaa (Rays of dawn, Sühjargalmaa et al. (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1951–55, revised 1971), Mongolia’s first published novel 1999); Tsedendambyn Batbayar, Modern Mongolia: A Con- set during the 1921 Revolution. Lady Anu tells of GALDAN cise History (Ulaanbaatar: Offset Printing, Mongolian BOSHOGTU KHAN’s resistance to the Qing invaders, while Center for Scientific and Technical Information, 1996); the children’s novel Zaan Zaluudai (1966) tells a story of Owen Lattimore and Fukiko Isono, The Diluv Khutagt: Stone Age clans. In 1947 he translated the Communist Memoirs and Autobiography of a Mongol Buddhist Reincar- Manifesto into Mongolian. A poem ostensibly on QUBILAI nation in Religion and Revolution (Wiesbaden: Otto Har- KHAN’s SQUARE SCRIPT criticized in Aesopian language the rassowitz, 1982); Ma Ho-t’ien, Chinese Agent in Mongolia, government’s abandonment of the traditional UIGHUR- trans. John de Francis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer- MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. sity Press, 1949); Robert A. Rupen, Mongols of the Twenti- As a scholar, Rinchen wrote on numerous topics of eth Century, 2 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University, MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE and LITERATURE. He also edited 1964); Shagdariin Sandag and Harry H. Kendall, Poisoned many works of Mongolia’s premodern literature. His pub- Arrows: The Stalin-Choibalsang Mongolian Massacres, lication of shamanistic (1959–75) and general folkloric 1921–1941 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000). (1960–72) texts, which he had been collecting since 1928, was criticized both for its content and for its publi- Rinchen, Byambyn (Rintchen, Yü. Rinchen) cation in revisionist West Germany. He organized the (1905–1979) Multitalented author and scholar who ran First International Congress of Mongolists in 1959, the afoul of the party for his national sentiment and criticism first Mongolian forum to invite non-Soviet bloc scholars. of ideological obscurantism In 1948 Rinchen had criticized the work of a Soviet Although ethnically KHALKHA of the Yüngshiyebü clan, adviser at the Mongolian State University, and in 1949 the Rinchen’s grandfather Bimba fled ZUD (winter disaster) party Politburo first attacked him for nationalism. This and enrolled in Russia’s Buriat Cossacks. His mother was accusation was repeated in 1959, citing Tsogtu Taiji’s a descendant of the famous Khalkha prince TSOGTU TAIJI. excessive admiration of feudal characters, Rinchen’s poet- After 1911 Rinchen’s father, Radnajab (1874–1921), ically expressed distaste for Russian urban life, and his became a border official in Mongolian KYAKHTA (modern praise for prerevolutionary cultural achievements shown Rinchino, Elbek-Dorzhi 477 in his 1959 travelogue about Hungary. The third volume opposed the Bolsheviks, but by summer 1918 he was of his Grammar of Written Mongolian, published in 1967, organizing Buriat Red Guards for the Soviet regime. After was recalled and destroyed again for its expression of the Whites took Siberia, Rinchino became a chief mover nationalism. Another attack in March 1976 also posthu- in the 1919 pan-Mongolist DAURIIA STATION MOVEMENT of mously attacked his parents and brother. In these later the White Russian half-Buriat Cossack leader Grigorii M. criticisms, which hastened his death from cancer, aca- Semenov. By April 1919 Rinchino had joined the Bolshe- demic rivals such as Sh. Gaadamba eagerly supplied the vik guerrillas again, and immediately after the Red Army’s party ideologues with ammunition. return to Verkhneudinsk he was recognized on March 17, Rinchen’s wit and practical jokes made him a leg- 1920, as chairman of a revived pro-Bolshevik Bur- endary scourge of pompous officials and arrogant Rus- natskom. sians. Nevertheless, to the end of his life he believed in Always interested in exporting revolution to Mongo- the 1921 Revolution, and his scholarly work shows both lia, in summer 1920 Rinchino linked up with the Khalkha admiration of the great Russian tradition of Mongolistics Mongolian revolutionaries coming to Soviet Russia for and a defensive reaction to Soviet denigration of Mongo- aid against the Chinese occupation (see 1921 REVOLU- lian culture. According to his wishes, his coffin was lined TION). From then on Rinchino transferred his interest not with the Russian-style black or red cloth but with the from Buriatia to Mongolia. Until May 1921 he chaired the auspicious Mongolian white, with the outside covered in Mongolian-Tibetan department in Irkutsk, a committee green and the lid in blue, symbolizing heaven over the successively part of the Siberian Communist Party appa- Mongolian steppe. ratus and then of the Communist International (Com- See also BURIATS; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; intern). By this time he had married Mariia Nikiforovna SOVIET UNION AND MONGOLIA. Namm, a western Buriat graduate of the Irkutsk gymna- Further reading: B. Rinchen, Lady Anu (Ulaanbaatar: sium. They had two daughters, Yenok and Erjima State Publishing House, 1980). (1921–81), and a son, Sanandar (d. 1946). After the installation of the new regime in Mongolia, Rinchino, Elbek-Dorzhi (R. Elbegdorj) (1888–1938) Rinchino became chairman of the military committee, a Buriat pan-Mongolist revolutionary who became the virtual member of the economic committee, and a member of dictator of Mongolia from 1922 to 1925 the Mongolian People’s Party’s presidium. While in Mon- Born on May 16, 1888, in Khilgana village in northern golia Rinchino was not an agent of Comintern policy but Barguzin (Buriat, Bargazhan) district to an unwed a rather erratic implementer of his own vision of a radi- mother, Bubei Balagano, Elbek-Dorzhi in his third year cal pan-Mongolist republic. Rinchino at first supported was adopted by his stepfather Rinchin, an elder of Danzin and General SÜKHEBAATUR against BODÔ, who Ekhired (Russian, Ekhirit) Buriat origin. After graduating was executed in 1922. By 1924, however, GENERAL from the Barguzin primary school, Rinchino pursued a DANZIN had become wary of Rinchino’s flamboyant revo- technical education in Verkhneudinsk (modern ULAN- lutionary rhetoric, while Rinchino believed Danzin to be UDE), Troitskosavsk (near KYAKHTA), and Tomsk. From collaborating with Chinese merchants. During the party’s 1908 to 1914 he attended the school of law of St. Peters- Third Congress (August 1924), Rinchino allied with burg University with a stipend from the Ekhired clan DAMBADORJI and Choibalsang to execute Danzin and his association. allies, enforcing the principle of one-party rule and From 1903 to 1913 Rinchino participated in illegal “noncapitalist development,” a slogan he was the first to revolutionary student groups and was imprisoned briefly popularize. in fall 1907. He also wrote on cultural topics under the After the congress Rinchino was riding high in Mon- pen name “Alamzhi Mergen,” the hero of a Buriat epic golia. Nevertheless from fall 1924 he had constantly to poem. He revised AGWANG DORZHIEV’s new Buriat script fend off criticism from the Comintern’s first official repre- with Nikolai Amagaev (1868–1932) in 1910 and pub- sentative, the Kazakh Turar R. Ryskulov (1894–1938). The lished a two-volume collection of Barguzin folk poetry disagreements came to a head over Rinchino’s advocacy of (1911). In 1915–16 he joined the Russian Economic-Sta- an adventurous pan-Mongolist policy in Inner Mongolia. tistical Expedition to Mongolia before heading the statis- The Comintern recalled both to Russia and entrusted a tical department of the cooperatives of Transbaikal Balagan Buriat, Matvei I. Amagaev (1897–1939), with province. eliminating pan-Mongolism in the Mongolian party. After the czar’s abdication in March 1917, Rinchino From 1925 Rinchino taught political economy in became a leader in the Buriat National Committee (Rus- Moscow, first at the Institute of Red Professors and then sian abbreviation, Burnatskom). As a student he had at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East. joined Bolshevik, Menshevik, and left-wing populist Rinchino was arrested on July 19, 1937, in the first wave organizations by turns, and this lack of party loyalty con- of the GREAT PURGE as a pan-Mongolist (now treated as a tinued. In April 1917 he joined the Social Revolutionary criminal offense) and a Japanese spy and executed a year Party’s Maximalist group but left it in the fall. At first he later, on June 23. 478 Rintchen See also BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT; BURIATS; MON- haps of Khion/Xiongnu ancestry) to outflank the Tiele GOLIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS OF; NEW SCHOOLS and High-Carts. From the late fifth century the ethnic MOVEMENTS; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD. term War appears in close association with Hun among both the Heftalites and the Oghur Turks on the Volga. It Rintchen See RINCHEN, BYAMBYN. was these War, apparently western outliers of the Rouran confederacy, who after the Turkish conquest invaded the Black Sea steppe. Under Baianos Khaganos (Mongolian, rJe-btsun Dam-pa See JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. Bayan Qaghan, that is, Rich Khan, fl. 562–82) they formed the Avar Empire (c. 568–796) based in Hungary, Rouran (Jou-jan, Ruanruan, Juan-juan) The Rouran which was finally destroyed by Charlemagne. were a powerful steppe empire from the later fourth cen- See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; MONGOLIC LAN- tury to 552. The Rouran appear to have been a mix of GUAGE FAMILY. Wuhuan (War or Avar) and XIONGNU (Hun) peoples. Further reading: Peter Golden, An Introduction to the Chinese accounts describe the empire’s dynastic ancestor History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-For- as an emancipated slave of the Eastern Hu who fled from mation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Mid- the land of the Tabghach (Tuoba) clan of the XIANBI in dle East (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1992). south-central Inner Mongolia around 310. The slave’s band became the nucleus of a new people. The dynasty’s Ruanruan See ROURAN. original family name was Mugulü, meaning “bald” (cf. Mongolian muqur, “cropped, bobtailed”), but it was later changed to Rouran. Later the Tabghach, now ruling Rum, Sultanate of See TURKEY. North China, contemptuously renamed them Ruanruan, “wriggling insects.” runic script and inscriptions The Old Turkish runic “Eastern Hu” was a general Chinese term for the script (the similarity to German runes is entirely superfi- Xianbi and the Wuhuan originating in eastern Inner cial) was the first extant script to be developed for an Mongolia. Since the Rouran dynasty is linked with the Altaic language. Examples are found in all but easternmost War/Avars of Europe, whose name corresponds to the Mongolia and in Tuva, Khakassia, and around Ust’-Orda, medieval pronunciation of modern Chinese “Wuhuan,” but not in Transbaikalia. It probably developed from the the Rouran dynasty was presumably Wuhuan in origin. Sogdian script as a rectilinear form suitable for carving. Little is known directly of their language, but they used What seems to be the earliest known example, that of the title qaghan, “khan.” Since the Eastern Hu as a whole Ereen Kharganat (Bugat Sum, Bayan-Ölgii), discovered in appear to be of Mongolic ancestry, the Rouran, too, were 1990, has been dated to the period of Tang rule in Mongo- presumably Mongolic in language. The name Rouran lia (630–82). Runic inscriptions are often found with (medieval Chinese ñzhu-ñzhän) resists any convincing “STONE MEN” in funerary complexes and near petroglyphs. etymology. The earliest extensive inscription in the runic script By the time of the khan Shilun (r. 402–10), the is that of the famous minister Toñuquq (Bayantsogt Sum, Rouran dominated the Mongolian steppe from Korea to Central province, dated to 715). In it Toñuquq, from a Yanqi in the Tarim Basin and from the Tabghach’s frontier Türk family long resident in China, records how Ilterish in Inner Mongolia to the Turkish “High-Carts” (Chinese, (682–91) and Qapaghan (691–716) qaghans (see KHAN) Gaoju) of Siberia. The Tabghach’s Northern Wei (386–528) built the second Türk Empire. The next major inscrip- dynasty attempted to weaken the Rouran both by inva- tions are those of Bilge Qaghan (716–34) and his brother sion and by allying with rival tribes, particularly the Kül Tegin (Khashaat Sum, North Khangai), which record High-Carts and their allies the Tiele (Töles?). Eventually, their far-flung campaigns. Taken together, these inscrip- under their chief Afujiluo (fl. 490–520), the Tiele became tions evoke a consciously nativist vision of Türk rule in a serious danger to the Rouran. After the revolt of the the Ötüken land, with harmony between older and Northern Wei border garrisons, the last Rouran ruler, younger and nobles (begler) and commoners (qara budun, Anagui (520–52), allied with the weakened dynasty, black people). That of Toñuquq especially denounces the receiving a Tabghach princess. When the Wei split into Türks’ previous slavery to the deceitful Chinese, who had two regimes, the ethnically Xianbi Yuwen regime in set the juniors against their elders. Shaanxi and the Han (ethnic Chinese) Gao regime in The inscription of the Uighur qaghan Bayan-Chor Hebei, the Rouran allied with the Gao family. In 545 the (Moyunchuo, 747–59) records his father’s and his own Yuwen family allied with the Ashina clan in the ALTAI founding of the UIGHUR EMPIRE, campaigns against hostile RANGE, which in 552 overthrew Rouran rule and founded Turkish tribes, and his building of a city on the SELENGE the TÜRK EMPIRES. RIVER. An early ninth-century fragmentary runic inscrip- From 434 on the Rouran had intervened in the Cen- tion from the Uighur capital, ORDU-BALIGH (Khotont tral Asian oases, supporting the Heftalite dynasty (per- Sum, eastern North Khangai), has not been studied, but Russia and the Mongol Empire 479 the better-preserved Chinese and fragmentary Sogdian ambassadors. Sübe’etei and Jebe crushed the Russian- parallels show it recorded the conversion of the Uighurs Qipchaq force on the Kalka River (May 31, 1223). to Manicheism and subsequent military campaigns. The Thus, in 1235 ÖGEDEI KHAN added the Russians to Süüjiin Dawaa inscription (Saikhan Sum, Bulgan the list of targets of the Mongols’ great Western cam- province) records an elderly Uighur aristocrat’s satisfac- paign. As usual, the Mongols campaigned principally in tion with his great fame, rich horse herds, well-married the winter. The main Mongol force, headed by the Jochid daughters, and many grandsons and expresses his hopes princes BATU and Hordu, the future great khans GÜYÜG that his sons will serve their qaghan well. and Möngke, and several others, arrived at Ryazan’ in The only extant book in runic script is the Irk Bitig, December 1237. Once Ryazan’ refused to surrender, the an Old Turkish book of omens discovered in Dunhuang, Mongols sacked it and stormed through the northeastern probably dating from the Uighur Empire. Others, includ- district of Suzdalia, sacking its cities and defeating Rus- ing Buddhist and Manichean translations, certainly sian field forces before leaving that summer. Among the existed. casualties was Grand Prince Iurii (1217–38), killed on The runic script was also used to write Old Turkish the River Sit’ (March 4, 1238). The Mongols reappeared in the Kyrgyz Empire in Khakassia. Inscriptions appear in southern Russia in 1239, sacking Pereyaslavl’ (March on funerary monuments, cliffs, and grave goods and 3) and Chernihiv (Chernigov, October 18). Finally hav- appear to date to the ninth century. ing smashed the Russians’ Qipchaq allies, the Black Caps, See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; ARCHAEOLOGY; the full Mongol army sacked Kiev (December 6, 1240), TÜRK EMPIRES. Halych (Galich), and Volodymyr (Vladimir) before pass- Further reading: Talât Tekin, A Grammar of Orkhon ing on to Central Europe. Throughout the campaign the Turkish (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1968); Talât Russians showed neither unity of purpose nor any sense Tekin, Irk Bitig: The Book of Omens (Wiesbaden: Otto Har- of the enemy they were facing. No Russian princes sur- rassowitz, 1993). rendered to the Mongols, but most fled when it became clear resistance was futile. Russia and the Mongol Empire The Mongol con- MONGOL RULE AT ITS HEIGHT quest of the Russian duchies ironically led to the emer- gence of Muscovy as the center of a new united Russian When Batu, son of JOCHI and grandson of CHINGGIS KHAN, state. At the time of the Mongol invasions the Russians, established his gold-hung ORDO (palace-tent) along the or East Slavs (including the Ukrainians and Belarus- lower Volga, he followed Mongol precedents and required sians), were ruled by princes (or dukes, kniazi) of the all Russian rulers personally to attend his court to inherit Riurikid family, dating back to the ninth century. Since their thrones. From then on “going to the (Golden) no system of primogeniture existed, the number of new Horde” (a word derived from the variant pronunciation appanages (udel) multiplied steadily. Politically, the uni- horda of ordo) became a regular part of the Russian fying institution was the grand duchy, that is, the special princes’ lives. Before 1259 several princes even made the title of grand prince (or grand duke, veliki kniaz’), which vast journey to Mongolia itself, including Iaroslav accrued, after 1169, to the possessor of the city of (1190–1246), who died there, poisoned, his entourage Vladimir in the northeast. However, this position of believed. These audiences demanded delicate negotiation grand prince had no set rule of succession, leading to of religious and communal boundaries. The Russian cler- complex family politics. The real unity of the Russian ics viewed common Mongol foods such as marmots and land, surrounded by Catholic, Muslim, and pagan neigh- KOUMISS as unclean, a prohibition reflected in the chroni- bors, was provided by the Orthodox Church, conducting cles’ excoriation of the “impure” and “accursed raw-eating its services in Old Church Slavonic and headed by the Tatars.” Another issue was the ceremony of purification metropolitan in Kiev. Economically, the Russian duchies by fire with its attendant religious ceremonies, required had ceased coinage in the 12th century, using furs for of all those received in audience by the khan. In 1245 money instead. The largest city, Novgorod, which traded Daniel of Halych (d. 1264) performed the purification Russia’s furs, falcons, and lumber to the Baltics, had an and drank fermented mare’s milk at Batu’s ordo without estimated 22,000 persons. incident, but Michael of Chernihiv in 1246 refused the purification and was martyred. Such incidents soon THE CONQUEST became rare as the Jochid lords and the Russian princes The Russians first collided with the Mongols (or TATARS, adjusted to each other. as the Russians always called them) through their Turk- Daniel of Halych and Iaroslav’s son Alexander ish-speaking Qipchaq (Polovtsi or Cuman) allies. When (1220–63) illustrate two of the possible responses to the SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR and JEBE led a reconnaissance force of Mongol conquest. Daniel toyed first with the idea of ally- three tümens (10,000s) through Qipchaq territory in ing with Hungary and Poland and converting to Catholi- 1223, the latter appealed to allied southwest Russian cism. Then he allied with still-pagan Lithuania. In the princes, who joined the QIPCHAQS, slaying the Mongol end, abandoned by all, he fled as the Mongols invaded 480 Russia and the Mongol Empire Lithuania and destroyed the Russian fortifications in Mongols conducted three censuses in the Russian lands: Halych and Volyn (1259–60). By contrast, Alexander one in 1245–46 in the south and two in 1255–59 and Nevskii fought the Swedes (1240) and Teutonic Knights 1273–74 covering the east and north. On the basis of this (1242) while at the same time winning the grand ducal census, Russian households were enrolled in the DECIMAL throne from his brother Andrew in 1251 by submission ORGANIZATION and divided (exclusive of Novgorod) into to the Mongols. 46 tümens, each nominally 10,000 households. As else- From 1270 on the northern Russian princes appealed where in the MONGOL EMPIRE, subjects of the church were to the Mongol basqaqs (overseers) and troops to assist not included in the census. Servants directly attached to their particular ambitions. By the 1280s the emergence of the Mongol ordos and postroad personnel were exempt the Jochid prince NOQAI west of the Dnieper as a chal- from other taxes. The district of Tula, for example, was lenger to the khan on the Volga encouraged a bloody assigned to Taidula Khatun, wife of Özbeg. rivalry between Alexander Nevskii’s sons Dmitrii (r. At first the Mongols treated the Russians much like 1276–94) and Andrew (r. 1281–1304) for the position of Siberian peoples, demanding furs, including sable and grand prince. Four times between 1281 and 1293 armies polar bear skins, from every person counted in the census from the khan plundered Suzdalia on behalf of Andrew, (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). This demand for while Noqai’s armies backed Dmitrii. A similarly pro- skins intensified the northern fur trade. By 1257 urban tracted feud broke out from 1278 to 1294 between broth- customs tax, or tamga (Mongolian, tamagha), and the iam ers claiming the ducal throne of Rostov as well. (Mongolian, JAM), or postroad taxes, were also organized. Eventually, many princes developed close relations Passing envoys and falconers were also free to levy con- with the Mongols, spending years at a time “at the tributions. The Mongols entrusted collection to tax farm- Horde” and participating in the Horde’s wars. Several ers, at first Muslim merchants but later the princes Russian princes received Mongol princesses as wives; themselves. In either case tax farming led in Russia, as even after the Horde’s Islamization the brides were always elsewhere, to bidding wars between rival farmers for the baptized before marriage. Following Mongol precedents, right to collect the tax. People flocked to tax-exempt the khans granted complete tax exemption to the Ortho- patrons, especially the Orthodox Church, but also ironi- dox Church and all its estates. In the church liturgy cally to the tax-exempt ORTOQ merchants who served as prayers for the “czar” (king/emperor) on the steppe tax farmers. In 1284, for example, controversy arose replaced those for the “czar” in Byzantium. By the 1280s when two cities near Kursk built by the Muslim basqaq the khans also began to use the church hierarchs, particu- (overseer) and tax farmer Ahmad drained population larly the metropolitan (who after 1240 resided at from the neighboring cities. Vladimir in the northeast) and the bishop of Saray, as mediators between hostile princes. While the princes DECLINE OF MONGOL RULE soon accepted Mongol rule as inevitable, Russian popular In the 14th century the Horde’s authority over the Rus- assemblies (veche) could still react unpredictably to Tatar sian lands slowly eroded. In southern Russia the reunifi- envoys and/or troops entering Russian cities, rising up in cation of Poland under Casimir the Great (1333–70) led Novgorod (1258), in several cities of Suzdalia (1262), in to the conquest of Halych in 1349. The Lithuanian grand Rostov (1289), and in Tver’ (1327). prince Algirdas (Olgierd, 1341–77) defeated three princes Numerous Russians also lived within the GOLDEN of the Horde at the Battle of Blue Water in 1363, securing HORDE territories, in Saray and other cities on the Volga and overlordship over all the Russian princes in the Dnieper on the steppe. Russian captives, along with Hungarians, watershed. While northeastern Russia remained under OSSETES, and others, served in the ordos of their masters; Mongol rule, Moscow became the dominant power. Abet- many escaped and lived as bandits. Life on the steppe was ted by the metropolitan, who had moved to Moscow in hard for Christians, since the ban on eating Mongol food 1325, Alexander Nevskii’s grandson Ivan Kalita (Money- created a difficult choice between being a Christian and bags) defeated his rivals in Tver’ and secured the patent staying alive. Russians also served as levies in the Horde’s as grand prince (1331–41). The Horde would not accept armies, and some appear to have reached high positions; in Muscovite unification of all the old territory of Vladimir- 1327 one Fedorchuk commanded the army dispatched by Suzdalia, however, and ordered the princes of Tver’, Suz- ÖZBEG KHAN (1313–41) to suppress the rebellion in Tver’. dal, and Ryazan’ to collect taxes separately; eventually In the YUAN DYNASTY Russians taken captive during the first they, too, were granted the title grand prince. Not until conquest to the east were even formed into a guards units 1375 did Grand Prince Dmitrii Donskoi (1362–89) force in DAIDU (modern Beijing) in 1330. Tver’ to accept Muscovite supremacy. While the Mongols worked through client rulers, With the rise of regional powers in northeast Russia, they also established independent organs of rule. Basqaqs basqaqs disappeared, replaced by “messengers” (Russian, (see DARUGHACHI) were appointed as supervisors to all the posoly, Mongolian, elchi) shuttling between the Horde major cities and princes, with the “great basqaq” (veliki and the Russian cities. The collection of taxes and baskak) assigned to the grand prince of Vladimir. The postroad operations were taken over by the grand Russia and the Mongol Empire 481 princes, eliminating the role for non-Russian merchants. tinue, and Moscow would continue to buy peace with Taxes were reduced to a single payment (vykhod), now “payments” for a century or more. paid in silver, with Muslim moneylenders involved only in granting interest-bearing loans to cover any temporary MONGOL LEGACY IN RUSSIA arrears. In 1389 Moscow’s tribute payment was 1,000 The question of the Mongol influence on Russia is vast rubles (a ruble equaled 100 grams, or 3.53 ounces, of sil- and controversial. The Mongol conquest and ensuing ver); the amounts had probably been considerably “Tatar yoke” have been held responsible for many “Asi- higher in the 13th century. Islamization under Özbeg atic” features of Russian life, such as the autocracy under (1313–41) affected relations surprisingly little; the the czars, isolation from the development of the Renais- Orthodox Church’s privileges were fully confirmed, and sance, seclusion of women, and more generally poverty Özbeg allowed his sister to be baptized before marriage and backwardness. The 20th-century Eurasianist school, to Ivan Kalita. However, the disintegration of the Golden on the other hand, saw the Russian Empire as the legiti- Horde after 1359, meaning the Russian princes had to mate successor of the khans and thus as playing a unique deal with several rivals at once, changed the balance of world role as an empire melding Asia and Europe. While power. Originally, the princes of Suzdalia had assembled many of these claims are vague and difficult to substanti- personally at the Horde to receive patents of office, but ate, certain areas of clear impact can be seen. from 1362 on they preferred to send representatives to The initial conquest and the subsequent campaigns request their patents rather than risk the chaos reigning and tribute demands undoubtedly damaged Russian mate- on the steppe. rial life. Numerous luxury craft skills, such as cloisonné From his victory over Tver’ in 1375, Dmitrii Donskoi enamel, filigree, and niello, disappeared, while building pursued a controversial program of confrontation with crafts declined and church construction stopped. Revival the chaotic Golden Horde. In 1374 in Nizhnii Novgorod, occurred earlier in Novgorod, but only after the middle of his agents countenanced a popular riot against Tatar the 14th century in eastern Russia. The eastern trade, envoys and soldiers, and in 1378 he defeated a Tatar which was reviving on the eve of the conquest, underwent detachment on the Vozha (near Ryazan’). This contest another depression until the 14th century. ended with Dmitrii’s pyrrhic victory over Emir Mamaq Mongol influence on Russian Christianity was para- (Mamay, d. 1381) at the BATTLE OF KULIKOVO POLE doxical. While the conquest destroyed many religious (September 8, 1380). By 1382 TOQTAMISH had defeated institutions, the Horde’s complete tax exemption of the Mamaq, reunited the Golden Horde, and sacked Moscow church later expanded both the numbers and the influ- (August 26, 1382), still weakened by the heavy casualties ence of monasteries. The frequently unpleasant contact of Kulikovo Pole. From 1389 to 1433 Moscow’s tribute with non-Christian rulers increased the church leaders’ rose to 5,000 and then 7,000 rubles. isolationism and Russian national feeling. Nevertheless, Even so, Toqtamish was unable to reestablish the church scribes under the later czars ironically translated old Tatar yoke and had to reconfirm Dmitrii as grand the Mongol-era yarlyks, or patents (see JARLIQ), in a vain prince. While Moscow was hesitant about again con- attempt to defend the privileges and immunities they had fronting Tatar forces, turmoil in the Horde prevented received from the Horde. anything more than fitful reassertion of its authority Numerous specific administrative terms and prac- over Moscow. Toqtamish himself was overthrown by his tices in Russia can be traced to those of the Horde. Central Asian patron TIMUR (Tamerlane) in 1395. Subse- Attempts to link czarist autocracy to imitation of the quently, the kingmaker Edigü (Edigey) of the Manghit khans, however, do not take into account the aristocratic (MANGGHUD) clan besieged Moscow (December 1408) nature of the Golden Horde and other Mongol successor and compelled Grand Prince Vasilii I (1389–1425) to states, which actually resembled in their political dynam- “go to the Horde” in 1412—but for the last time. Vasilii ics the Kievan appanage system more than the czarist II (1425–62) received patents from the khan Ulugh- autocracy. Likewise, arguments that base autocracy on Muhammad (1419–45)—again, the last grand prince to the struggle against the “Tatar yoke” ignore the equal do so. Ulugh-Muhammad’s reign saw the breakup of the success of the aristocratic Lithuanian regime in fighting Horde, and by 1453 his son Kasim headed a new Tatar the Tatars. However, Mongol rule undoubtedly weakened czardom at Kasimov subservient to Moscow. Ivan III the role of the veche, or popular assemblies, in the Rus- (1462–1505) unified all the Russian lands not under sian cities, which were far more hostile to the Mongols Lithuania and took the title “czar” (king-emperor). The than were the princes. Similarly, the bidding wars standoff in 1480 on the Ugra River (near Kaluga), in between the Russian princes for the right to farm the trib- which Ivan faced down Khan Ahmed (fl. 1451–80) of ute undoubtedly strengthened their collective control the Great Horde, who was demanding restoration of over the commoners. Once the grand princes acquired tribute and patent relations, merely confirmed the end the right to collect the tribute themselves, they also of Mongol-Tatar rule over Russia. Nevertheless, raids imposed heavier payments on subordinate princes rather from the Golden Horde’s successor states would con- than on their own crown lands. 482 Russia and Mongolia Finally, the Mongols’ unification of the steppe TION marked a new stage in Russia’s relations with inde- under Chinggisid rulers supplied a model that czars pendent Mongolia, marked by a pervasive Soviet Russian from Ivan III on consciously used in their relations with influence on every aspect of Mongolia’s internal life. (On the khans of the steppe. Ivan the Terrible’s (1533–84) Soviet political influence on Mongolia, see SOVIET UNION conquest of the Golden Horde successor states of Kazan’ AND MONGOLIA). With the transition from communism (1552) and Astrakhan (1554), and his successors’ sub- and the breakup of the Soviet Union, Mongolia’s cross- jugation of Tyumen’ (1582–96), CRIMEA (1783), and the border trade, investment, and cultural connections with Kazakh khans (1730–1824), all ruled by Jochi’s descen- the new Russian Federation remain close, although they dants, made the czar, known to the Mongols as the are now only a single part of Mongolia’s multifaceted for- White Khan (tsagaan khaan), the virtual successor of eign relations. the Golden Horde. Likewise, the Mongols’ imposition of a fur tax on the Russians supplied the model for the DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS, 1606–1758 same tax (yasak, from Uighur-Mongolian yasaq/JASAQ) From the Russian conquest of the remnants of the Mon- that would lead the Cossacks to the shores of the gol GOLDEN HORDE, the czars treated all Eastern peoples Pacific. Thus, the Mongol Empire nurtured in Russia through a system of tribute remarkably similar to China’s the same practices that would ultimately make the once TRIBUTE SYSTEM. In this system all Asian chiefs desiring fractured and subjugated Russia Mongolia’s powerful relations with Russia had to take an oath of allegiance to and unified neighbor. the czar and pay yasak, or tribute, while their envoys to See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL Moscow had to kowtow before the czar. Although Russia EMPIRE; CHRISTIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; did not really control any part of Inner Asia until the late CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KALKA RIVER, BATTLE 18th century, many steppe chiefs made submission to OF; KIEV, SIEGE OF; SARAY AND NEW SARAY. receive the rich gifts the Russian envoys gave them as Further reading: John Fennel, Crisis of Medieval Rus- well as to gain the right to trade duty free as guests in the sia, 1200–1304 (London: Longman, 1983); Charles J. Siberian forts, both for themselves and for their merchant Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact clients from the Central Asian oasis cities. Thus, as in on Medieval Russian History (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- China, the tribute system functioned actually as a kind of versity Press, 1985); ———, Tatar Yoke (Columbus, state-subsidized foreign trade. However, Russian disre- Ohio: Slavica, 1985); Donald G. Ostrowski, Muscovy and gard for the existing claims of Inner Asian peoples over the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Fron- the Siberian natives caused frequent conflict. tier, 1304–1589 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Czarist Russia’s first diplomatic contact with Mongo- 1998); Michel Roublev, “The Mongol Tribute according lian-speaking peoples came in 1606–07, with emissaries to the Wills and Agreements of the Russian Princes,” in between the OIRATS (West Mongols) and the voevoda (Cos- Structure of Russian History: Interpretive Essays, ed. M sack military governor) of Tomsk. In 1608 the Tomsk Cherniavsky (New York: Random House, 1970), 29–64; voevoda, on orders of the czar, also initiated contact with George Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia (New Haven, the “Altan Khan” (Golden Khan) of western Khalkha’s Conn.: Yale University Press, 1953). KHOTOGHOID principality. In 1629 the voevoda of Yeniseysk began to collect yasak from the Buriat Mongols, and in 1646 a Cossack expedition pushing beyond Buriatia visited Russia and Mongolia Once a subject of the MONGOL the court of the Setsen Khan of eastern Khalkha. The Cos- EMPIRE, Russia from the beginning of the 17th century sacks were motivated both by rumors of gold and silver again came in contact with Mongolian peoples in its mines and by the czar’s command to find new ways to expansion into Siberia. (On the Russians and other East China, which Russian envoys had first reached in Slavic peoples under Mongol rule, see RUSSIA AND THE MON- 1617–18, led by representatives of the Khotoghoid prince. GOL EMPIRE.) The Buriat Mongols of southern Siberia came By 1644 Beijing came under the new Manchu QING under Russian rule in the 17th century, while the Kalmyks DYNASTY, which had pacified Inner Mongolia on the along the Volga were gradually reduced to subject status Khalkhas’ southern border in 1636. At first wavering through the course of the 18th century. (On Russian rule between opening tribute relations with Russia or the over these peoples, see BURIATS and KALMYKS.) Russian diplo- Qing, in 1655 the Khalkha princes became tributaries of matic relations with the ZÜNGHARS of today’s Xinjiang and the Qing, largely due to resentment at Russian encroach- the KHALKHA of Outer Mongolia continued until these ments on their northern Buriat and Khalkha Mongolian Mongolian peoples were brought under the sway of the subjects. In 1666 the Khalkha began attacking Cossack Manchu Qing Empire. Russian interest in Outer Mongolia forts. These attacks were stopped only by the massive increased in the 1860s, leading to Russian support for the invasion of Khalkha in 1689 by the ZÜNGHARS (the main 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence. Oirat tribe). The Khalkha leaders sought Qing protection, The Russian Revolution and the creation of a Soviet- while the Russians strengthened their frontiers and supported regime in Mongolia during the 1921 REVOLU- received many Khalkha refugees. Russia and Mongolia 483 When order returned to Qing-controlled Khalkha and 1905 Revolution forced a withdrawal of Russian after 1697, the Khalkha no longer challenged Russian troops and brought southeastern Inner Mongolia into the control in southern Siberia, but conflicts over refugees Japanese sphere. were constant. Unofficial Russian trade with the Khalkha Meanwhile, the new consul in Khüriye, Yakov Par- flourished, supplying animals for the official caravan fen’evich Shishmarëv (1833–1915), served from 1861 to trade to China vital to supplying Siberian settlements. In 1905 and by the time of his retirement had become one 1727 Russia negotiated with the Qing court in Beijing the of the leading men in the town, familiar with all the Mon- Kyakhta and Bura treaties that together demarcated the gol elite. Russia opened a post office in Khüriye and in frontier, created procedures for repatriation of refugees, 1897 operated a telegraph line from KYAKHTA CITY to and restricted Sino-Russian trade to the new border town Zhangjiakou, by the Great Wall. The Russo-Asiatic Bank, of KYAKHTA and to official missions to Beijing. The border a state-controlled bank with French and Belgian between Mongolia and southern Siberia was guarded by investors, began operations in Mongolia, including a sub- Khalkha and Buriat Cossack border guards. For almost sidiary in Mongolor, headed by Baron Victor von Grot (b. 200 years contact between the peoples on the border was 1863), which began gold mining in 1907. Culturally, in limited. 1903 a Russian club with a balalaika orchestra opened in After the 1755–58 destruction of the Zünghars, a Khüriye, serving a Russian population of 600, and the more open frontier was created in western Mongolia and von Grots’ red mansion in Khüriye became a local land- Xinjiang. Here border guards were stationed well back mark. from the limit of Qing control, leaving a buffer zone north Even so, Russia’s role in Mongolia fell far short of its of it in KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE, Tuva, Altay, and modern-day ambitions. The consulates allowed in the 1881 treaty eastern Kazakhstan. In Khöwsgöl and Tuva Qing political were not actually opened until 1905 (Khowd) and 1908 control was clear, but there was no military presence. (Uliastai). Despite duty-free trade rights, the completion Altay and eastern Kazakhstan were a kind of no-man’s of the Trans-Siberian and Chinese Eastern Railroads land where the natives paid tribute to both powers. diverted transit trade away from Mongolia to Manchuria. Russian exports through Mongolian border stations RUSSIAN INTERESTS, 1860–1911 declined sharply from 1899 to 1909, to be replaced by From 1727 to the mid-19th century Russian contact with goods (both Chinese and European) sold by Chinese the Mongols was not intensive. Official trade and diplo- merchants. Russian merchants in Mongolia were increas- matic caravans had some contact with the Mongol nobil- ingly limited to the purchase of unprocessed animal ity both along the route from Kyakhta to Beijing and in products. Advocates of Russian mercantile expansion Beijing itself, and Russian scholars and missionaries argued strongly for encouraging Mongolian secession as made many pioneering discoveries. Such contacts were the only possible way to exclude Chinese merchants. closely monitored by the Qing authorities. With the Chinese Qing Empire facing European RUSSIA AND THEOCRATIC MONGOLIA, 1911–1919 attacks and internal rebellions, in 1854 the ambitious When secession actually came, however, it was too soon new governor general of Siberia, Nikolai N. Murav’ev for Russian convenience. In 1900 the Bogda, or “Holy (later Murav’ev-Amurskii, 1808–81), proposed that with One,” Mongolia’s great INCARNATE LAMA (see JIBZUNDAMBA the likely overthrow of the Qing, Russia would be able to KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH), appealed to Russia for assistance in take over Mongolia naturally. Russian policy makers secession but was told to wait. In summer 1911 the responded that in the event of the fall of the Qing, Mon- Bogda and a group of Khalkha and Inner Mongolian aris- golia should become independent and thought that direct tocrats again appealed to the Russian consul V. N. Lav- annexation would be unduly provocative to the other dovskii for assistance. Despite Lavdovskii’s counsel of European powers. patience, the Mongols again sent a delegation to St. In 1860 the Treaty of Beijing, which gave Russia vast Petersburg. The Russian Foreign Ministry used the appeal tracts of territory in Manchuria and the Altay-Kazakhstan to protest China’s new Sinicization policies while not buffer zone, also gave Russia the right to trade in and sta- supporting secession outright, until the October 10 upris- tion a consul in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). In 1881 ing against the Qing in China suddenly gave the Russians the Treaty of St. Petersburg allowed Russia to open con- the cover they needed to support the 1911 RESTORATION. sulates in ULIASTAI and KHOWD CITY and to trade duty free Russian support for Mongolia was by no means throughout Mongolia. After the Sino-Japanese War unconditional, however. Russian policy makers had to (1894–95) and the scramble for concessions in China, all balance their ambitions in Mongolia with the reactions of of the Qing Empire north of the Great Wall became Rus- both China and the European powers. Since the treaty sia’s sphere of influence. From 1900 Russian troops actu- system binding China presupposed the inviolability of ally occupied Manchuria, HULUN BUIR, and eastern Inner the 1911 frontiers, czarist diplomats opened negotiations Mongolia as Russia cultivated Inner Mongolian princes. with China not on the basis of recognizing Mongolia’s The defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) independence but on the basis of Chinese suzerainty over 484 Russia and Mongolia an autonomous Outer Mongolia. Mongolia hoped to 1,000, or 25 percent. Subsequently, however, the number unify all the Mongols of the Qing Empire, but this, too, of Russian workers (this time not including white-collar was scotched by St. Petersburg. In 1914–15 the Russians workers) in Mongolia’s principal production sites convened a trilateral conference at Kyakhta, in which declined to 17.1 percent in 1932 and 2.2 percent in 1938. both Mongolia and China were forced to give in to Rus- Other parts of Mongolia’s Russian population included a sian demands, the Mongols having to forgo real indepen- small number of farmers (some of whom were Old dence and pan-Mongol unification and the Chinese Believers) and wives of Mongolian students who had having to forgo actual control over Mongolia and accept studied in the Soviet Union. Total ethnic Russian num- Russian commercial privileges. bers were reported in the 1956 census as 13,400, or 1.6 In return for its ambiguous support of Mongolian percent of the population. Later figures show the popula- autonomy, Russia received confirmation of its duty-free tion at 8,900 in 1963 but as high as 22,100 in 1969. It is trade rights in Mongolia. Concessions were granted to unclear whether these figures counted advisers and other the Russians in Khüriye and Khowd. Chinese mercantile temporary residents. activity was damaged, and Russian exports did receive a Apart from the political influence of the Soviet sys- boost. In 1914, in connection with a Russian loan of 1 tem, Russification of Mongolian life proceeded in both million gold rubles amounting to almost half the Mongo- high and low culture. In high culture area after area of lian government’s central budget, a financial adviser, S. A. European culture was transplanted into Mongolia in Kozin, was appointed to control all payments from the specifically Russian forms: ballet, classical music, opera, Mongolian state budget. Railroad concessions were the circus, cinema, neoclassical architecture, oil painting, granted in the same year. The gold ruble was made the heroic statuary, and so on. In low culture hundreds of official currency, and in May 1915 a Mongolian National small features of daily life, from clothing and interior dec- Bank headed by the Russian D. P. Pershin was chartered orating to language and entertainment, reflect Russian with the exclusive right to issue banknotes. culture. The Mongolians also assimilated much of the Although the KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY seemingly Russian view of their own Asian heritage and culture. achieved all the aims of czarist Russian policy—complete control over Mongolia without antagonizing the Euro- RUSSIA AND MONGOLIA, 1991 ON pean powers—it actually marked the high point of Rus- From 1980 on the entire Soviet bloc showed increasing sian control. Economically, World War I from 1914 on economic problems, which became a massive crisis by made it impossible for Russia to meet the Mongolian 1990. Instead of subsidizing Mongolia to protect its great- demand for goods or to make more than small invest- power status, the Soviet Union began demanding repay- ments in the Mongolian economy. While the former con- ment of loans. In March, in the midst of the Mongolian sul Ya. P. Shishmarëv had been well liked—one of the 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION, the Soviet press publi- Mongolian requests in 1911 was to reappoint him as con- cized Mongolia’s total debt to the Soviet Union as 9.5 bil- sul—his successors made little secret of their low regard lion “convertible rubles,” or 4,570 rubles for every for the Mongolians. Russian prestige in Mongolia plum- Mongolian. (The actual value of the “convertible ruble,” meted as a result of the unpopular Kyakhta treaty and which was a money of account used only for interna- still further due to the Russian Revolution and civil war. tional transactions within the Soviet bloc, remains con- In 1918 the Russian adviser was expelled from Mongolia, troversial.) This sudden turn to debt collection helped and the Mongolian National Bank was closed before it push Mongolia into a pro-Western foreign policy, a move issued a single banknote. Inflation made the gold ruble confirmed when the Soviet Union demanded all interna- worthless by 1919. In that year the Chinese high com- tional transactions be carried out in hard currency begin- missioner in Mongolia, whose office was created by the ning on January 1, 1991. From 1990 to 1991 the Soviet Kyakhta treaty, convinced the Mongolians to accept vol- Union’s role in Mongolia’s total trade turnover dropped untarily the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY, ending Russia’s from 77.8 percent to 66.8 percent. special role in Mongolia. The turmoil associated with the disintegration of the Soviet Union in fall 1991 and the formation of the Rus- RUSSIAN CULTURE AND ETHNIC RUSSIANS sian Federation kept Russia from paying more than pass- IN MONGOLIA ing attention to Mongolian affairs, despite the January The following White Russian and Red Army occupations 1993 treaty on friendly relations. One important area of of the capital in 1921 returned Mongolia to the Russian controversy was the PRIVATIZATION of the Russian shares sphere of influence. During the succeeding decades it was in the several Soviet-Mongolian joint-stock MINING com- the new Soviet Russian culture that influenced Mongolia. panies, which, like the Russian privatization program in Russian drivers, mechanics, workers, and artisans played general, has been plagued with accusations of corruption an important role in Mongolia’s embryonic working class. and influence of organized crime. The role of Russia and In 1924 Russian members of the Mongolian Trade Unions the former Soviet Union in Mongolian trade continued to (which then included many white-collar workers) totaled shrink. Previously, the copper-molybdenum concentrate Russia and Mongolia 485 of Erdenet mine had been sold to Kazakhstan, but after ation Organization, a joint-security forum of China, Rus- 1995 China became the main buyer. In 1999 Russia sia, and the former Soviet Central Asian countries formed reached a low of 23 percent of Mongolia’s total trade in 2001. turnover. (The share of Mongolia’s trade held by other See also FOREIGN RELATIONS; MONGOLIA, STATE OF; former Soviet bloc nations is negligible.) THEOCRATIC PERIOD. Since the inauguration of the new president, Vladimir Further reading: Elena Boikova, “Russians in Mon- Putin, in 1999, Russia has attempted to reconstruct its for- golia in the Late 19th-Early 20th Centuries,” Mongolian mer prestige. Putin responded to Mongolian president N. Studies 25 (2002): 13–29; Elizabeth Endicott, “Russian Bagabandi’s 1999 state visit to Moscow with a visit to Mon- Merchants in Mongolia: The 1910 Moscow Trade Exhibi- golia in November 2000, the first top Soviet/Russian leader tion,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked to do so since 1974. Putin signed a pact recognizing Mon- Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Elleman golia’s nuclear-free status and pledging to rebuild Russo- (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 59–68; Michael Mongolian trade. Russia has proposed that Mongolia’s debt Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a to the former Soviet Union be converted into shares in Colonial Empire (Bloomington: Indiana University, 2002); Mongolia’s state-owned enterprises as a method of boost- Tatsuo Nakami, “Russian Diplomats and Mongol Inde- ing Russo-Mongolian economic ties. Despite these steps, pendence,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Land- Mongolia has remained aloof from the tentative new locked Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. Russo-Chinese alliance embodied in the Shanghai Cooper- Elleman (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 69–78. S Sa‘d al-Dawlah See SA‘D-UD-DAWLA. In 1290 an Indian Buddhist monk’s sulfur and mer- cury alchemical regime led, despite the best efforts of Sa‘duddawla See SA‘D-UD-DAWLA. Sa‘d-ud-Dawla’s brother, to Arghun’s paralysis. Seizing the opportunity, TA’ACHAR, Qunchuqbal, and other noyans murdered the comatose khan before executing Sa‘d-ud- Sa‘d-ud-Dawla (Sa‘d al-Dawlah, Sa‘duddawla) (d. 1291) Dawla, Ordu-Qaya, and their clique on April 2–3, 1291. Jewish physician whose rise and fall as vizier of Arghun, Sa‘d-ud-Dawla’s estate was pillaged, and massive anti- khan of the Middle Eastern Mongols, brought prosperity and Jewish riots broke out in Isfahan and Baghdad. then ruin to his people See also JOVAINI, ‘ALA’ UD-AIN ATA-MALIK AND SHAMS- Stemming from an Iranian Jewish family of physicians UD-BIN MUHAMMAD. from Abhar (near Qazvin), Sa‘d-ud-Dawla entered the IL- KHANATE’s administration in 1284 as deputy to the Sagaalgan See WHITE MONTH. DARUGHACHI (overseer) of Baghdad. Other officials, threatened by his ability, removed him from the scene by arranging his summons to the court of Arghun Khan Sagang Sechen See SAGHANG SECHEN. (1284–91) as a physician. There Sa‘d-ud-Dawla, intrigued with a Mongol retainer, Ordu-Qaya (d. 1291) and pro- Saghang Sechen (Sagang Sechen, Sanang Sechen, posed to recover 5 million gold dinars in back taxes from Ssanang Ssetsen) (b. 1604) Baghdad. Author of the ERDENI-YIN TOBCHI (Precious chronicle), Appointed Baghdad’s auditor general on June 6, Saghang Sechen was the great-grandson of the Buddhist 1288, with Ordu-Qaya the city’s garrison commander, the prince KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI, inheriting his rule two returned to the khan next spring with the promised at Yekhe Shiber (modern southern Üüshin/Uxin banner). sum. In June 1289 Sa‘d-ud-Dawla was appointed sahib- As a child in 1614, he participated in the consecration of divan (chief of administration, or vizier), placing his fam- a Shakyamuni Buddha commissioned by Boshugtu Jinong ily in governorships in Baghdad, Fars, Diyarbakır, and (1565–1624, the titular ruler of ORDOS), and received, in Tabriz. Sa‘d-ud-Dawla destroyed the remaining members light of his ancestry, the title sechen khung-taiji, “wise of the Juvaini faction and other Muslim rivals and strictly prince.” As a young official he joined Boshugtu’s 1622 controlled spending by the great Mongol commanders negotiations with Chinese frontier officials in Yulin. In (NOYAN). Jews and, to a lesser degree, Christians briefly 1627 he proclaimed the enthronement of Erinchin Jinong dominated the Il-Khanid bureaucracy. To guard against (1600–56) and with the new jinong received a Buddhist the noyans’ hostility, Sa‘d-ud-Dawla assigned key garrison initiation. Compelled with Erinchin to serve in LIGDAN commands to Ordu-Qaya and a few other low-born Mon- KHAN’s army during his 1632 occupation of Ordos, gol supporters and appointed his brother, also a physi- Saghang Sechen befriended some disaffected CHAKHAR cian, to guard the khan’s health. men and deserted, sheltering Erinchin at Yekhe Shiber 486 Sangdag, Khuulichi 487 from Ligdan’s wrath until 1634. After Ligdan’s death and Sainchogtu published poems steadily until 1966, and Erinchin’s restoration, Saghang was honored with the title was acknowledged as Inner Mongolia’s leading author, Erke sechen khung-taiji, “beloved wise prince,” and given publishing collections such as Man-u khüchürkheg dagun the right to hold the vanguard in the army and the center (Our powerful song, 1955) and a poetic record of his in the hunt. Nothing else is known of his life except that return to his home banner (1962). The widely acclaimed he later moved to northern Üüshin, where his grave and poem Khökhe torgan terlig (Blue silk robe, 1954) praised descendants were found. In 1662 he completed the the new romantic freedoms for women. His only novel Erdeni-yin tobchi. Offerings were made to him both at his was Khabur-un nara Begejing-eche (The spring sun is from grave and at that of his great-grandfather Khutugtai Beijing, 1956), and in 1957 he published a 1,200 line Sechen Khung-Taiji. narrative poem, Nandir Sümbür khoyar (Nandir and Süm- bür), on the trials of two young lovers during collec- Saichungga See SAINCHOGTU, NA. tivization. Sainchogtu was attacked and tormented during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) and finally exiled to Sainchogtu, Na. (Sayincogtu; Saichungga, Sayi^cungga) Shanghai. He began writing poetry again in 1971 but died (1914–1973) Leading Inner Mongolian poet and diarist on May 13, 1973. under Japanese occupation, he converted to the Communist See also INNER MONGOLIANS; JAPAN AND THE MODERN cause in 1947 MONGOLS; LITERATURE; NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENT. Sainchogtu was born on March 23, 1914, in Chakhar’s Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “A Roman- Plain Blue banner (Qahar Zhenglanqi), in the herding tic Vision of National Regeneration: Some Unpublished family of Nasundelger and his wife Degjima; his original Works of the Inner Mongolian Poet and Essayist name was Saichungga. Familiarized with letters and Saichungga,” Inner Asia 1, no. 1 (1999): 3–43; Gombojab Mongolian oral poetry by his relatives, Saichungga Hangin, “Na. Sayin^coγtu’s (Sayin^cungγa) Works: The attended a banner school and became a banner clerk Period of Nationalistic Realism,” in Tractata Altaica, ed. before being selected by the Japanese “Good Neighbor Walther-Heissig (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1976). Society” in 1936, first for education in a Japanese-run Chakhar school and then for study in Japan. Graduating from the Teacher’s College of Tokyo Oriental University Sai Dianchi See SAYYID AJALL. in 1941, he returned home and taught in the girls’ school in Sönid Right Banner (Sonid Youqi) sponsored by PRINCE Sai Tien-ch’ih See SAYYID AJALL. DEMCHUGDONGRUB. Saichungga’s early works include the poem collection Sedkhil-un khani (The thought’s companion, 1941), the Sanang Sechen See SAGHANG SECHEN. diary of a summer vacation in Inner Mongolia, Elesü mangkhan-u ekhe nutug (Motherland of sands and dunes, Sangdag, Khuulichi Early 19th-century poet whose mas- 1942), and the collection of letters and essays in Man-u tery of the “speech” (üge) genre voiced a sense of powerless- Monggol-un mandukhu daguu (Song of our Mongolia rising, ness before fate and oppression 1945). His poems expressed his longing for release and the Little is known of Sangdag’s life. He was from Mergen purification of Mongolia in romantic imagery of chaste Wang (Tüshiyetü Khan’s Left Wing Middle) banner maidens, courageous youths, and nature. His prose writings (modern East Gobi province) and was a contemporary of passionately denounced superstition, poverty, and abuse of DANZIN-RABJAI (1803–56). Late in his life he become a power without explicitly raising larger political issues. kiya (aide-de-camp) for a prince. His nickname, khuu- Saichungga welcomed the Soviet-Mongolian invasion lichi, is not the modern “lawyer” but rather “storyteller.” of August 1945. After the failure of pan-Mongolian unifi- Sangdag’s extant works are 13 short poems in the üge, or cation he studied at the Sükhebaatur Party Cadres’ School “speech,” genre. The style is close to spoken language, in ULAANBAATAR. As Saichungga eagerly absorbed Com- and the PROSODY is relatively free. In it animals or inani- munist Party history, his poetry became strongly political. mate things speak out their complaints. Lama üge authors In November 1947 he returned to Inner Mongolia, then Agwang-Khaidub (1779–1838) and Ishisambuu (1847–96) torn by the Chinese Communist-Nationalist civil war. used the genre to chastise the hypocrisies of their fellow Saichungga changed his name to Na. Sainchogtu and monks and urge better behavior. Sangdag’s üge poems worked successively for the Inner Mongolian People’s mostly adopt the voice of some animal or thing trapped Daily, the propaganda committee of the Communist into decline by circumstances or others’ power: melting Party’s Inner Mongolian branch, and the secretariat of the snow, a tumbleweed in the wind, a camel cow and calf China’s Writers’ Union. Sent to the countryside for re- separated when the mother is sent on caravan, a wolf education in 1958–60, he joined the Chinese Communist caught in a tightening hunting circle. These speeches res- Party in 1959. onated with impoverishment, family breakup, and the 488 Sangha subjection of the Gobi commoners. The speech of the pet ver, increased to a total of 450,000 ding (yastuq), a 10- dog, reciting its duties in attacking anyone who fold increase over the 1270 quota. He invested in silver approaches his master and yet complaining of the blows production in YUNNAN province and confiscated gold and and bad food it receives, recalls contemporary denuncia- silver still circulating in South China. To increase the tions of aides-de-camp who encouraged princely misrule. international trade that ultimately formed China’s main source of silver and was largely in the hands of Muslims, Sangha (Sang-ko, Sengge) (d. 1291) Notorious Tibetan Sangha convinced the khan to revoke his prohibition on official whose strict measures to deal with financial crises Muslim slaughtering. late in Qubilai’s reign caused widespread dissatisfaction Despite these measures, the massive spending of Sangha (the spelling Sengge of his Chinese name, previous years could not be sustained. Sangha’s four Sangge/Sang-ko, is erroneous) was born in the Tibetan years in office were occupied with an obsessive search bKa’-ma-log tribe on China’s Sichuan frontier. A pupil of for expenses to eliminate, inefficient officials to dismiss, the Buddhist miracle worker Dam-pa Kun-dga’-grags and tax exemptions to revoke. As with other financially (1230–1303), he knew Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian, and strapped Chinese regimes, he also practiced the sale of Uighur and first entered the Mongol court around 1268 offices on a large scale. Sangha curtailed the indepen- as interpreter for the imperial preceptor ’PHAGS-PA LAMA. dence of the censorate. The results, while very unpopu- Sangha later became estranged from Dam-pa Kun-dga’- lar, were successful. Emissions of paper currency, which grags, whom he would persecute once he came into had reached more than 2 million guan in 1285–86, were power. kept to 500,000 guan from 1290 on. Particularly unfor- With ’Phags-pa Lama’s frequent absences, Sangha givable to the regular officialdom was his judicial murder became the effective head of the Buddhist bureaucracy of policy opponents. Lavish Buddhist ceremonies at under QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94). When ’Phags-pa Lama court and his own accumulation of a large estate only died in Tibet in 1280, Sangha was dispatched to Tibet increased opposition. with 7,000 Mongol troops. After executing the chief Early in 1291 several Mongol and Turkish officials administrator in Tibet, Kun-dga’ bZang-po, in 1281, impeached Sangha. The final blow came in March, when Sangha assigned his troops as Tibet’s first permanent two high Mongol aristocrats, ÖCHICHER and Öz-Temür Mongol garrison. On his return Sangha served in ’Phags- (Örlüg Noyan), intervened against Sangha, accusing him pa’s place as head of the bureaucracy administering Bud- of corruption. After a debate in the emperor’s presence, dhist monks throughout the empire and secular affairs in Sangha was disgraced and executed on August 17. The Tibet. In 1288 several offices were combined under Department of State Affairs was abolished and Sangha’s Sangha as the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan coterie dismissed or executed. Several of his stricter mea- Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan). sures of economy were revoked, but Sangha’s restoration Through his supervision of Buddhist monasteries, of financial discipline lasted under his successors for the which traditionally controlled large investments, Sangha next 10 years. became involved in both economic and personnel issues. See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PAPER In December 1284 he recommended Lu Shiyong to Qubi- CURRENCY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET AND THE MON- lai Khan as right grand councillor with the assurance that GOL EMPIRE. government income could be multiplied 10 times. Further reading: H. Francke, “Sangha,” in In the Ser- Despite Lu Shiyong’s disgrace in May 1285, Sangha’s vice of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol- influence was not impaired. Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. On March 19, 1287, after two years of unprece- (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 558–583. dented emissions of paper currency, Qubilai adopted Sangha’s controversial proposal to devalue the convert- Santa See DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. ible Zhongtong currency and issue in its place a new, nonconvertible Zhiyuan currency. To administer finan- Saray and New Saray Built along the Akhtuba River cial affairs, Qubilai appointed Sangha manager (pingzhang) running parallel to the lower Volga, these cities served for a revived Department of State Affairs alongside the successively as the capitals of the GOLDEN HORDE. The existing secretariat. On December 11 Sangha was pro- first town of Saray (at modern Selitrënnoye, about 100 moted to grand councillor of the Department of State kilometers [60 miles] north of Astrakhan) was begun by Affairs. BATU (d. 1255). The town flourished in the first half of Despite the devaluation of the Zhongtong currency, the 14th century before entering decline. The city Sangha understood the importance of silver backing for extended for 3 or 4 kilometers (1.9–2.5 miles) on a bluff the paper currency. His term in office, from 1287 to over the Akhtuba. Apparently spared destruction by 1291, coincided with the beginning of a decade-long TIMUR, the city remained settled at least until the early shortage in the Eurasian silver supply. In 1289 Sangha 15th century. The khans generally wintered around Saray ordered the quotas for the commercial tax, payable in sil- and summered on the steppe. scapulimancy 489 During MUHAMMAD ABU ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA’s Sayid Elchi (Sayyid the Envoy); he inherited both titles visit in 1323, Saray was a vast city with many inhabi- from his Bukharan grandfather, who first joined Mongol tants. The Muslim population was served by 13 service. ‘Umar Shams-ud-Din first served ÖGEDEI KHAN mosques. Each ethnic group—Mongols, OSSETES, (1229–41) as DARUGHACHI (overseer) in Inner Mongolia QIPCHAQS, Circassians, Russians, and Greeks—as well as and Shanxi and JARGHUCHI (judge) in Yanjing (modern foreign merchants—Egyptian, Syrian, Iraqi, Iranian, and Beijing) and then MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) as governor in Italian—had its own quarters and bazaars. Inscriptions Yanjing and commissary for the Sichuan campaign. In in Turkish (in Arabic and Uighur script), Persian, and 1264 QUBILAI KHAN appointed Sayyid Ajall head of the Arabic testify to the range of languages spoken. The branch secretariat of Shaanxi and Sichuan. Sayyid Ajall absence of pig bones and the rarity of Christian art indi- expanded the population and economy as he carefully cate the public predominance of Islam, but tomb fig- moved Mongol-held Sichuan, still threatened by uncon- urines cut out of bronze or iron sheets show the quered Song strongholds, from military to civilian rule. In coexistence of native religious practices. 1273 Qubilai appointed Sayyid Ajall manager (pingzhang) The second town of Saray (at modern Kolobovka, of the new branch secretariat in YUNNAN (Qarajang). First formerly Tsarev, about 85 kilometers [40 miles] east of conquered in 1254, Yunnan had been a virtually indepen- Volgograd), called New Saray (Saray al-Jadid) on coins, dent kingdom under the Mongol prince Toqur. Buttressed was first built in 1332. It flourished as the capital from by Qubilai’s confidence, Sayyid Ajall mollified Toqur by 1341 on until it was sacked in 1395, effectively disap- giving him a voice in administration but steadily enforced pearing. (The designation of New Saray as Saray-Berke is civilian rule. Sayyid Ajall’s civilizing mission combined erroneous; Saray Berke is actually old Saray.) Built on a Islam and CONFUCIANISM; he built halls of both teachings floodplain, New Saray’s walls were constructed in 1361, while promoting wet-rice cultivation, literacy, arranged amid the Golden Horde’s “Great Troubles.” They enclosed marriages, and burial (rather than cremation). Sayyid a space about 1.6 by 1.0 kilometers (1.0 by 0.6 miles). Ajall’s sons Nasir-ad-Din (d. 1292), Husain (d. 1310), and Houses in both cities ranged from simple dugouts Mas‘ud all served as managers of the Yunnan secretariat, heated by braziers to large walled manors dominated by continuing Sayyid Ajall’s policies. Nasir-ad-Din also cam- multiroom houses with tiled walls, kangs (sleeping plat- paigned successfully in BURMA (Myanmar) and VIETNAM. forms heated by flues), tandurs (ovens for baking flat See also ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. bread), and wash basins. Remains of yurts were found in Further reading: P. D. Buell, “Saiyid Ajall,” in In the a few manor houses. In several cases semidugout houses Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early were gradually improved and filled in as slave artisans Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz upgraded their status. In the 1350s and 1360s many large et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 466–479. manor houses were divided and occupied by poorer resi- dents. In New Saray traces of Timur’s sack of 1395, scapulimancy Divining by reading the cracks in burnt including unburied and decapitated skeletons, were bones, an almost universal practice in ancient Eurasia, found. was the major method of divination in the MONGOL See also CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RUSSIA EMPIRE and was practiced until recent times. While in AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. ancient Shang China tortoise shells were burned by a Further reading: German A. Fedorov-Davydov, Silk piece of hot iron, the Mongols always used sheep scapula, Road and the Cities of the Golden Horde, trans. Aleksandr or shoulder blades, and simply placed them in a fire. The Naymark, (Berkeley: Zinat Press, 2001); ———, Culture great khans of the Mongol Empire used scapulimancy to of the Golden Horde Cities, trans. H. Bartlett Wells divine the will of heaven (TENGGERI) before virtually (Oxford: B.A.R., 1984). every decision. CHINGGIS KHAN carried a charred sheep pelvis as an amulet. This divination was performed by the Sawma, Rabban See YAHBH-ALLAHA, MAR. khans themselves, by shamans (bö’e, modern böö), and sometimes by foreign divination experts, such as YELÜ CHUCAI (1190–1244). The inquirer first had to whisper to Sayi^cungga See SAINCHOGTU, NA. the shoulder blade, and then the blade was burned. A straight vertical crack meant yes, and a horizontal crack Sayincogtu See SAINCHOGTU, NA. or splintering meant no. Today shamans follow up the reading of the blade’s cracks with a shamanic session to Sayyid Ajall (Sai Dianchi, Sai Tien-ch’ih) ‘Umar ask the ONGGHONs (spirit figurines) for further informa- Shams-ud-Din (1218–1279) Muslim administrator who tion about the inquirer’s troubles. integrated Yunnan into China proper Scapulimancy continued in Buddhist Mongolia. The ‘Umar Shams-ud-Din’s usual Persian name, Sayyid Ajall, great Tu (Monguor) lama and scholar Sum-pa mKhan-po was an honorary title for descendants of Muhammad, Ishi-Baljur (Ye-shes dPal-’byor, 1704–87) wrote a text on while the Chinese Sai Dianchi derives from Mongolian the topic based on what he knew of the practice among 490 seal the ÖÖLÖD Mongols. In it he notes that a shoulder blade Second Conversion The Second Conversion refers to from a freshly slaughtered, healthy, white sheep had to be the Buddhist missionary movement from 1566 to around washed and censed with juniper and/or incense. In a 1650, through which Buddhism became the sole autho- room, the diviner prayed alone to the Buddhist deities rized religion among the Mongols. The Second Conver- and recited a dharani (sacred spell) several times before sion followed what the movement’s missionaries believed placing the bone in the fire. The resulting cracks were to be a period of apostasy after the fall of the YUAN interpreted according to a complex division of the bone DYNASTY in 1368. (For the earlier spread of Buddhism, see into areas along its edges and along the central spine. The BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE). Although Tibetan-rite cracks’ lengths, colors, and positions were all considered, Buddhism lost its preeminent role after 1368, occasional allowing much room for the diviner’s interpretation of the Mongol requests for Buddhist scriptures and ritual items event. Evil omens were to be dealt with by having the from China show contact with Tibetan-rite Buddhist cler- appropriate scriptures recited by a lama. ics through the 15th century. Meanwhile, Mongolian Scapulimancy was still practiced widely in the late expansion in Kökenuur and Tibet, which began in 1510 1930s in Inner Mongolia and is practiced today by and accelerated after 1533, opened direct links with shamans among the DARKHAD, ZAKHACHIN, and other Tibetan Buddhism. western Mongolian groups. It has given way to ASTROL- OGY in modern urban milieus. PROGRESS OF THE CONVERSION See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGION; The major Mongolian histories treat (KHUTUGTAI SECHEN TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. KHUNG-TAIJI (1540–86) of the ORDOS Mongols and ALTAN Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “A Tibetan-Mongo- KHAN (1508–82) of the TÜMED as the initiators of the lian Bilingual Text of Popular Religion,” in Serta Tibeto- links to Tibetan Buddhism. After initial contact with Mongolica, ed. Rudolf Kaschewsky, Klaus Sagaster, and lamas, these two led the nobility of southwest Inner Mon- Michael Weiers (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1973), golia in 1575 to invite bSod-nam rGya-mtsho (1543–88), 15–32; Ágnes Birtalan, “Scapulimancy and Purifying Cer- leader of the aggressive new dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow Hat) emony,” in Proceedings of the 35th Permanent International order of Tibetan Buddhism. Their meeting in Kökenuur Altaistic Conference, ed. Chieh-hsien Ch’en (Taipei: Cen- in 1576 began the Second Conversion, marked by the ter for Chinese Studies Materials, 1993), 1–10. dominant role of the dGe-lugs-pa order, the proscription of Mongolian native religious practices, the creation of a new monastic body, the installment of venerable Buddhist images, and the translation of scriptures. seal In the Mongolian constitution of 1924 the SOY- From 1585 to 1588 the Third Dalai Lama personally OMBO SYMBOL on a lotus served as the state seal of the toured southwest Inner Mongolia. In 1585 a ruler of new MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. In late 1939 the KHALKHA (Mongolia proper), ABATAI KHAN (1554–88), Mongolian leader MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG presented to learned about Buddhism from a party of merchants from Joseph Stalin a proposed new seal for Mongolia in a typi- the Tümed region and began building a temple. The next cal Soviet style: sheaves of wheat forming a circle around year he personally visited the Dalai Lama at Altan Khan’s a sunburst with a red star on the top and the name of the capital, Guihua (modern HÖHHOT). To the east the country on a ribbon at the bottom. Stalin, interested in CHAKHAR became officially Buddhist with the invitation of Mongolia as a source of animal products, insisted the seal a Karma-pa (Red Hat) chaplain by Tümen Jasagtu Khan have a herder on a horse surrounded by busts of animals. (b. 1539, r. 1558–92). The seal approved in the 1940 CONSTITUTION followed his East of the Chakhar Altan Khan’s preceptor, Ashing recommendation and replaced the wheat sheaves with a Lama, later spread the faith from 1600 to 1630 among the geometric scroll and pasture grass. In the 1960 CONSTITU- Baarin (Bairin) and KHARACHIN before founding a TION the aspirations to symbolize a modern economy monastery at Khüriye (Hure). Among the Ongni’ud and returned; the wheat sheaves were restored, the animal KHORCHIN, a Oirat monk trained in Tibet, Neichi Toin busts removed, and an industrial cogwheel added at the (1557–1653), together with his 30 pupils, served as a bottom. The Soyombo symbol was, however, added to the Buddhist missionary from around 1629 to 1652, trans- star. In 1992, with the new democratic constitution, the forming a tenuous official acceptance of Buddhism into a seal was transformed by Buddhist symbolism. The ribbon more profound conversion. at the base became a lotus, the cogwheel became a Among the OIRATS the official establishment of Bud- dharma wheel intertwined with a KHADAG (scarf), the dhism began when Baibaghas Baatur Noyan (d. 1630) of wheat sheaves became a swastika-based scroll (with a the Khoshud invited Tsaghan Nom-un Khan (King of the Buddhist, not racial, meaning), and the “three jewels” White Dharma). In 1615 the Oirat lords all agreed to replaced the star. The horse became a khii mori (wind send one son to Tibet to become a monk. Still, there must horse), or symbol of good fortune, carrying the Soyombo have been some earlier contact with Buddhism, as Neichi symbol over a blue surface symbolizing the sky. Toin went to Tibet to become a monk as early as 1580. Second Conversion 491 METHODS AND EXPERIENCES OF CONVERSION northern Mongolia. The Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82) told Mantras and numbered categories, such as the Three an eminent Mongolian lama returning from education in Jewels, the “six syllables” om mani padme hum, and the Tibet: “If you propagate the Old Teaching in the Mongol eightfold restraint (moral rules), transmitted basic lands it will only bring bad luck! If anybody else tries to instruction. Neichi Toin and his patrons rewarded any- spread them, you must stop him!” dGe-lugs-pa exclu- one who memorized the mantra of the fierce protector sivism won ardent champions among the Oirats and the deity Yamantaka. Neichi Toin was later accused of freely Tu (Monguors). Warring constantly with Muslim powers, giving out Yamantaka initiations to commoners and was the Oirats zealously defended the Dalai Lama (see ZÜNG- recalled from the mission field by the Manchu emperor HARS; UPPER MONGOLS; KALMYKS). The small group of on advice of the Fifth Dalai Lama in 1652. Key political Mongolic-speaking Tu people in China’s northwest bor- leaders, both male and female, everywhere received the derlands found in the international dGe-lugs-pa hierar- Tantric Hevajra initiation. chy their only avenue to high office (see TU LANGUAGE Conversion narratives suggest varied patterns for indi- AND PEOPLE). vidual conversion. Neichi Toin rejected the world when he On the positive side, institutionalizing Buddhism saw the death throes of a pregnant wild ass he and his involved planting on Mongolian soil the Three Jewels: friends had shot. Altan and Abatai converted after success- the dharma (i.e., scriptures), the Buddha (i.e., images and ful campaigns had confirmed their leadership; they saw teaching lineages), and the sangha (i.e., monasteries). All reestablishing the “TWO CUSTOMS” (khoyar yosu) of reli- these activities depended on noble patronage. Many gion and state as a way of confirming their success. Mira- translated scriptures were still extant from the 14th cen- cles, healings, and supernatural contests played a role. tury, and from 1592 to 1607 translators in Altan Khan’s Reading Mongolian translations of Buddhist hagiographies Guihua city (modern HÖHHOT) completed the translation and viewing the splendor of mandalas and other Tantric of the bKa’-’gyur, or Tibetan collection of the Buddha’s rituals are also mentioned as strengthening weak faith. words. Copying, consecrating, and installing scriptures Although not treated in detail in the sources, it seems clear crowned the establishment of monasteries, yet noncanon- that women played the leading role in promoting conver- ical hagiographies and handbooks were more important sion; virtually every strong male adherent can be linked to in actual conversion. a devout woman, either his wife or a blood relative. The nativization of the Buddha in Mongolia involved installing Buddha images and relics and establishing lines INSTITUTIONALIZING BUDDHISM of teaching lineages and INCARNATE LAMAs. Thus, after The Second Conversion was fiercely intolerant of the the first meeting with Altan Khan, the Dalai Lama sent native Mongolian religion. The JEWEL TRANSLUCENT SUTRA Manjushri Khutugtu, an incarnate lama, to live in Gui- (1607) boasts that under Altan Khan “the mad and stupid hua, and in 1586 Nepalese craftsmen completed a shamans were annihilated and the shamanesses humili- Shakyamuni image. The Third Dalai Lama sent images ated.” Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji prescribed harsh and relics home with Abatai to the Khalkha. Many of the penalties for funerary blood sacrifices, making or sacrific- missionary lamas, such as Neichi Toin and the First Zaya ing to an ONGGHON (spirit figurines), or striking a monk. Pandita of Khalkha, Lubsang-Perenlai, posthumously Instead, yurts were to have six-armed Mahakalas wor- founded incarnation lineages in Mongolia. shiped with fasting and bloodless offerings, and funerals Establishing monasteries was the final part of institu- were to be marked by almsgiving. In Khorchin govern- tionalizing the conversion. In 1578 Altan Khan and the ment messengers accompanied by Neichi Toin’s disciples Tümed nobility dedicated 108 of their sons to the monas- collected enough ongghons to fill a YURT, all of which tic life, while in 1615 the Oirat chiefs agreed to dedicate were burned. Later codes, such as the 1640 MONGOL- one son each. In Khorchin the nobility dedicated great OIRAT CODE, reduced unrealistically severe penalties to numbers of Chinese and Korean prisoners of war as more practical livestock fines but kept the prohibitions monks. Building a monastery and donating livestock, on shamanist activity. undoubtedly with attached herding households, com- Apart from these laws, few other Mongolian practices pleted the formation of the sangha. Quality was another were directly banned. Human sacrifice disappeared matter, however. In 1602 the Tibetans insisted that Gui- rapidly. Individual hunting and the eating of horse flesh hua, by then the leading monastic center among the were discouraged, but collective public hunts continued Mongols, simply had no fit teachers to educate the and were enshrined in the Mongol-Oirat Code. Strikingly, FOURTH DALAI LAMA. Not until the 18th century, long after the EIGHT WHITE YURTS, or shrine of CHINGGIS KHAN, with the initial conversion, did Mongolian scholars begin to its blood sacrifices, remained an integral part of govern- win respect in Tibetan eyes. ment even in a Buddhist utopia such as the CHAGHAN See also BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR; NAMES PER- TEÜKE (White history). SONAL; RELIGION; TIBETAN CULTURE IN MONGOLIA. This new exclusivist vision of dGe-lugs-pa Buddhism Further reading: Damchø Gyatsho Dharmatâla, Rosary also targeted the older orders still found in eastern and of White Lotuses, trans. Piotr Klafkowski (Wiesbaden: Otto 492 Secret History of the Mongols Harrassowitz, 1987); Walther Heissig, “A Mongolian Source hard not to see in such passages a response to an implicit to the Lamaist Suppression of Shamanism,” Anthropos 48 charge against Chinggis of bad faith toward his two first (1953); 1–29, 493–536. patrons. The Secret History does not, however, glorify Ching- Secret History of the Mongols The Secret History of gis Khan as a superhuman figure. In fact, it contains the Mongols (Mongghol-un ni’ucha tobchiyan) contains not numerous shocking and humiliating episodes that all only the most vivid and frank account of the rise of other chroniclers, Mongol or foreign, omitted, from his CHINGGIS KHAN but is also the landmark beginning of youthful fear of dogs to his murder of his brother Begter. Mongolian literature. Instead, the Secret History links Chinggis’s rise to the strength of his family, especially his mother Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN TOPIC AND STYLE and his wife BÖRTE ÜJIN, both of whom at key points give Divided by its early editors into 10 chapters and two him lifesaving advice. The theme of brotherly unity is chapters of continuation, the work begins with a geneal- also stressed. The other pillar of Chinggis’s regime is his ogy tracing the lineage of Chinggis Khan (Genghis, companions, whom he gathers to himself through his 1206–27). The history then gives a complex, episodic rise. Here, too, Ö’elün plays an important role, raising narrative of Chinggis’s childhood, his rivalry with four foundlings to serve as extra brothers for her son. JAMUGHA, and his dependence on an increasingly unreli- One exception to this rhetoric of family unity is the con- able patron, ONG KHAN of the KEREYID Khanate, climaxing tempt shown toward the second wife of Chinggis’s father with Ong Khan’s 1203 betrayal of Chinggis and Ching- YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, the mother of Chinggis’s half brothers gis’s defeat of all his Mongolian rivals. The first dated Belgütei and Begter. event in the history is the 1201 election of Jamugha as KHAN of an anti-Chinggis confederacy. With Chinggis COMPOSITION Khan’s coronation of 1206 the text records numerous The original title of the work is not clear. The present judgments (JASAQ) rewarding his companions (NÖKÖR) text contains the title Secret History of the Mongols (Mong- and establishing his KESHIG (imperial guard). The 10 ghol-un ni’ucha tobchiyan). At the head of the text is chapters conclude with the defeat of Chinggis’s last another title, however, the Origin of Chinggis Khan domestic rival, the once-supportive shaman TEB TENG- (Chinggis qa’an-u huja’ur), which would serve as a good GERI. The two chapters of continuation describe incidents description of the initial 10-chapter text. The name Secret in Chinggis’s great campaigns in China and the Middle History stemmed from the high secrecy with which its East, the dispute among Chinggis’s sons over the succes- very frank account of Chinggis’s origin was treated. Even sion, and Chinggis’s death. The coronation of his son RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH used at most only occasional ÖGEDEI KHAN follows, with his conquests and new institu- snippets of the work. In May 1331 the compilers of an tions, concluding with a curious “testament” of Ögedei administrative encyclopedia in Mongol China were describing his four good deeds and four faults. refused access to the Secret History because “the The Secret History of the Mongols is written in prose Tobchiyan’s episodes involve prohibited secrets and must but with numerous long and short passages in alliterative not be allowed to be copied by outsiders.” verse, much like the Icelandic sagas. While it is often To the present no consensus has formed on the date compared to an epic, it differs greatly from the known of the Secret History. The text as it now stands is dated to Mongolian oral EPICS. The close similarity between the the year of the mouse, which could be 1228, 1240, or Secret History and the lost Mongolian chronicle preserved 1252. Since the surviving text ends with the reign of in Chinese translation as the SHENGWU QINZHENG LU show Ögedei Khan (1229–41) almost complete, the text as a that the Secret History is, in intention at least, likewise a whole is most commonly dated to 1240. However, anachro- chronicle. It is, however, considerably less reliable than nisms in the section on Ögedei indicate 1252 as the earli- the Shengwu on chronology. est possible date for the history if it is considered as a unitary text. Since the editors divided the surviving text MAIN THEMES into 10 chapters and a continuation, however, some treat The main theme of the Secret History is the rise of Ching- the continuation as an interpolation, leaving only the gis Khan, which was destined by heaven. The signs of material up to the death of Teb Tenggeri (c. 1210) as the Chinggis’s predestined rise begin with his first forefather, original Secret History text. Even in this case, anachro- Blue Wolf, and continue through his defeat of Teb Teng- nisms within the smaller text make it flatly impossible to geri. In differing ways Jamugha and Ong Khan both serve date before 1228. There is, however, close continuity in as antiexamples of leadership. Jamugha is clever, glib, language and themes between the 10-chapter text and the and easily bored, while Ong Khan is lazy, disloyal to kin, two-chapter continuation, particularly in the exaggerated and easily swayed by bad advice. However, the Secret His- role ascribed to SHIGI QUTUQU and the denigration of tory author puts in the mouths of both the conviction MUQALI. If the text is, as it seems, a unity, then 1252 is the that Chinggis is the destined khan of the Mongols. It is most likely date, since the accession of QUBILAI KHAN in Selenge River 493 1260 introduced new issues that are not at all reflected in activity. After being merged with Central province in the the text. early 1950s, Selenge was reestablished in 1959 and by The author of the original Secret History is unknown. 1961 was expanded to its present extent. Selenge has a The author was certainly an “old Mongol,” uninterested long frontier with the BURIAT REPUBLIC in Russia. The in sedentary societies or conquests. The Secret History’s newly built DARKHAN CITY was removed from the partisanship for Shigi Qutuqu and denigration of Muqali province’s jurisdiction in 1962. and Belgütei, whose descendants were Shigi Qutuqu’s The province’s current territory is entirely contained rivals as viceroy of North China and JARGHUCHI, suggest within KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Tüshiyetü as author a clerk who had apprenticed with Shigi Khan province. Before 1921 Chinese and Russians dwelt Qutuqu. The glorification of Mother Ö’elün suggests as farmers in the countryside and as traders and artisans links to the surviving entourage in her ORDO, or palace- in the border-town of KYAKHTA CITY (modern Altanbulag). tent, as well. To this day the province has a reputation for being “mon- grel” (erliiz). Buriat Mongols also immigrated into the TRANSMISSION OF THE TEXT border districts after 1920. After the fall of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in China, the The province’s 41,200 square kilometers (15,910 MING DYNASTY’s Bureau of Interpreters used the Secret His- square miles) cover branches of the wooded KHENTII tory and other texts as language-instruction material for RANGE and Büren Range surrounding the broad valleys of its interpreters, who needed only to speak, not write, the SELENGE RIVER, ORKHON RIVER, Kharaa River, and Mongolian. The Secret History was thus transcribed from Yöröö (Yeröö) River. Selenge’s population of 42,700 in the original UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT into a Chinese 1969 has expanded to 100,900 in 2000, making it the phonetic transcription and supplied with an interlinear third most populous province. The TRANS-MONGOLIAN and running translation. The full text, including the tran- RAILWAY was built across the province from the border scription, which virtually no Chinese could read, was town of Sükhebaatur to Ulaanbaatar in 1949. scrupulously preserved in a few copies until its final pub- Selenge has the smallest number of livestock of any lication by Ye Dehui in 1908. Succeeding scholarship by rural province, only 654,500 head, although the number F. W. Kotwicz, Erich Haenisch, Paul Pelliot, F. W. Cleaves, of cattle (108,500 head) is relatively high. Selenge is the Igor de Rachewiltz, Yekhe-Minggadai Irinchen, and oth- center of Mongolian agriculture, however, and during the ers has reconstructed the original Uighur-script text. In collectivization era was unique in being almost completely 1934 the Mongolian Institute of Science published the covered with state farms rather than collectives. In 2000 sole extant Uighur-script copy of the Secret History, con- Selenge produced 54 percent of Mongolia’s wheat, 15 per- taining about three-fourths of its life of Chinggis Khan, cent of its potatoes, and 20 percent of its vegetables. incorporated in the 17th-century Mongolian chronicle Originally, the province’s economic center was the ALTAN TOBCHI of Lubsang-Danzin. The 1934 reprinting border town of Kyakhta (renamed Altanbulag in 1921). was, however, rather sloppy, and the accuracy of the pre- Nearby Sükhebaatur city (23,400 inhabitants in 2002) served Mongolian text was not appreciated until a facsim- replaced Altanbulag after 1937 as the gateway to Russia ile version was published in 1990. The 1947 publication and the provincial capital, when a Russian railway of TSENDIIN DAMDINSÜREN’s literary paraphrase into mod- reached Naushki, just across the border. Selenge’s other ern CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MONGOLIAN began the reintroduction main city is Züünkharaa, on the Trans-Mongolian Rail- of the Mongolian people to this almost lost monument of way, with 17,200 people (2002). their literature, and since 1989 the Secret History has See also BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA; become a focal point of national unity for Mongolia and a CHINESE COLONIZATION; FARMING. symbol of ethnic pride for Mongols the world over. See also LITERATURE; MONGOLIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES. Selenge River (Selenga) The Selenge is Mongolia’s Further reading: Francis Woodman Cleaves, trans., only navigable river. Its watershed of 447,060 square Secret History of the Mongols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard kilometers (172,610 square miles) covers much of north- University Press, 1982); Igor de Rachewiltz, trans., The central Mongolia and most of south-central Buriatia in Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of Russia. the Thirteenth Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003); ———, The Selenge is formed by the confluence of the Ider, “Some Remarks on the Dating of the Secret History of the rising in the KHANGAI RANGE, and the Delgermörön (or Mongols,” Monumenta Serica 24 (1965): 185–205. Mörön), rising in the mountains west of LAKE KHÖWSGÖL. Its main tributaries include the EG RIVER (Egiin Gol) and Selenge province (Selenga) One of the original ORKHON RIVER in Mongolia and the Jida (Buriat, Zede), provinces created in Mongolia’s 1931 administrative reor- Chikoy (Buriat, Sükhe), Khilok (Buriat, Khyolgo), and ganization, Selenge was originally named Gazartariyalang, Uda (Buriat, Üde) in Russia’s BURIAT REPUBLIC before it or “Farmland,” referring to its most distinctive economic empties into LAKE BAIKAL. After the confluence with the 494 Seljüks Uda, the Selenge carries 910 cubic meters (32,136 cubic became passionate advocates of CONFUCIANISM. QIPCHAQS, feet) of water per second. From Lake Baikal to the Ider Qangli, QARLUQS, OSSETES, and Russians formed ethnic headwaters the Selenge-Ider system is 1,453 kilometers units within the imperial guard; these units allowed the (903 miles) long. Qipchaqs and Qangli to play major political roles. The Selenge valley is navigable up to Selenge Sum Tibetans were mostly Buddhist clerics, while Turkestanis (Bulgan province), north of Erdenet. Cargo ships first and Middle Easterners, both Muslim and Christian, plied the river between Mongolia and southern Siberia in served as ortoq merchants, financial officials, physicians, 1909. ULAN-UDE, the capital of Buriatia, is the largest city astronomers, and artisans. in the Selenge valley, with 370,400 inhabitants in 2000. With the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the semuren lost their privileged positions, and most eventu- Seljüks See TURKEY. ally assimilated into the Chinese. Only the Muslims, hav- ing a group identity buttressed by religion, remained distinct, forming the nucleus of the Hui (Chinese-speak- se-mu-jen See SEMUREN. ing Muslim) nationality today. See also AHMAD; ANIGA; ARIQ-QAYA; BAO’AN LANGUAGE semuren (se-mu-jen) Under the Mongols in China the AND PEOPLE; CHOSGI-ODSIR; DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND semuren constituted a class of immigrants lower than the PEOPLE; EL-TEMÜR; LIAN XIXIAN; ’PHAGS-PA; POLO, MARCO; Mongols in status but above the indigenous Chinese. SANGHA; SAYYID AJALL; TUTUGH. Throughout their empire the Mongols employed vari- Further reading: Chen Yuan, Western and Central ous peoples outside their own homeland both as officials Asians in China under the Mongols: Their Transformation and privileged ORTOQ (partner) merchants. In China these into Chinese, trans. Chien Hsing-hai and L. Carrington immigrants included UIGHURS (mostly Buddhists), Turkestani Goodrich (Los Angeles: Monumenta Serica, 1966); Igor Muslims, and Middle Easterners (Muslim and occasionally de Rachewiltz, “Turks in China under the Mongols: A Christian). Early in Mongol rule these immigrants were Preliminary Investigation of Turco-Mongol Relations in effectively tax exempt and shared in the privileges of the the 13th and 14th Centuries.” In China among Equals: Mongol ruling class. Ordinary immigrants soon lost their The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Cen- tax exemption, but other privileges remained. turies, ed. Morris Rossabi (Berkeley: University of Califor- During the YUAN DYNASTY in China QUBILAI KHAN nia Press, 1983), 281–310. imitated the four-class system of the Jin dynasty by for- malizing the division of the population into four classes: Mongols, semuren, Han (North Chinese), and southern- shahna See DARUGHACHI. ers. Semuren, meaning “various sorts,” designated all peo- ples who immigrated from the west of China. Two shamanism Shamans, both male and female, were the Sino-Inner Asian border peoples, the Tanguts and the traditional clergy of the Mongols up to the 16th century ÖNGGÜD, along with the NAIMAN of the Mongolian despite having sometimes to coexist with clergy of other plateau, were also considered semuren, but the KITANS and religions. Persecuted by the Buddhists during the SECOND Jurchens were assigned to the Han, or North Chinese, CONVERSION after 1575, they disappeared from many category along with the Koreans. areas of Mongolia, particularly in the central steppe area The semuren shared with the Mongols a number of of KHALKHA and central Inner Mongolia. Even so, rights. After 1270 these two groups monopolized the shamanism remains the dominant religion among the top administrative positions. The lower positions of western BURIATS, Daurs, Old BARGA, and DARKHAD and is DARUGHACHI (overseer) and surveillance commissioner also strong among the Khori Buriats. Shamans can also be were also restricted to Mongols or semuren of good fam- found less commonly among the Selenge Buriats, eastern ily. When the examination system was revived in 1315, INNER MONGOLIANS, and western Mongolian OIRATS. each ethnic class had an equal quota, which, given their small numbers, gave the semuren and the Mongols a SHAMANISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE tremendous advantage. Judicially, the semuren, like the Among the tribes of 12th-century Mongolia, shamans Mongols, retained the right to bear arms and to defend functioned both not only as healers and spirit mediums, themselves if attacked. Criminals of both classes were but as regular clergy with their own ranks, and even as exempt from tattooing. Slave ownership, a sign of privi- powerful chiefs. lege rare among the Chinese, was common among all Under the MONGOL EMPIRE the khans kept a whole semuren, although not so much as among Mongols. college of male shamans (Mongol, bö’e; Turkish, qam) Within the class of semuren each group had a distinc- who specialized in various functions. Some made astro- tive occupational profile. Uighurs, Tanguts, and the Öng- logical observations and could predict eclipses. SCAPULI- güd all played a major role in the civil bureaucracy due to MANCY and astrology were used to appoint favorable and their literacy and familiarity with Chinese culture. Many unfavorable days for nomadizings, make decisions about shamanism 495 wars, and divine the sources of troubles. Shamans youngest son, has also been seen as a case of politically presided over the regular calendrical ceremonies, such as motivated murder. the aspersions to heaven (TENGGERI) at the opening and The relations of the shamans with the clergy of non- closing of the mare milking season. Shamans supervised Mongol religions varied. Under the great khans of the the purification by fire of gifts intended for the great Mongol Empire and in the YUAN DYNASTY (1206/ lords and of anything that had been in the presence of 1271–1368), Christian priests of the Assyrian Church of the dead (see FIRE CULT). During war others performed the East (the Nestorians) performed calendrical rituals weather magic with the jada stone and brought snow- alongside the shamans; after 1260 Tibetan Buddhist storms and extreme cold. Only some shamans performed monks joined shamans at the ancestral temple worship. the meat offering and drummed the famous shamanic At the court of the Il-Khans and the other western seances that are now essential for any shaman. It was khanates, divination and astrology seem to have been undoubtedly these shamans who visited the sick and monopolized by the baqshis (teacher), a name usually dying and made ONGGHON figures to propitiate spirits used for Buddhist monks, and the shamans were not causing sickness. very important. With Islamization these baqshis disap- Female shamans (idughan) performed roles at court, peared or, in the GOLDEN HORDE and its successor states, but they seem to have been less important. They certainly left the court to practice among ordinary herders. Today participated in the fire purification ceremonies. A Russian among the KAZAKHS shamans are called baqsi, a direct chronicle mentions a witch (evidently a shamaness) com- descendant of the Mongol-era baqshi. manding a Mongol force at Ryazan’. The chief of the shamans was the beki, who was also RECENT SHAMANISM the genealogical senior member of a clan or tribe. Before From the 18th century much more information exists on CHINGGIS KHAN the bekis in some tribes, such as the shamanism. Accounts of Buddhist missionary activity in MERKID, Oirats, and Dörben, were, in fact, the real the 16th and 17th centuries supply little new information chiefs; the chief of the Oirats was a powerful weather about shamanism, save that the title of beki was replaced magician. (The term beki also meant “princess”; the by that of jaarin and that leading shamans still rode white connection between these two titles in uncertain.) The horses and had some form of organization. From the 18th bekis wore white clothes, rode a white horse, and would century, however, both ethnographic accounts and the be seated highest in the assembly and receive the offer- use of texts emanating from shamanist circles allow ings of the other chiefs. The beki himself served the ong- shamanism to be described in more detail. ghon, or spirit figurines, of the ancestors of the clan’s Shaman functions, even among the non-Buddhist ruling lineage. peoples, are much more limited than during empire times. In the MONGOL TRIBE the bekis were important but Astrology is no longer a shamanistic practice, and not great chiefs. The bekis Sacha and Quchar of the Mon- shamans play no role in casting horoscopes for babies, or gols’ ruling Kiyad (or BORJIGID) lineage helped Chinggis arranging marriages and funerals. Calendrical ceremonies, in his rise but then deserted him, so that in 1206 he such as the first fruits of mares’ milk and the OBOO cere- appointed a new beki, “Old Man Üsün,” from the Baarin mony in high summer, are also off-limits to shamans. line, a senior branch but by a different mother. While the Instead, shamans now specialize in healing and have a other shamans stayed behind the great khan’s palace- very ambivalent relation to the larger clan structure. tent, the bekis camped in front of it, and the KHAN made In shamanism souls or spirits are believed to be offerings to him on ritual occasions. The khan also per- detachable from the body both during and after life. If the formed divination by scapulimancy and prayed to soul leaves the body during life, serious illness or misfor- heaven on his own account. Genealogy alone could not tune may result, while if a person has died through vio- assure shamanic charisma. During Chinggis’s rise to lence or unfair treatment, the deceased soul can become around 1210, the most influential shaman was not a beki vengeful and cause illness. To heal the victim the shaman but the powerfully supernatural TEB TENGGERI of the begins a seance by calling down the spirits of his or her junior Qongqotan lineage. instruments, then making a meat offering to the spirits, The college of shamans at the imperial and princely followed by a dance with a drum. During this dance the courts played a powerful political role behind the shaman is possessed by a powerful ancestral spirit, thus scenes. According to observers such as WILLIAM OF becoming an ongghon. This possession is clear from the RUBRUCK, the shamans were always ready to account for noticeably different voice, gait, personality, and often untoward events by leveling accusations of witchcraft, extreme endurance and strength the medium exhibits particularly against women. Certainly during the later while the possession lasts. This powerful ancestral spirit succession conflicts there were frequent accusations of frequently gives oral instructions identifying the problem, witchcraft, which the shamans were capable of per- translated by an assistant. At the same time, however, the forming, detecting, and averting. The involvement of shaman’s trance is often seen as the shaman him-or herself shamans in the death of TOLUI, Chinggis Khan’s traveling on the drum to find the problem. The problem 496 shamanism are closely associated with, although not the same as, the masters or sovereigns of the land (gazar-un ezed/khad), who inhabit these same areas, and with the ultimate clan ancestors, such as “Lord Bull” (Bukha Noyon) of the Ekhired-Bulagad Buriats and Tsagaadai and the Tsankhi- lan of the widespread Sharanuud clan. These masters of the land are linked to the 99 gods (tenggeri), of whom they are children or messengers. Clan ancestors and shaman tutelary spirits, especially female ones, may also be associated with household gods such as the fire (see FIRE CULT) or with Mother Emegeljin, the name for the main ongghon in the YURT. Many shamans among the Mongols operated, how- ever, with an almost completely Buddhist cosmology. They are sometimes distinguished from the less Buddhist influenced shaman as yellow opposed to black (from the Buddhist “Yellow Faith”) or as white opposed to black. Among the Khori Buriats white-side and black-side shamans coexist as two different traditions often prac- ticed by a single shaman. While the black-side shamans use a drum and have an antlered cap, the white-side Ongghons in felt, metal, and wood and a shaman hat with shamans hold a dragon-headed staff (like that of the antlers, Buriat United Museum, Ulan-Ude (From Mongolian WHITE OLD MAN), ring a bell, and use the Buddhist om Arts and Crafts [1987]) mani padme hum chant. Their cap has eyes and fringe over the face but no antlers. Shamans among the KHORCHIN wear a special five-sided hat borrowed from usually involves some fault on the part of the victim that the services of the fierce Buddhist protector deities. provoked a supernatural punishment from the offended spirits, and the solution consists in ritually making up the MODERN SHAMANISM fault. Often, however,the shaman’s ancestral spirit must At first the revolutionary changes of the 20th century subdue the offending spirit before it accepts the ritual strengthened shamanism. Among the Buriats the 1905 reparation. revolution in Russia weakened the power of the eastern The shaman costume and equipment are a crucial Buriat upper class, which had supported the suppression part of his or her work. Generally based in the past on a of shamanism and the imposition of Buddhism. The leather caftan, the shaman’s cloak is a melange of extraor- czarist policy of official Christianization in western Buria- dinarily complex elements intended both for symbolic tia was also crippled by the revolution. purposes and to create an impressive magical effect. All From 1929 on, however, collectivization and antireli- costumes contain a mirror to reflect any evil and to allow gious attacks in Buriatia caused the death and imprison- the shaman to view the unseen. Many have snake figures ment of many shamans. In Mongolia the GREAT PURGE hanging from the armpits or back. The hat is usually struck the Buriats of Mongolia hard and swept away many crowned by antlers tied with khadags, or ceremonial shamans. In Russia a renewed wave of antireligious perse- scarves. Among the Buriats the face is covered by a cution around 1960 targeted, among others, Siberian fringe, and a skull cap is decorated with eyes. The shamans. In Inner Mongolia persecution of shamans was shaman’s large handheld drum is made of goatskin. sharpest from 1958 to 1962 and from 1964 to 1979. To become a shaman one must have an ancestral Since the religious revival of 1990 in Buriatia and spirit (Buriat, udkha) on either one’s father’s or mother’s Mongolia, shamanism has revived among the Buriats in side. The powerful ancestor spirit chooses a descendant particular as well as among the Darkhad. While shaman- through a shaman’s sickness, a strange disease that ism today is most widespread among the Buriats, the tra- sometimes resembles insanity and that cannot be cured ditional knowledge was not as well preserved there as until the person agrees to become a shaman and among the Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. receives initiation as a shaman. The Khori Buriats have a Khori Buriat shamans have gone to their kinsmen in system of ranks achieved through participation in a sha- Mongolia or the Buriats of Inner Mongolia to receive nar, or initiation ceremony, which can be repeated up to training. Buriat shaman costumes today usually do not nine times. include the leather caftan but instead consist of the The ancestor spirits of shamans, who are buried at Buriat-style deel, or robe (see CLOTHING AND DRESS), worn mountains and other landmarks (called barisa in Buriat), with the shaman’s hat and equipment. Sharab, “Busybody” 497 See also BANZAROV, DORZHI; BARIACH; DAUR LANGUAGE Jibzundamba Khutugtu was distinguished by the hon- AND PEOPLE; RELIGION; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL orific Erdeni, “Precious.” EMPIRE; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; YOGUR LANGUAGES The Jibzundamba Khutugtu’s Shangdzodba existed at AND PEOPLE. least as early as 1709, when it helped issue the law code Further reading: Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic KHALKHA JIRUM. It administered the secular affairs of the Techniques of Ecstasy (New York: Bollingen Foundation, Khutugtu’s “clerical and lay disciples,” while an abbot, or 1964); Caroline Humphrey, Shamans and Elders: Experi- khambo lama, administered purely religious affairs in ence, Knowledge, and Power among the Daur Mongols Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR). From 1723 the QING DYNASTY (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Jorma Partanen, court issued seals to the Shangdzodba. In 1767 the posi- “A Description of Buriat Shamanism,” Société Finno- tion of da-lama was created to assist the Shangdzodba in Ougrienne 51, no. 5 (1941): 1–34; Virlana Tkacz, with administering the GREAT SHABI (the Khutugtu’s personal Sayan Zhambalon and Wanda Phipps, Shanar: Dedication subjects). Ritual of a Buryat Shaman in Siberia (New York Parabola At its height from 1800 to 1865, the Erdeni Books, 2002). Shangdzodba directly controlled 55,000–90,000 head of the Khutugtu’s livestock, 90,000–115,000 “lay disciples” (serfs) in the Great Shabi with their personal herds, and Shangdu (Shang-tu, K’ai-p’ing, Xanadu) Shangdu, significant farmland. All these figures later declined, par- QUBILAI KHAN’s summer city, became the inspiration for ticularly the herd numbers, presumably sold to pay debts the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s famous to Chinese firms; a single such payment in 1900 reached poem Xanadu. In 1256 Prince Qubilai built Kaiping in 50,000 taels. From 1868 to 1909 the Shangdzodba also Inner Mongolia (near modern Zhenglan Qi), where he printed its own paper money (tiiz). It established monas- was elected great khan in 1260. During the ensuing war tic courses in various scripts (Mongolian, Tibetan, San- with ARIQ-BÖKE, Kaiping became Qubilai’s military head- skrit) and thangka painting as well as primary schools in quarters, while Yanjing (modern Beijing) served as his the Great Shabi. supply center. Kaiping was built in three quadrangles: During the THEOCRATIC PERIOD (1911–21) the Great the outer city of about 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) square, Shabi grew rapidly, and the Erdeni Shangdzodba was the large imperial city abutting the outer city’s south- made a separate ministry. Shangdzodba BADMADORJI west section, and the smaller palace city, slightly north became prime minister from 1915 to 1919, while the of the imperial city’s center. Buddhist monasteries Interior Ministry was headed by his da-lama, Tse- marked each corner of the imperial city. To the north ringchimed (1872–1914). the outer city’s wall enclosed a well-watered hunting After the 1921 REVOLUTION the Shangdzodba in 1923 park, where Qubilai built a collapsible cane palace was transformed into the elective administrator of the (Coleridge’s “stately pleasure dome”). Ordinary resi- Great Shabi as an administrative unit. In 1925, with the dents occupied the outer city’s southwest district and confiscation of the Jibzundamba’s property, the position the suburbs outside the gates. In 1263 Kaiping was of Shangdzodba was abolished. renamed Shangdu (Upper Capital). In 1272 Yanjing, See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST. now renamed DAIDU (Great Capital), became the preem- inent capital, but Shangdu retained its importance. The khan and a skeleton administrative staff resided there Shang-tu See SHANGDU. from May to September each year, conducting formal audiences at the Da’an Hall and performing rituals of Sharab, “Busybody” (Balduugiin Sharav) (1869–1939) sprinkling KOUMISS to heaven (TENGGERI) from the Court painter who transformed the traditional Mongolian khan’s herds of white horses. Shangdu was the site of all guru portraits before going on to create revolutionary cartoons the election assemblies (QURILTAI) through 1328. During and portraits the rebellions at the end of the Yuan dynasty, a column Sharab (or Lubsang-Sharab) was born the illegitimate son of rebels burned Shangdu in winter 1258–59. Gar- of Norjun, daughter of Balduu, in Zasagtu Khan banner risoned by the succeeding MING DYNASTY (1368–1644), (northeast Gobi-Altai province). His first tutor as a Bud- Shangdu was abandoned around 1430. dhist iconographer was Jantsan, a locally famous dogshin See also “LAMENT OF TOGHAN-TEMÜR.” (fierce) Buddha painter and sculptor. Sharab left for Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) at age Shangdzodba, Erdeni (Erdene Shandzowa) The 22. He ran with a crowd of wild Tibetan lamas and gam- treasurer, or Erdeni Shangdzodba (Tibetan shan-mdzod- bled heavily. He painted furniture and üichüür (playing pa), of the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU headed the single cards) but soon got a reputation as an untaught genius at most powerful economic institution of prerevolutionary painting portraits “more alike than a photograph,” Mongolia. A shangdzodba was a general term for both the painted either from life or memory. The Bogda (Holy estate and the steward of an INCARNATE LAMA; that of the One) commissioned several portraits of himself and his 498 Shatuo consort. Sharab several times dropped the portraits to go (2.7 pounds) in 1960 to around 1.4–1.5 kilograms off on gambling sprees, and the Bogda nicknamed him (3.1–3.3 pounds) in later decades. Mongolian sheep are “Busybody (Marzan) Sharab.” sheared mostly in late spring but sometimes in fall as Sharab mastered pencil and tush’ (a thick Russian well. The main use of the wool is for felt, although in the ink) and was inspired by both photographs and Chinese 20th century raw wool has became an important export ink paintings. His guru portraits combined mineral paints commodity. with ink and Buddhist canons and symbolism with real- Sheep are also milked, and ewes produce about ism. Like contemporary photographs, they often contain 36–39 kilograms (79–86 pounds) of milk over a milking a clock, an icon of modernity. His paintings of the Green season of 45–60 days. In milking sheep, two or three and Brown Palaces of the Bogda and of the Koumiss Festi- families camp at a short distance from one another, with val and Autumn pushed two traditional Buddhist genres, one taking all the lambs and the other taking all the ewes. the portrait of a holy place (Sharab also painted Lhasa) This separation prevents the lambs from exhausting the and the portrait of animal and human life in the wheel of milk during the day. Such partners are called saakhalt ail, samsara, in the direction of ethnographic realism. a term now used in Mongolia for neighbors. After the 1921 REVOLUTION Sharab became a printer, Mongolian mutton has a strong taste whose exact designing the masthead for periodicals such as the army properties are influenced by its pasture. In the WHITE magazine Uriya as well as Mongolian paper currency, MONTH (lunar new year) a whole sheep is boiled and medals, and other works. He illustrated printings of dressed on a platter. Called shüüs, “nutrition” (or in some translated works such as Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe dialects of Inner Mongolia bükhüli, whole), it is sur- and the traditional Indian Tales of the Bewitched Corpse. mounted by the head and the fat tail, which is a delicacy He also painted portraits of Lenin, GENERAL SÜKHE- offered to honored guests. BAATUR, Prime Minister TSERINDORJI, and other foreign Sheep are generally herded together with GOATS in and domestic revolutionaries. His last known work was a Mongolia, since the goats’ greater initiative can be valu- glossary of folk designs and decorative motifs produced able in finding the sheep good grazing and dealing with in 1935. bad weather and predators. For this reason traditional The value of Sharab’s works was not recognized in counts did not distinguish sheep and goats. A unique, the years after the persecution of Buddhism. Few of his early census in 1188 shows sheep and goats together works have survived, many only in retouched or copied accounted for 59 percent of the animals kept in eastern form. Inner Mongolia. In the 19th century, as the number of See also JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, EIGHTH; REVOLU- horses declined, that of sheep, GOATS, and CATTLE TIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. increased. In eastern Mongolia in 1835 sheep and goats Further reading: C. R. Bawden, trans., Tales of an Old formed 64 percent of the total herd. In 1924 Mongolia Lama (Tring, U.K.: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1997); had 10,649,200 sheep and goats, forming 77 percent of N. Tsultem, Development of the Mongolian National Style the total herd. By 1929 sheep alone were 67 percent and Painting “Mongol Zurag” in Brief (Ulaanbaatar: State Pub- goats another 15 percent of Mongolia’s livestock, as lishing House, 1986). herders responded to the powerful export demand for wool. Shatuo See ÖNGGÜD. The subsequent removal of Mongolia from the world market lowered the demand for sheep, whose numbers throughout the 1950s remained around 12.6–12.8 mil- Shav’ See GREAT SHABI. lion, or 54–56 percent of all livestock. During the suc- ceeding decades sheep numbers increased by 1990 to sheep Sheep are economically the most important part 15,083,000 head, or 58 percent, while wool production of Mongolian pastoral nomadism and thus play the same rose from 15,200 metric tons (16,755 short tons) in 1960 foundational role in Mongolian civilization as does rice in to 21,100 (23,259 short tons) in 1990 and mutton and Japan and corn in Mexico. Mutton is Mongolia’s main goat’s meat from 96,200 metric tons to 132,300 (106,042 meat; sheep milk is used for TEA and cheeses; sheepskins to 145,836 short tons). Despite the reopening of the line winter clothes; and sheep wool forms the felt cover- Mongolian economy after 1990, the demand for wool was ing Mongolian yurts. In 2000 Mongolia had a total of low compared to that for CASHMERE, and sheep numbered 13,876,400 sheep, or almost six per person. only 15,191,300 head (45 percent of all livestock) in Traditional Mongolian sheep have massive, fat-filled 1999 before two disastrous winters in 2000 and 2001 tails, floppy ears, and coarse or semicoarse wool. Annual sharply cut their numbers. Sheep are herded all over the wool yields range from 1–1.4 kilograms (2.2–3.1 pounds) country, but have particularly high numbers in ZAWKHAN for ewes to 1.6–2.0 kilograms (3.5–4.4 pounds) for rams. PROVINCE, SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE, and CENTRAL In recent decades the amount of wool supplied annually PROVINCE. EASTERN PROVINCE’s herd is unusually heavy in per head of sheep has ranged from around 1.2 kilograms sheep, while they are unusually few in SOUTH GOBI Shii Tianze 499 PROVINCE, BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE, and GOBI-ALTAI rape of his wife BÖRTE ÜJIN. It gives little emphasis to PROVINCE. Chinggis’s family or companions (NÖKOR). Its chronology In China and Russia the governments pushed and its account of the conquest of North China are, how- herders in ethnic Mongol regions to focus on sheep to ever, far more accurate. feed the textiles industry. In 1947 in Inner Mongolia The Mongolian original was apparently the text sheep numbered 3,426,000, or 43 percent of the Mongols’ known as the Shilu (Veritable records), presented to QUBI- traditional “five livestock” (HORSES, cattle, CAMELS, sheep, LAI KHAN (1260–94) by his minister of education Sarman goats). By 1965 the number of sheep shot up to (or Sarban) in 1288. The khan demanded revisions of the 20,174,000 (49 percent). By 1990, as the absolute num- later reigns, and revised records on Ögedei were pre- bers of livestock showed only a moderate increase, those sented by Sarman and an assistant, Uru’udai, in 1290. of sheep soared further to 27,343,000, or 60 percent. The These records appear to have been originally composed dominance of sheep was even more extreme in Russia’s in the SQUARE SCRIPT but were later at Sarman’s request BURIAT REPUBLIC, the AGA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS AREA, and allowed to be transcribed into the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN the KALMYK REPUBLIC. In Russia desertification, an end to SCRIPT. A final version of the first five reigns’ Veritable centralized planning, and a general economic depression Records was presented in 1303. The veritable records of brought a partial shift back toward subsistence-oriented Qubilai and his successors were later compiled in much herding. A similar or even greater ecological disaster greater detail, but they do not survive except as incorpo- seems ongoing in Inner Mongolia, but the Chinese rated in the Yuan shi. The reason for the name change authorities have not yet reconsidered the stress on com- from Veritable Records to Campaigns Led by the Lawgiving mercialized sheep ranching. Warrior (that is, Chinggis) is unclear. State-directed commercial sheep farming has also The translation into Chinese of the Shengwu, involved the creation of fine-haired and semifine-haired together with that of the YUAN DYNASTY’s Shisan chao shilu sheep breeds, such as Mongolia’s Orkhon semifine-wool (Veritable records of the thirteen reigns), was rushed breed, Inner Mongolia’s Aohan and Ordos fine-wool through in 1369 as part of the succeeding MING DYNASTY breeds, and the Transbaikal fine-wool breed. Karakul editors’ compilation of YUAN SHI (History of the Yuan). By sheep have also been introduced into the Mongolian Gobi comparison with parallel passages in Rashid-ud-Din, the and Inner Mongolia’s ORDOS, ALASHAN, and BAYANNUUR Chinese translators can be demonstrated to have misun- LEAGUE areas. derstood the Mongolian at several points. Many of the See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; DAIRY Mongolian names were further mangled in transmission, PRODUCTS; DESERTIFICATION AND PASTURE DEGRADATION; leaving many difficult problems to be worked out by FOOD AND DRINK. Wang Guowei, Paul Pelliot, and others. Overshadowed Further reading: B. Minzhigdorj and B. Erdenebaatar, by the more dramatic and better preserved Secret History, “Why Mongolians Say Sheep Herders Are Lucky,” Nomadic the Shengwu has not received the attention it deserves as Peoples, 33 (1993): 47–50; Ts. Namkhainyambuu, Bounty a monument of Mongolian historiography. from the Sheep: Autobiography of a Herdsman, trans. Mary Rossabi (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 2000). Shera Yogur See YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. Sheng-wu ch’in-cheng lu See SHENGWU QINZHENG LU. Shigi Qutuqu See QUTUQU, SHIGI. Shengwu qinzheng lu (Sheng-wu ch’in-cheng lu; Cam- Shih-mo Hsien-te-pu See SHIMO MING’AN AND XIAN- paigns of Genghis Khan) The Shengwu qinzheng lu is a DEBU. Chinese translation of the lost Mongolian chronicle that also formed a basic source for RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL- Shih-mo Ming-an See SHIMO MING’AN AND XIANDEBU. ULLAH’s COMPENDIUM OF CHRONICLES (c. 1304) and the first chapter of the Chinese YUAN SHI (1370). Shih T’ien-tse See SHII T’IEN-TSE. The Shengwu text as we have it today begins with the birth of CHINGGIS KHAN and continues to the death of his son ÖGEDEI KHAN in 1241. The Mongolian original, Shih-wei See SHIWEI. however, probably had chapters on the history of Alan Gho’a, Bodonchar, and the subjugation of the JALAYIR, Shii Tianze (Shih T’ien-tse) (1202–1275) Chinese gen- accounts preserved in the Compendium of Chronicles and eral who helped conquer North China for the Mongols and the Yuan shi. Compared to the SECRET HISTORY OF THE helped defend Qubilai Khan’s rule MONGOLS, the Shengwu is much more an official history, When the Mongols invaded the JIN DYNASTY burying discreditable incidents of Chinggis’s early his- (1115–1234) then ruling North China, the Shii family tory, such as his murder of his brother Begter and the of Yongqing county in northern Hebei was a wealthy 500 Shiliin Gol landlord family, unintellectual but used to taking the and ingenious AHMAD FANAKATI showed Shii in a bad lead in famine relief and assisting persons of quality in light, and Qubilai dismissed him in 1268. Even so, he distress. When the great Mongol general MUQALI gave Shii a large role in the siege of Xiangyang (modern reached Hebei in 1213, the clan patriarch, Shii Bingzhi Xiangfan) and command of the final attack on the Song. (1150–1220), led several thousand to surrender to the Due to illness, however, BAYAN CHINGSANG replaced him, Mongols. Muqali married the patriarch’s daughter, and and he died on March 5, 1275. His sons and cousins held Bingzhi’s eldest son, Tianni (1187–1225), joined a wide variety of high offices until the 1320s. Muqali’s army, receiving a golden tiger PAIZA in 1215. In Further reading: C. C. Hsiao, “Shih T’ien-tse,” in In 1220 the Jin dynasty general Wu Xian surrendered the the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early major city Zhending (in Hebei province) to Muqali, who Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz made Tianni garrison commander for West Hebei along et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 27–45. with Wu Xian. Five years later Wu Xian revolted and killed Tianni. The Mongols confirmed Tianze, then in Shiliin Gol (Shili-yin Gool, Xilingol, Xilinguole) Tra- Yanjing (modern Beijing), in his elder brother’s com- ditionally the most isolated and nomadic area of China’s mand and helped him retake Zhending, driving Wu INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION, Shiliin Gol league Xian south and pacifying West Hebei by 1226. now includes part of the old CHAKHAR district as well. In 1229 ÖGEDEI KHAN made Shii Tianze one of the Before 1958 Shiliin Gol referred to the ÜJÜMÜCHIN, first three Chinese myriarchs (commander of 10,000), Abaga (Abag), and Sönid banners along the border of and Shii joined both the final campaign against the Jin KHALKHA (Outer) Mongolia. In 1990 these banners, along dynasty and the first, inconclusive Mongol campaigns with the new cities of Shiliin Khot (Xilinhot) and against the Song. Shii’s advocacy also secured limitations Ereenkhot (Erlian or Erenhot), had an area of 174,100 on interest paid on silver loans and a clearer separation of square kilometers (67,220 square miles) and a population civil and military households among the Han (ethnic of 407,000, of which 181,100, or about 45 percent, were Chinese). More cultured than most of his Chinese mili- Mongol. The countryside is almost entirely devoted to tary colleagues, Shii cultivated modest literary achieve- animal husbandry and has 5,651,200 head of livestock, of ments in his middle age, studying the famous history which 4,727,400 are SHEEP and GOATS. Shiliin Gol’s Mon- Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive mirror in aid of govern- gols are nomadic or seminomadic, supplementing YURTS ment) of Sima Guang (1019–86) and trying his hand at with mud-brick houses. Mining, including coal and oil, is poetry and vernacular drama. the other important industry. In 1958 Shiliin Gol and In 1252 MÖNGKE KHAN, on the advice of his brother Chakhar leagues merged; in 1990 the resulting adminis- Qubilai, made Shii Tianze expeditionary commissioner trative unit had an area of 200,600 square kilometers for Henan and added Weyzhou to his appanage. Since (77,450 square miles) and a population of 888,047, of 1244 Qubilai had interviewed many scholars from which 254,797, or less than 30 percent were Mongol. Zhending and was familiar with Shii. Shii’s new alliance with Qubilai involved him in the rivalry between HISTORY Möngke’s officials, led by ‘Alam-Dar, and Qubilai’s. Thus In the 16th century the banners of modern Shiliin Gol although Shii was serving with Möngke’s army in Sichuan were part of the Chakhar tümen. In 1627 many princes, when the khan died (August 1259), he immediately including those of Sönid, Üjümüchin, and Ongni’ud, threw his support behind Qubilai. revolted against Chakhar’s LIGDAN KHAN (1604–34) and On QUBILAI KHAN’s coronation in 1260 he rewarded fled north to Khalkha. In 1637, after the new Manchu Shii with 15,000 taels of silver, military and civil control QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) had defeated Ligdan, they of Henan, and a position as grand councillor in the new and other former Chakhar princes submitted to the Qing Secretariat (1261). Shii participated in the battle of and received territory in modern Shiliin Gol, The Ong- Shimu’ultu Na’ur (Mosquito Lake, November 1261) ni’ud were renamed Abaga and Abaganar (uncles) ban- against Qubilai’s brother and rival ARIQ-BÖKE and com- ners; their rulers were descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s manded the suppression of LI TAN’S REBELLION (1262). By brother Belgütei. Shiliin Gol was eventually organized this time rivals suggested the Shii family’s combined civil- into a league (chigulgan) with 10 BANNERS (appanages): military power was no less threatening than Li Tan’s. two each of Üjümüchin, Khuuchid, Abaganar, Abaga, and Qubilai at one point even contemplated interrogating Shii Sönid. (The Khuuchid banners were merged with Tianze, but Shii wisely ordered his family members in Üjümüchin after 1945.) 1262 to choose military or civilian posts. In one day they Although the Shiliin Gol banners were forced into resigned 17 military commands. submission to the Republic of China in 1915, they In the central government, however, Shii became vice remained virtually untouched by the modern Inner Mon- commissioner in the Bureau of Military Affairs in 1264 golian nationalist movement. However, Sönid Right Ban- while still holding his position as grand councillor in the ner’s PRINCE DEMCHUGDONGRUB (Prince De, 1902–66) Secretariat. Clashes over fiscal policy with the articulate became leader of Inner Mongolia’s autonomous move- Shirendew, Bazaryn 501 ment after 1933 and led central Inner Mongolia, includ- reformed the administration and denounced Shimo Xian- ing Shiliin Gol, under the Japanese occupation of debu’s administration as brutal and corrupt. Xiandebu 1937–45. The modest educational initiatives under appealed to the Mongol royal family, but the new Prince De’s rule were destroyed first by the Soviet-Mon- emperor, ÖGEDEI KHAN, backed up Yelü Chucai. Xiandebu golian invasion and subsequent plunder, and then by a was dismissed in 1230. savage civil war between pro-Chinese Communist Mon- See also ZHONGDU, SIEGES OF. gols under ULANFU and anticommunist guerrillas led by the Buriat refugee Irinchindorji. The Communists exe- Shinekhen Buriats See BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND cuted the last rebel leaders in 1952. INNER MONGOLIA. After 1952 the new city Shiliin Khot developed at the old Bandida Gegeen Hermitage (Beizi Miao) as an admin- istrative center, while Saikhan Tal and Ereenkhot devel- Shirendew, Bazaryn (Shirendyb, Shirendev) oped as railway towns on the TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAILWAY. (1912–2001) High-ranking official in culture and educa- In 1982 Shiliin Khot’s built-up area had a population of tion and long-term president of the Academy of Sciences about 66,200, while Saikhantala had 20,500 and Shirendew was born on May 14, 1912, the sixth of 13 Eriyenkhota more than 7,200 inhabitants. Drought and children, in Dalai Choinkhor Wang banner (modern locusts hit Shiliin Gol hard from 1999 to 2002, drawing Shine Ider Sum, Khöwsgöl). In 1923 Shirendew was attention to serious desertification and pasture degrada- made a lama but ran away twice until his father hired tion. By January 2002, 14,691 Mongol herders had been him out as a herder. In 1928 Shirendew became a student relocated from the Shiliin Gol steppes as part of the Chi- of Choisdoo, the local party representative, who first nese government’s “ecological migration” (shengtai yimin) started him on the path of becoming a cadre. After politi- program. cal schools and practicums in collectivization and strug- See also INNER MONGOLIANS; MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. gle, Shirendew from 1932 attended a special Mongolian Further reading: Ou Li, Rong Ma, and James R. preparatory cause in Verkhneudinsk (modern ULAN-UDE) Simpson, “Changes in the Nomadic Pattern and Its and then the Irkutsk Pedagogical Institute. While there Impact on the Inner Mongolian Steppe Grasslands he married a Russian woman, Zina. They had two sons Ecosystem,” Nomadic Peoples 33 (1993): 63–72. and a daughter. In 1941, on his return to Mongolia, he was made a “referent,” or reference assistant, digesting news, infor- Shili-yin Gool See SHILIIN GOL. mation, and books for MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG. In 1945–46 he interpreted for Choibalsang at several meet- Shimo Ming’an (1164–1216) and Xiandebu (Shih- ings with Joseph Stalin. From 1944 to 1948 he served as mo Ming-an and Hsien-te-pu) (fl. 1216–1230) Kitan secretary of the party Central Committee’s propaganda defectors who served Chinggis Khan as strategists and offi- department until he was blamed for continued popular cials in North China dissatisfaction with government policies and dismissed. Shimo Ming’an, from a prominent Kitan family, lived in He maintained his position in education, however, serv- Fuzhou, Inner Mongolia. Under the JIN DYNASTY ing as rector of the Mongolian State University (1944–54) (1115–1234) he served as envoy to the northern nomads, and minister of education (1951–54). becoming acquainted with CHINGGIS KHAN. In 1212, at After Marshal Choibalsang’s death in 1954 Shirendew the BATTLE OF HUAN’ERZUI, the Jin commander sent him became a full Politburo member and first deputy prime as messenger to denounce the Mongol invaders. After the minister. While chairing the special commission for battle Shimo Ming’an announced his desire to serve the reevaluating the Stalin-era purges, the maximum leader, Mongols and helped subjugate the area of Xijing (modern YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL, tried to arrest him as a spy. Datong). Chinggis Khan wished to rest after these border Warned by the party general secretary, DASHIIN DAMBA, victories, but Shimo Ming’an warned him that Jin Shirendew withdrew from government work and resources, once mobilized, were inexhaustible and defended a doctorate in Far Eastern studies at the Soviet encouraged him to invade the North China plain, where Academy of Sciences in 1957–60. In July 1960 he became military skills had long ago atrophied. In 1215 Shimo head of Mongolia’s Institute of Sciences and Higher Edu- Ming’an won merit in the siege of the Jin capital, cation, which was expanded into the ACADEMY OF SCI- Zhongdu (modern Beijing), always striving to moderate ENCES in 1961. Shirendew’s efforts to make it a genuine Mongol treatment of the defeated. Chinggis Khan scientific academy pursuing original research in all fields appointed him DARUGHACHI (overseer) and JABAR KHOJA conflicted with Tsedenbal’s agenda of having the academy administrator of the city. When Ming’an died in 1216, his simply apply the results of Soviet research to Mongolia. eldest son, Shimo Xiandebu, succeeded him. Xiandebu’s With Tsedenbal’s increasing authoritarianism, the party administration was marred by brigandage and rebellions. Politburo dismissed Shirendew from all positions in After Chinggis Khan’s death in 1227, YELÜ CHUCAI 1981, and shortly afterward his wife, Zina, died. In 1991, 502 Shiwei after democratization, the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLU- sheep, excelled in sledding, skiing, and reindeer herding, TIONARY PARTY reversed its criticism, and Shirendew pub- and tried to have as little as possible to do with the lished his memoirs and a historical novel about the 1921 steppe Mongols (see ALTAI URIYANGKHAI; TUVANS). While REVOLUTION before his death on March 8, 2001. the tribes around LAKE BAIKAL were Mongolic speaking, See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; SOVIET UNION those to the west spoke Turkic, Samoyedic, or Kettic AND MONGOLIA. (Paleo-Siberian) languages. Further reading: Bazaryn Shirendev, Through the In 1207 CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) sent his Ocean Waves, trans. Temujin Onon (Bellingham: Western eldest son, JOCHI, to subjugate the forest tribes from the Washington University Press, 1997). Barga east of the Baikal to the Bashkirs (Bashkort) near the Urals. He then organized the Siberians into three tümens, or 10,000 households. Chief Qutuqa Beki of the Shiwei (Shih-wei) The Shiwei, although little known, OIRATS, dwelling in the Shishigt valley, surrendered, and have been considered the ancestors of the Mongols. The Chinggis made him a myriarch (commander of a tümen) Shiwei first appear in Chinese records in the fifth century and gave his daughter Checheyiken to Qutuqa’s son. The occupying the HULUN BUIR, Ergüne (Argun’), Nonni Yenisey Kyrgyz of Khakassia (ancestors of the modern (Nen), middle Amur, and Zeya watersheds; they were Khakas and of uncertain relation to the Kyrgyz of modern divided into five to 20 tribes. They collected scanty har- Kyrgyzstan) also surrendered and were numbered as a vests of wheat and millet and kept pigs, dogs, oxen, and a tümen. Chinggis gave the Telengit and Tölös along the small number of horses, but no sheep. Sable skins were Irtysh River (ancestors of the modern Altay nationality) their chief articles of trade. Wintering in marshy low- to an old companion, Qorchi, of the Baarin clan. Together lands and summering in mountains, they lived in huts of with Qorchi’s original three Ba’arin 1,000s, this made bent branches covered by skins or pelts or in trees in the Qorchi commander of a third Siberian tümen. Other peo- summer to escape mosquitos. Burial was by exposure on ples, such as the BARGA, Tumad, BURIATS, and Khori in the arboreal platforms. Their language is variously described east, the Keshtimi in the center, and the Bashkirs to the as similar to Kitan and Qai (Chinese, Xi), that is, Mon- west, were organized in separate 1,000s. golic, or as similar to Mohe (Malgal or Mukri), that is, For tribute, gerfalcons and furs were the chief things Manchu-Tungusic. the Mongols valued in Siberia, although Kyrgyz horses The first Türk dynasty (552–630) installed tuduns, or were also famous. Since gerfalcons nested only near the governors, over the Shiwei and collected tribute. From Arctic Ocean, the Mongols and their tributaries made reg- 631 to at least 850, despite occasional conflicts, they pre- ular expeditions all the way to the northern shores of sented sable skins to the Tang. One Shiwei tribe, living Siberia. The Mongol khans did not regard this tribute as south of the Ergüne and Amur Rivers, was called (in Chi- enough, however, and regularly demanded labor service nese) “Mengwu,” that is, Mongghol. Some scholars and harem girls from the forest peoples. A Tumad rebel- believe they and other Shiwei moved west from 850 on to lion broke out in 1217, when Chinggis Khan allowed become ancestors of the steppe Mongols. Other Shiwei Qorchi to seize 30 Tumad maidens. Dense forest and nar- who stayed in the forest have been identified as ancestors row mountain paths covered their territory along the of the EWENKIS. While the earlier Shiwei did not know Angara, and the Tumads captured Qutuqa Beki and killed ironworking, a later “Black-Cart” Shiwei tribe, probably Boroghul, one of Chinggis Khan’s “four steeds,” before living in east-central Inner Mongolia, were master iron- Dörbei the Fierce of the Dörbed clan smashed them and workers. The KITANS conquered these and other Shiwei freed Qutuqa Beki. from 885 to 905. Despite the cold, Chinggis Khan settled a successful See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; MONGOLIC LAN- colony of Chinese craftsmen and farmers at Kem-Kem- GUAGE FAMILY. chik in the Tuvan basin. As the empire broke up in 1260, the Yenisey Kyrgyz and the colony at Kem-Kemchik Siberia and the Mongol Empire The demand for fal- became objects of contention between QUBILAI KHAN cons and furs from the “Peoples of the Forest” brought (1260–94) of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY and his enemies. Mongol conquerors north to the Arctic. In 1262 ARIQ-BÖKE, cut off by Qubilai’s blockade, tried to The peoples of the Mongolian steppe had long main- use the colony at Kem-Kemchik as his base. After Ariq- tained intimate relations with the peoples of the Siberian Böke’s defeat Qubilai Khan sent a Chinese official, Liu taiga (forest). They called those in the forest “People of Haoli, with a new batch of colonists to serve as judge of the Forest” (Oi-yin Irged), but this term covered a wide the Kyrgyz and Tuvan basin areas in 1270. From 1275 on, range of peoples, many of whom were little different however, QAIDU KHAN, another rival, occupied central from the steppe Mongol people. The BARGA (Barghu), Siberia. In 1293 Qubilai’s Qipchaq general TUTUGH reoc- east of Lake Baikal, were like the Mongols except for cupied the Kyrgyz lands, severing one of Qaidu’s impor- keeping reindeer. Others, such as the “Forest” tant supply bases. From then on the Yuan controlled Uriyangkhai, lived in wigwams of birchbark, detested central Siberia. Sino-Soviet alliance 503 Western Siberia came under the eastern, or BLUE the outskirts of Dolonnuur (modern Duolun), Pangjiang, HORDE, of the GOLDEN HORDE. Ruled by the descendants of Erfenzi, Batu-Khaalga (Bailingmiao), Dashetai, and Ulaan Jochi’s eldest son, Hordu, this area was isolated and conser- Oboo. The lack of artillery was their great weakness. The vative. In the swamps of western Siberia, dogsled JAM (post) armies’ base camps in Shiliin Gol and Ulaanchab were stations were set up to facilitate collection of tribute in open steppe areas with few resources, and lack of ammu- sable, ermine, black fox, and other furs. With the breakup nition and provisions from Mongolia caused hardship to of the by-then Islamic and Turkish-speaking Golden Horde the soldiers and frequent pillaging of the locals. One late in the 14th century, a Siberian khanate was formed Mongolian commander, Duke Nasun’arbijikhu of with its center at Tyumen’ (from Mongol tümen, 10,000). Khorchin Left-Flank Rear (Horqin Zuoyi Houqi), The non-Chinggisid Taybughid dynasty (probably KEREYID deserted to the Chinese in the middle of the campaign. in origin) vied for rule with the descendants of Shiban, Despite the mission of the Sain Noyan Khan Nam- Jochi’s fifth son, until Russian Cossacks drove out the last nangsürüng (1878–1919) to St. Petersburg in October, Shibanid khan, Kuchum, in 1582. Qorchi’s Baarin tümen, Russia refused to support Mongolia’s war against China moving south to the Tianshan Mountains and assimilating and on October 28 sent a telegram ordering the cam- nomads from the Blue Horde, formed the nucleus of the paign to stop. This threat and the cold and shortage of modern Kyrgyz of Kyrgzstan. Even today, the Kyrgyz’s dom- supplies finally forced the Khalkha and BARGA militia- inant clan, the Taghai, is named after Qorchi’s son. men and commanders to withdraw. This withdrawal was Further reading: Allen Frank, The Siberian Chronicles formalized in 1915 by the KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY. and the Taybughid Biys of Sibi’r (Bloomington, Indiana The locally recruited soldiers were disbanded and sent University, 1994). home with their rifles to trouble western Inner Mongolia as duli (independence) bandits for years to come. Babu- jab refused to recognize the treaty, and his band dis- Sinkiang See XINJIANG MONGOLS. turbed the Sino-Mongolian frontier until 1917. The Sino-Mongolian War left Mongolia with a burdensome Sino-Mongolian War The Sino-Mongolian War of debt to Russia, payments of which reached 332,000 gold 1913 ended inconclusively, with the Mongolian army rubles in 1916, more than a fifth of the total central gov- forced to withdraw from Inner Mongolia by Russian pres- ernment expenditures. sure. After the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian indepen- See also THEOCRATIC PERIOD. dence, eventually 35 of the 49 banners (appanages) of Further reading: Tatsuo Nakami, “Babujab and His Inner Mongolia expressed some form of support. On Uprising: Re-examining the Inner Mongol Struggle for August 20, 1912, after receiving arms from the Mongo- Independence,” Memoirs of the Research Department of the lian government, the eastern Inner Mongolian Prince Toyo Bunko 57 (1999): 137–153. Utai (c. 1859–1920) of KHORCHIN Right-Flank Front Ban- ner (Horqin Youyi Qianqi) attacked Chinese towns in Jirim territory but by September 12 had retreated in dis- Sino-Soviet alliance The Sino-Soviet alliance from order to Outer Mongolian territory. Togtakhu Taiji’s 1949 to 1960 reduced Mongolia’s border tensions and simultaneous attack on Chinese towns was also defeated. offered the prospect of Chinese economic assistance but After receiving a promise of immediate supply of did not challenge the country’s fundamentally pro-Soviet Russian arms and trainers in January 1913, the Mongo- orientation. lian government on January 23 ordered the neighboring The Sino-Soviet alliance was formed after the Chi- Inner Mongolian SHILIIN GOL and ULAANCHAB leagues to nese Communist ruler Mao Zedong proclaimed the Peo- mobilize 2,000 troops, and in February the commanders ple’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949. The alliance set out from Khüriye (ULAANBAATAR). In summer 1913 became strained when the Russian leader Nikita the troops advanced toward Linxi, Dolonnuur (Duolun), Khrushchev gave his famous de-Stalinization speech on Zhangjiakou (Kalgan), Guisui (HÖHHOT), and the Urad February 24–25, 1956, criticizing Joseph Stalin. Relations banners. Virtually all the commanders were Inner Mon- grew more strained during the Chinese Great Leap For- golian: the Monggoljin (modern Fuxin) bandit Babujab ward (1958–61), when Mao Zedong rejected the Soviet (d. 1916), GRAND DUKE DAMDINSÜRÜNG of New Barga development strategy and became hostile after the Soviet (Xin Barag), and others. The soldiery was a core of Union abruptly recalled all its advisers in China in 1960. KHALKHA and Inner Mongolian militiamen supplemented While the younger members of Mongolia’s govern- by many mixed Chinese and Mongolian bandits who ment were optimistic about relations with the new China, fought for the Russian rifles and pay supplied by the Mongolia’s ruler MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG (1895–1952) had Mongolian government. The five columns totaled about no such confidence. Informed by Stalin, he knew that 7,000–8,000 men with rifles and five cannons. even before proclaiming his new government in 1949 At their furthest advance the Mongolian soldiers Mao Zedong had vainly requested that the Soviet Union occupied Linxi, Kheshigten (Hexigten) Banner, Jingpeng, allow the reunification of Inner and Outer Mongolia as 504 Sino-Soviet split part of the People’s Republic. Thus, despite mutual recog- See also CHINA AND MONGOLIA; SOVIET UNION AND nition on October 6, 1949, there was no warmth. MONGOLIA. Choibalsang felt insulted by the choice in July 1950 of an Inner Mongolian revolutionary, rather than a real diplo- Sino-Soviet split The rupture of the previous SINO- mat, as China’s first ambassador. SOVIET ALLIANCE in 1960 and the increasingly hostile rela- In 1952, after Choibalsang’s death, Sino-Soviet-Mon- tions between Mongolia’s two giant neighbors pushed golian relations warmed considerably, and the new Mon- Mongolia into a materially profitable dependence on the golian premier YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL visited Beijing in Soviet Union. October. On September 15, 1952, the Soviet Union, In 1960 Sino-Mongolian relations ostensibly flour- Mongolia, and China signed an agreement to build the ished, with Chinese premier Zhou Enlai’s visit to Ulaan- TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAILWAY, which entered operation on baatar on May 27–June 1 and the signing of a Treaty of January 1, 1956. A Sino-Mongolian economic assistance Friendship and Mutual Assistance. Zhou Enlai wooed agreement of early 1955 allowed Chinese guest workers Mongolia with the promise of a loan of 200 million to enter Mongolia and, if they so chose, to reside perma- rubles, a steel plant, and a new batch of Chinese guest nently and apply for Mongolian citizenship. Chinese workers. Despite the speculation of some outside “Mon- workers built roads, bridges (including ULAANBAATAR’s golia watchers,” there was never any “pro-Chinese” lobby Peace Bridge over the Dund Gol River), a hydroelectric in the Mongolian government. Mongolian premier YUM- power plant at Kharkhorin (ancient QARA-QORUM), and JAAGIIN TSEDENBAL took the loan but refused the steel mill apartment blocks in Ulaanbaatar. The number of work- and the additional Chinese workers. (The Chinese loans ers reached 13,150 in May 1961, although most left in were immediately matched by much more generous 1962–63. Still, Chinese monetary assistance was smaller Soviet ones). Meanwhile, as Sino-Soviet ties deteriorated, than that of the Soviet Union, while China’s share of Mongolia quietly liquidated outstanding issues. In May Mongolian trade did not begin to match that of the 1962 existing Chinese guest workers began departing, Soviet Union. Secure between two friendly powers, Mon- leaving only 12 of the 32 planned projects completed. golia let defense spending fall to less than 6 percent of its Aiming to isolate India for its intransigence, China con- budget in 1958, compared with more than 36 percent a ceded virtually every controversial issue to Mongolia in decade earlier. the border treaty signed on December 26, 1962, during Connections with Inner Mongolia also became impor- Tsedenbal’s last visit to Beijing. Even so, Tsedenbal point- tant. The Chinese Communists’ Inner Mongolian leader edly made a toast to the Soviet Union at the state dinner. ULANFU led large delegations to Mongolia in 1954 and Border demarcation was completed in June 1964. 1958. In spring 1957 Mongolia opened a consulate in the In June 1964 Mongolia’s leadership publicized its Inner Mongolian capital of HÖHHOT, and many families criticism of China’s policy, while in the next month the were reunited. The prestige of Mongolian culture remained supreme Chinese leader, Mao Zedong, complained to high in Inner Mongolia, and from 1955 to 1958 Inner Japanese journalists of how the Soviet Union’s domina- Mongolia planned to introduce CYRILLIC-SCRIPT MONGO- tion of Mongolia had stolen it from China. In reaction to LIAN in place of the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. this threat, the Mongolian government renewed its lapsed Despite the announced friendship and high-level 1946 Friendship Treaty with the Soviet Union in 1966 delegations, Sino-Mongolian ties were not close. Mongo- and added a secret defense agreement that allowed for the lia’s independence was, despite China’s explicit recogni- creation of Soviet military bases in Mongolia. In the first tion, a standing contradiction to the doctrine, elsewhere two years of China’s Cultural Revolution (1966–76), so tenaciously asserted, of the indivisibility of China, by expatriate Chinese Red Guards staged demonstrations in which was meant the territory of the QING DYNASTY. In ULAANBAATAR and several times attacked the Mongolian 1954, with Khrushchev’s first visit, and in 1956, after the embassy and diplomats in Beijing. Chinese border inci- de-Stalinization speech, Mao repeated his request to dents with both the Soviet Union and Mongolia culmi- reunify the Mongolias under China. Symptomatically, nated in armed Sino-Soviet clashes in 1969. In 1979 the cooperation in a project to write a new Mongolian his- Soviet leadership pushed Tsedenbal to accept more Soviet tory broke down in 1958. Wherever contact between troops to put pressure on China, which was then attack- Inner Mongolian or Mongolian populations took place, ing VIETNAM. By 1980 the Soviet troops in Mongolia the governments competed to make their own Mongols reached 65,000, and the Mongolian military was look better off. expanded to 36,500, with a well-equipped air force. With the deterioration in Sino-Soviet relations, China Beginning in September 1973 Tsedenbal publicized tried to woo Mongolia in 1960 with a large loan, a visit Mao’s repeated efforts to annex Mongolia and attacked from Premier Zhou Enlai, and a promise of assistance in the Maoists’ supposed glorification of CHINGGIS KHAN. building a steel plant. China never really had a chance of Mongolian scholars were mobilized to analyze the Maoist replacing Soviet patronage, and Mongolia in the 1960s heresy and document its oppression of INNER MONGO- joined Soviet denunciations of Maoism. LIANS and Tibetans. In 1981–83 Tsedenbal deported or social classes in the Mongol Empire 505 resettled in the countryside Mongolia’s remaining Chi- Ordos, eight; Tümed and Khalkha, 12; Yüngshiyebü and nese citizens, even ethnic Mongol refugees from the Cul- Khorchin, seven. Thus, there were, in theory, 54 otogs in tural Revolution. In February 1980 the Politburo exiled the whole Mongol people. The otogs were defined by several historians simply for using Chinese sources in clans, but by no means exactly. One clan in a tümen their professional work. Bizarre but widely accepted might constitute several otogs, while many other otogs rumors that all the Inner Mongolians had been forced to consisted of two or three clans. Moreover, otogs of the marry Chinese reinforced the Mongolians’ sense of them- same clan name were sometimes in different tümens. selves as the only pure-blood true Mongols left. After Dayan Khan reunited the Six Tümens in 1510, Economically, Mongolia benefited substantially from he divided them among his sons. Again, the division was the Sino-Soviet split. Tsedenbal skillfully used Mongolia’s not exact: His third son, Barsu-Bolod, received all three position as a frontline state to extract development assis- western tümens; the Khalkha were divided among two tance from the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in the form sons; the Khorchin and Uriyangkhan remained under of soft loans, training, and indefinite maintenance of a their previous rulers, and so on. The next generation massive trade deficit. Mongolia’s importance to the Soviet divided the otogs among their children, and so on. In this Union was underlined by Soviet ruler Leonid Brezhnev’s way the Six Tümens, originally non-Chinggisid clan con- state visits in 1966 and 1974. federations, became (with the exception of the With the close of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 and Uriyangkhan and the Khorchin) family circles of Ching- its repudiation by the Chinese ruler Deng Xiaoping in gisid noblemen. Migrations and the Manchu conquest 1979, the Sino-Soviet conflict became purely geopolitical. reorganized the tümens in the 17th century, but several of The partial withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1987 led to nor- them survived more or less intact to become, under new malization of relations among China, Mongolia, and the names, the LEAGUES of later Inner Mongolia. Soviet Union in 1989 and full troop withdrawal by 1991. See also APPANAGE SYSTEM. See also CHINA AND MONGOLIA; CHINGGIS KHAN CON- Further reading: Hidehiro Okada, “The Fall of the TROVERSY; SOVIET UNION AND MONGOLIA. Uriyangqan Mongols,” Mongolian Studies 10 (1986–87): 49–57. Six Tümens The Six Tümens appeared as an organiza- social classes in the Mongol Empire The unifica- tional framework for the Mongols near the end of the tion of the Mongolian plateau by CHINGGIS KHAN 15th century. The term tümen originally came from the (Genghis, 1206–27) centered the social hierarchy around Mongolian DECIMAL ORGANIZATION and meant “10,000” him and his family. The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS households. This number was merely nominal from the nicely defines the ruling class of the empire by listing beginning and by the 15th century had lost any numeri- those who participated in the election assembly cal meaning. During the career of BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN (QURILTAI) of Chinggis’s successor: his and his brothers’ 1) KHAN (1480?–1517?) the expression Six Tümens referred sons, 2) daughters, 3) their sons-in-law, and 4) the cap- to the whole Mongol people, as opposed to the Four tains of 10,000 and 1,000. Tümens of the OIRATS. According to Mongolian legend, emperor Toghan-Temür (1333–70) managed to take only MONGOL CLASS STRATIFICATION 10 of the Mongols’ 44 tümens back with him to Mongolia. Before the unification of the MONGOL EMPIRE several When the four Oirat tümens separated in the first half of branches of the dominant BORJIGID lineage, all descended the 15th century, only six Mongol tümens were left. from the legendary ancestress ALAN GHO’A, competed for The Six Tümens were divided into two wings, right leadership. The lineage of the sovereigns (qad, khans; see and left, each with three tümens. The ruler of the Three KHAN) was white, the honored color, while the common- Western Tümens, or jinong (viceroy), administered the ers were qarachus, “black ones,” and bo’ol, “slaves.” With EIGHT WHITE YURTS, or shrine of CHINGGIS KHAN and unification only Chinggis Khan and his brothers—the hence had to be a Chinggisid. The Three Eastern (or Left) sons of YISÜGEI BA’ATUR—formed the new ruling lineage. Tümens, Dayan Khan’s original power base, were the Known as the altan uruq, “golden seed,” or uruq, “seed,” CHAKHAR, the KHALKHA, and (depending on the source) the uruq expanded enormously; the Persian historian either the Uriyangkhan or the KHORCHIN. (After their ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI estimated in 1257 that it 1538 rebellion the Uriyangkhan were removed from the already numbered 20,000 (presumably including wives, rank of tümen.) The Three Western (or Right) Tümens minor children, and household slaves). were the ORDOS, the TÜMED (or Monggoljin), and the Given the Mongolian rule of exogamy, members of Yüngshiyebü, which formed a single tümen, with the the uruq always married commoners. Borjigid daughters Asud (OSSETES) and KHARACHIN. Each tümen was divided (ökid) received dowries of subject peoples and sometimes into OTOGs (camp districts), and the tümens and otogs appanages in their own right, and their husbands, as kür- fought together as units in battle. The number of otogs in gen, “sons-in-law,” of the ruling family, formed the third the tümens followed a conventional schema: Chakhar and stratum in the ruling class. The Chinggisids generally 506 social classes in the Mongol Empire reserved this reciprocal QUDA (marriage ally) relation to knight Hetoum wrote in 1307, “To their lords [the Tar- particular clans, particularly the QONGGIRAD, but it varied tars] be more obedient than any other nation.” with each branch. Chinggis Khan promised his favored “companions” CLASS STRATIFICATION AND THE CONQUEST (NÖKÖR) of non-Borjigid ancestry that their descendants Over and above this internal class stratification, the ruling would be honored “unto the seed of the seed,” and they class establishments also drew in the sedentary areas as founded the great families of nonimperial blood. They subjects. In their conquests the Mongols regularly deported served as commanders (NOYAN) of 10,000s and 1,000s and artisans and divided them up as “houseboys” (ger-ün kö’üd) supervised the KESHIG, or imperial guard, and the palace- of the noble families. The higher-ranking aristocracy also tent (ORDO), or household of the khan. Great noyans were received cities or towns in conquered lands as appanages. hereditary, and the keshig was recruited from the sons and The aristocracy’s right to issue tablets (PAIZA) that gave their younger brothers of the decimal unit commanders. Cap- bearers the ability to use the JAM, or postroads, and demand tains of 100s and 10s, while technically noyans, were not requisitions gave them leverage over merchant partners, or counted part of the ruling class, and their offices were not ORTOQ, to whom they lent money and fine goods as capital hereditary. They and ordinary Mongols (irgen, subjects, for caravan trading and usury. haran, commoners, or dürü-yin kü’ün, simple people) were Thus, most needs of the ruling class were supplied distributed all over Eurasia in the service of the empire. from their own far-flung estates. Princes, princesses, Only the general outline of economic relations among and great noyans received grain, cotton, and silk from these classes is clear. ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) ordered for appanages in the southern territories as well as mares’ his table one milch mare, one milch cow, and one sheep milk from their Mongol subjects and furs from the north- for slaughter annually from every 100 animals. The other ern forest peoples. Mongols not in the ruling class, how- members of the imperial family and the noyans likewise ever, traded grains and fabrics for live sheep and skins received regular tribute of mares (and presumably other with the Turkestani, Uighur, and North Chinese peddlers livestock) from their subjects. The mares so received were who plied the steppe. In winter the poor wore dog-or put out to herders, who delivered every third day’s pro- goatskin coats and lined their trousers with cotton or duce to their lords; BATU in the GOLDEN HORDE had a herd coarse wool, while the wealthy wore forest furs or of 3,000 such mares. Despite the lack of direct evidence, foxskins and lined their trousers with silk stuffing. the imperial family and the noyans doubtless required of Conquest offered both advantages and disadvantages their subjects the same labor services delivered by ordi- to the Mongol commoners. War booty included slaves nary Mongols to their lords in the 19th century—herding, whose labor permanently enriched their masters’ families. collecting dung for fuel, felt making, household chores, In one county of South China in 1330, Mongol families and so on (see SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE QING PERIOD). Each had on average 15 slaves, while Chinese families had lord directed the nomadizations of his subjects and none. At the same time, preparing military equipment and undoubtedly used the best pastures, but to see in this losing manpower to campaigns could impoverish Mongol some implicit property in land would be inaccurate. households. To address this problem, Ögedei Khan Although the rise of Chinggis Khan destroyed the old ordered that each decimal unit transfer one sheep per 100 ruling class and replaced it with his own family and to its own poor. Under QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) the gov- nökörs, once the new regime was in place social mobility ernment began regularly sending relief and remitting the was very limited. The khans did encourage commoners taxes of distressed Mongols. The Mongols practiced debt to volunteer for the keshig, and they, with other able slavery, and by 1290 in all of the successor states Mongol houseboys (ger-ün kö’üd, or Turkish, ev-oghlan), had some commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing chance of finding a patron and being promoted, usually this as damaging to both the manpower and the prestige to a scribal or civil administrative position. of the Mongol army, Qubilai Khan forbade the sale abroad Outside observers were struck by the extraordinary of Mongols in 1291, and GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) in docility toward authority in Mongolian society. Contrary Iran budgeted funds to redeem Mongol slaves. to common stereotypes of “turbulent nomads,” European, Chinese, Armenian, and Islamic observers all found the COLLABORATOR CLASSES IN THE EMPIRE 13th-century nobility unusually obedient to their khans Everywhere the Mongols granted their favored collabora- and the commoners still more obedient to the nobility. tors among the conquered peoples paizas (tablets, or Uruq could not be tried or harmed except by other mem- badges of authority) and jarliqs (patents or writs) grant- bers of the uruq, and non-uruq rarely dared to resist ing tax exemption, the right to use the postroads (jam), princes, even when they were fugitives or dissidents. The and to bear arms, and in practice a virtually unlimited extraordinary multiplication of the imperial family and right to seize requisitions from those who did not possess the eventual transformation of the great noyan families such tablets and patents. Mongols granted these rights to from a service nobility into a proud and self-reliant aris- clergy of the four favored religions (Buddhism, Christian- tocracy lessened this cohesion in time. Still, the Armenian ity, Taoism, and Islam) as well as to physicians, astrologers, social classes in the Qing period 507 and (in China) Confucian scholars. The other major (1636–1912) was conditioned by the power of the components of the collaborator class were the ortoq (part- Chingissid aristocracy, the military system of the Qing ner) merchants, who received capital from the Mongol rulers, and the Buddhist monastic system. aristocracy for their trading and moneylending opera- tions. Finally, in choosing administrators for pacified CONCEPTS OF HIERARCHY lands, the Mongols generally drew on the existing land- In Mongolian thought under the QING DYNASTY as holding nobility or scholar-official classes that in differing expressed in sources from the 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES forms dominated Eurasia. to praises and blessings for sprinkling mares’ milk and The Mongols altered the existing ruling classes by WEDDINGS, CHINGGIS KHAN was the founder and culture their deliberate policy of employing ethnic outsiders in a hero of Mongolia. His descendants, the TAIJI class, were hierarchy of reliability. The Mongols favored certain groups the only full members of the Mongolian community. The who had surrendered early, particularly the UIGHURS, and taijis ruled not in view of any special function but simply preferred to employ potentially unreliable groups outside because of their descent. Government being the rule of their own homelands. Ortoq merchants and non-Mongol one lineage over another confirmed by conquest, the tai- overseers (DARUGHACHI) were usually either immigrants or jis were exempt from rule, that is, from taxation, corvée local ethnic outgroups. Thus, in China they were Uighurs, labor, and corporal punishment. This relation of taiji and Turkestani or Iranian Muslims, and Christians, while in subject was symbolized by the colors white (noble) and Iran they were Uighurs, Assyrian Christians, Jews, or black (common). Turkestani Muslims. Foreigners from outside the empire The heaven-mandated state, or törö, was embodied in entirely, such as the Polo family, were everywhere wel- the seal that authenticated state documents. The greatest comed. Combined with the Mongol preference for Uighur seal was that of the Qing emperor in Beijing. As an addi- scribes and for Buddhist clerics from KASHMIR or Tibet, the tional sign of their legitimacy the Qing emperors also Mongols thus nurtured a distinctive multiethnic and par- held that of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY, which was surren- venu ruling milieu that often aroused the deep disgust of dered to them in 1635. Locally, the rule of Mongolia’s the traditional landed upper class. In Iran Islamization almost 200 banner rulers was embodied in the seal wor- dealt a strong but not fatal blow to this new milieu, but in shiped at the “opening the seal” ceremony around the China it lasted until the fall of the dynasty. 20th day of the WHITE MONTH (lunar new year). In China Qubilai Khan codified this hierarchy of reli- In Buddhist social thought the essential division was ability by dividing the population into four classes: 1) that between monk and householder. The monk was sup- Mongol; 2) SEMUREN (literally “various sorts”), a catchall ported by the alms of the householder, and the giving of term for western immigrants into China, especially alms earned merit for the householder. This relation of Uighurs and Turkestani Muslims; 3) Han, including monk and householder was symbolized by the colors yel- North Chinese, KITANS, Jurchens, and Koreans; and 4) low (monastic) and black (lay). southerners (nanren), including all subjects of the former Finally, the political concepts of hierarchy were but- Song Empire. In Iran Uighurs, Assyrian Christians, Jews, and Turkestani Muslims played the role of semuren, tressed by the familial and gender hierarchies of parents although the traditional Persian-speaking Sunni Muslim over children, elders over younger, and men over women. ruling class retained more of their leading role than did All these hierarchies were expressed both in daily ritual the Confucian gentry in China. and in the popular literature, such as the Treasury of The Mongols everywhere abolished inheritance Aphoristic Jewels and Buddhist didactic poetry. Authori- taxes, and the use of government tax funds for commer- ties delivered undeserved kindness (achi, kheshig) to cial capital in the ortoq system compounded the concen- those below them and deserved sincere striving in return. tration of wealth. While frequently careless of the safety LEGAL STATUS DISTINCTIONS of individual members of the landed classes, the Mon- gols, particularly after adjusting to being rulers in their Each of the hierarchical relations noted above was lands, relied relatively heavily on commercial taxes and embodied legally in various status categories among the little on the more evenly applied land taxes. What frag- Mongols. Although few comprehensive statistics from the mentary evidence exists, particularly in the Middle East, Qing period have been gathered, data from the early 20th suggests that these policies and the conquest itself sub- century can be used with caution. stantially increased the concentration of wealth. The banner officials, the numerically smallest of these See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; dominant strata, held privilege by virtue of representing APPANAGE SYSTEM; ARTISANS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; FAL- the power of the emperor. They formed 0.8–1.6 percent of CONRY; HISTORY; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. the laity. While the top banner officials, the ZASAG and his one or two administrators, were always taijis, the cate- gories otherwise had no necessary overlap: Many banner social classes in the Qing period The development officials were commoners, and many taijis, even of ducal of Mongolian classes under the Qing dynasty or princely rank, were sula (not in government service). 508 social classes in the Qing period The taiji, as noted above, represented Chinggis Khan. averaged 1,500–2,500 sheep, 500–800 horses, and 300 Figures from eastern KHALKHA from 1841 and 1918 show cattle. In Khalkha’s Setsen Khan province in 1835, the 27 the taiji occupied 9.0–10.5 percent of the lay male popu- zasags and high lamas, together with the monastic trea- lation. Elsewhere, in western Khalkha’s Zasagtu Khan suries, or jisa (modern jas), combined held 19 percent, province and in a KHORCHIN banner of eastern Inner 16 percent, and 12 percent of the aimag’s SHEEP, HORSES, Mongolia, comparable figures were 16.4 percent and 18.2 and CATTLE. In Khalkha in 1918 the titled nobility and percent. high lamas held 23 percent, 18 percent, and 23 percent, In 1918 Khalkha’s monks were counted at 44.6 percent respectively. Relatively, the state commoners were the of the male population. In fact, only about 35,000 lamas, or poorest of all, with an average 20–21 sheep per house- 15 percent of males, actually lived in the monasteries. The hold, while the khamjilgas had 26 sheep per household other two-thirds of those registered as lamas lived as house- and the taijis 49–57 per household. The banner officials holders, only performing services during the greater khurals and shabi in 1841 had almost double the average herd of (assemblies). Lamas numbered 14.2 percent of the banner the taijis. membership in a typical Khorchin banner. Despite these differences among status groups, In Khalkha the commoners were divided into three inequality in herds was not wholly or even primarily a categories: the sumu arad, or state commoners (see SUM), matter of legal status. Figures combining all the wealthy also called the albatu (taxpayers), serving the banner households, including commoners, show that in Alashan office and Qing state; the khamjilga (serfs), serving the tai- (Alxa) in 1947 the wealthiest 25 percent held 60.4 percent jis; and the SHABI (lay disciples), serving the monks (see of all livestock, while the poorest 25 percent held only 3.6 GREAT SHABI). These bodies numbered 41–49 percent, percent. Less complete figures suggest equal or greater 30–33 percent, and 5–7 percent of the lay population, inequality elsewhere. These percentages did not change respectively. Of course, all laymen, not just the shabi, gave significantly in Inner Mongolia after China’s Communist alms to the monasteries, and in Inner Mongolia the cate- government abolished “feudal” status relations. gory of shabi was very small. There, too, the khamjilga and Labor for working large herds was secured in three state commoners were not divided; statistics in a Khorchin ways: 1) a patriarchal form in which a poorer family banner simply show commoners, soldiers, and postroad camped with the richer (and/or higher status) one, giving staff together totaling 65 percent of the laity. labor to the rich family in return for access to its Numerous legal disputes developed over the bound- resources; 2) an absentee herding form in which the aries of these categories. Householding lamas were fre- owner or institution placed herds out with a herder in quently impressed into state duties, although theoretically return for a specified return; and 3) contract labor from they were exempt. Since the remaining commoners transient men from outside the community. would have to shoulder identical duties with a smaller The first was the sort of relation supposed to exist population, state commoners resisted the taijis’ gift of between taijis and khamjilga. Khamjilgas traditionally commoners as shabi or their illegal appropriation of com- camped near their taijis and performed pastoral and moners as khamjilga. They also resisted the banner rulers’ domestic tasks for them. By 1900 or so both in Inner frequent attempts to treat all the banner people as their Mongolia and Khalkha, however, poor or positionless tai- personal khamjilga, forcing them to pay the rulers’ debts, jis could rarely require these services, and even influen- do personal service in their palaces, and so on. tial taijis usually offered some kind of informal A number of banner residents did not enter into the compensation to their khamjilgas. Relations between status system. Bastard sons, who numbered 7 percent of wealthy commoners and poor families who camped with Khalkha’s male population in 1918, were not assigned to them (called zarutsa-yin ail, hired households, in any status. Chinese slaves (Mongolian, bool, Manchu, booi), Khalkha, saalin-u ail, milking households, in CHAKHAR, particularly common in eastern Inner Mongolia (10.3 per- and so on) resembled these taiji-khamjilga ties, except cent of the laity in one Khorchin banner), were either pur- that they involved fewer outward signs of respect, few, if chased or taken as prisoners of war from campaigns against any, purely domestic tasks, and no element of compul- rebels under the Qing. Frequent intermarriage with the sion. Either way, the patron and client lived in intimate Manchu house also made dowry servants (INJE) arriving in contact with each other, and their exact reciprocal obliga- the train of Manchu princesses from Beijing relatively tions were unspecified. numerous in eastern Inner Mongolia. Reserved for only the The banner rulers’ and temples’ vast herds were zasags, these servants, numbering 4.4 percent of the laity, invariably divided up and leased to herders. Terms varied were a rough parallel to Khalkha’s khamjilga. widely. For example, in Alashan (southwest Inner Mon- golia) shepherds kept the milk and wool, while the owners PROPERTY AND LABOR received the young. More commercialized arrangements Herd statistics from Khalkha’s Setsen Khan aimag from near Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) required of the 1835 and 1841 demonstrate the tremendous wealth of herders 15 jing (9 kilograms, or 20 pounds) of butter per the zasags and the INCARNATE LAMAs, whose private herds cow and one fathom of felt per 15 sheep, commutable Song dynasty 509 into TEA units. Even with a herd owner’s private shabi or China, forcing Song loyalists to enthrone a new emperor khamjilga, incentives for good management were always in Lin’an (modern Hangzhou). Despite prosperity, indi- provided. Herders found these contracts very desirable. cated by a population that reached perhaps 60 million, an Buddhist institutions viewed leasing their herds as a increasingly embittered culture of revanchism gripped merit-building activity to help the poor, and zasags used the Southern Song (1127–1279). it as a way to reward well-regarded subjects. Even so, lawsuits, often over blame for large losses, were frequent. THE SONG AND THE MONGOLS Finally, men from outside the community could be In 1211, when CHINGGIS KHAN invaded North China, the hired to perform designated short-term tasks. In rela- Song was exhausted from a humiliating defeat in the tively uncommercialized northwest Khalkha these tasks Kaixi War (1205–08) it had deliberately provoked against were limited to leading caravans of CAMELS, driving ani- the Jin. In 1217 the Jin court, having taken refuge south mals to monasteries, and farming monastery-owned of the Huang (Yellow) River, began encroaching on Song fields. Near Khüriye and in Inner Mongolia, however, territory. The Song thereupon began its own intervention Chinese or Mongol laborers would be hired for the full in the savage proxy war the Jin and the Mongols were range of pastoral activities, particularly during the busy waging in the anarchic province of Shandong. The Mon- seasons, or else to perform the alba, or state-duties, as gols decisively defeated this fruitless eight-year effort by substitutes for wealthy commoners. They were paid in the Song to recover the north in 1225. cash, animals, or a designated share of the product (espe- On his death in 1227 Chinggis Khan bequeathed a cially shorn wool), but rarely if ever became intimate plan to attack the inaccessible Jin capital by passing with their employers. through Song territory, but arranging this plan with the See also ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND NOMADISM; CHINESE Song proved difficult. At least one Mongol ambassador COLONIZATION; CHINESE TRADE AND MONEYLENDING; HIS- was killed in uncertain circumstances. Before receiving TORY; MONEY, MODERN; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE MONGOL any reply, Mongol troops marched through Song territory EMPIRE. to enter the Jin’s redoubt in Henan from the south. In Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “Remarks on Land December 1233 Song forces finally advanced into Henan Use Control in Later Ch’ing Dynasty Outer Mongolia,” in with men and supplies to assist the Mongols in the siege Proceedings of International Conference on China Border Area of the last Jin emperor. Studies, ed. Lin En-shean (Taipei: Mongolian and Tibetan This belated cooperation did not advance peace Affairs Commission, 1984), 547–603; S. ^ Rasidondug and between the Mongols and the Song. In 1234 ÖGEDEI KHAN Veronika Viet, trans., Petitions of Grievances Submitted by (1229–41) declared war on the Song again, claiming that the People (18th–beginning of the 20th century) (Wiesbaden: the murder of a Mongol ambassador and continuing bor- Otto Harrassowitz, 1975). der incidents showed hostile intent. In a series of winter razzias from 1235 to 1245, mixed Mongol-Chinese Solon See DAUR LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; EWENKIS. armies reached Chengdu, Xiangyang (modern Xiangfan), and the middle Chang (Yangtze) River, yet heavy losses due to climate and the sheer numbers of the Song troops somon See SUM. always forced withdrawals. The only permanent gain was Chengdu. In the Huai River area the watery terrain Song dynasty (Sung) The conquest of South China’s favored the Song, and the MONGOL EMPIRE’s commanders, Song dynasty under QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) was the mostly Chinese, remained on the defensive. Mongol Empire’s last great military achievement. In 1256 MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) proposed the final The founders of the Song dynasty (960–1279) conquest of the Song by means of simultaneous attacks in reacted against the powerful satraps that broke up the Sichuan, Xiangyang, and Ezhou (modern Wuhan). great Tang dynasty (618–907) by keeping military and Despite the massive preparations, coordination was weak. civil powers rigidly separate and concentrating the armies Möngke entered Sichuan in autumn 1258 with two-thirds in the capital. The neo-Confucian revival and the exami- of the Mongol strength, but progress against the well-pre- nation system exalted the civil scholarly ideal over mar- pared defenses was very slow. Prince Ta’achar and tial virtues. Not surprisingly, the Song dynasty, after Möngke’s brother Qubilai, with one-third, likewise uniting the Chinese heartland, proved unable to defeat proved unable to take their objectives before the khan’s rival non-Chinese dynasties. First the KITANS’ Liao death of disease near the defiant city of Chongqing forced (907–1125) and then the Tanguts’ Western XIA DYNASTY a general withdrawal. (1038–1237) forced the Northern Song (960–1127) to The Song dynasty’s effective defense stemmed from recognize their independence and pay tribute. The great- able border commanders such as Lü Wende (d. 1270) est humiliation came in 1127, when the Jurchens’ JIN and Zhang Shijie (d. 1279), who operated autonomously DYNASTY (1115–1234), having overthrown the Liao, from the stifling central control of the Song court. sacked the Song capital of Kaifeng and occupied North Together they anchored the Song’s defense on three major Chang (Yangtze) Valley, Showing the Location of the Major Battles of the Conquest of the Song, 1272–1276 Grand Canal Junzhou Hua Battles ng (Ye llow Capital )R . Xuzhou 0 80 miles 0 80 km Fangcheng Caizhou Xiangyang (Runan) N Yingzhou Hu (Fuyang) ai R. Yingzhou (Zhongxiang) Jiangling Gaoyou Ha n Jiankang Yangzhou R. (Nanjing) Taizhou Hanyang Yangluobao Jiaoshan Mt. Zhenjiang Ezhou Changzhou Yuezhou Dingjia I. (Yueyang) R. Suzhou tz e) a ng g (Y C h an Tanzhou (Changsha) Lin’an (Hangzhou) Longxing g R. (Nanchang) Shaoxing X ian R. G an Sorqaqtani Beki 511 buttresses: the Chongqing and Hezhou (modern Changzhou in December 1275 and mass suicide of the Hechuan) fortresses in Sichuan, the Xiangyangfu- defenders at Tanzhou (modern Changsha) in January Fancheng double city on the Han River, and Yangzhou in 1276. When Bayan and Dong Wenbing camped outside the lower Chang (Yangtze). The width of the Chang Lin’an in February 1276, the Empresses Dowager Xie and (Yangtze) and the vast Song navies linked these fortresses Quan Jiu (1241–1309) surrendered with the underage into a formidable defense system. Nevertheless, central emperor and the imperial seal. On March 28 Mongol strategy remained weak. In 1259 the Song emperor troops peacefully entered the Song capital. Lizong (r. 1224–64) appointed Jia Sidao (1213–75), the Even so, Chongqing and Hezhou in Sichuan, Li brother of his favorite concubine, grand councillor. While Tingzhi in Yangzhou, and most of the far southern revanchist accusations of appeasement lacked substance, provinces still held out. In February Empress Dowager strident attacks on Jia Sidao’s missing Confucian creden- Xie had secretly sent the child emperor’s two younger tials and his notorious dissipation paralyzed the Song brothers to Fuzhou (in Fujian). There, die-hard loyalists defense. The death of Lizong in 1264 delivered the such as Zhang Shijie and Wen Tianxiang gathered. For throne to the crippled emperor Duzong (r. 1264–74), the next two years Wen Tianxiang fought advancing Yuan who was content to maintain Jia Sidao in office. forces in the mountainous Fujian-Guangdong-Jiangxi At first Qubilai Khan (1260–94) took a defensive borderland, while Zhang Shijie guarded the two succes- stance in the South even after repeated frontier incidents sive boy emperors at sea. The northern strongholds fell and Jia Sidao’s detention of Qubilai’s ambassador Hao one by one: Yangzhou (August 1276), Chongqing (March Jing. Li Tan, one of Qubilai’s Chinese generals in Shan- 1277), and Hezhou (February 1279). On February 2, dong, defected to the Song in 1262, but his rebellion was 1279, Wen Tianxiang was captured and taken to Beijing soon crushed. In 1268, however, AJU and Liu Zheng to be executed in 1283. On March 19, 1279, Yuan (1213–75), a Song defector who initiated Mongol navy marines crushed Zhang Shijie’s forces at Yaishan Island in construction, began the siege of the Xiangyang-Fancheng the Canton harbor. Zhang drowned, and a civil official, fortress. Lü Wende, commanding the defense of the Mid- Lu Xiufu (1238–79), leaped into the sea with the last dle Chang (Yangtze), had died in 1270, and Lü’s officers Song emperor. Thousands more followed him in suicide. did not work well with Jia Sidao’s replacement, Li Tingzhi The influence of the Song on the Mongol Yuan (d. 1276). After the Mongols broke into Fancheng, dynasty was surprisingly slight. Despite the thousands of Xiangyang surrendered in 1273, breaking the first link in loyalist suicides, the Mongol conquest of South China did the Song defense. not cause the massive dislocation and depopulation that Aju reported to the khan a definite weakening in had engulfed North China. Demographically and eco- Song defenses, and after a long debate in March 1274 nomically, the newly won territories dwarfed the old. The Qubilai launched a full-scale offensive with 100,000 men, southerners were the lowest ranked in the Yuan status appointing BAYAN CHINGSANG commander. In the same hierarchy, and by the time of the conquest Mongol gov- year Emperor Duzong died, throwing the Song into a ernment forms had long been set. Perhaps the greatest regency under Empress Dowager Xie Qiao (1210–83). influence was the eventual adoption by the Mongol court The Song posture thus remained passive. Once the Mon- of Song neo-CONFUCIANISM as the guiding ideology of its gol YUAN DYNASTY troops and navy reached the Chang examination system in 1315. (Yangtze), Aju and Bayan Chingsang moved east, while See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; EAST ASIAN the Uighur general ARIQ-QAYA moved west. The Yuan SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; LI TAN’S REBELLION; TAO- navy, built by Korean and Jurchen shipwrights, defeated ISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; XIANGYANG, SIEGE OF. the Song flotillas at Yangluobao (January 12, 1275) and Further reading: Richard L. Davis, Wind against the Dingjia Isle (March 19) despite Jia Sidao’s personal arrival Mountain: The Crisis of Politics and Culture in Thirteenth- at Dingjia Isle with 100,000 men. The surrender of key Century China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University cities crowned this debacle. Empress Xie exiled Jia Sidao, Press, 1996). and he was soon murdered. Under the loyalist Zhang Shi- jie’s command, a 10,000-ship Song flotilla was annihi- Sonombaljiriin Buyannemekh See BUYANNEMEKHÜ. lated by Aju’s smaller Yuan force at Jiaoshan Mountain (July 26). Despite desperate Song peace missions, the Mongol Sorqaqtani Beki (d. 1252) The mother of Möngke and offensive resumed in November 1275. Aju besieged Li Qubilai Khans and the ancestress of the Mongol ruling fam- Tingzhi in Yangzhou, and Ariq-Qaya advanced into ily in East Asia and the Middle East Hunan while Bayan and Dong Wenbing (1218–78) con- Sorqaqtani Beki (Princess Sorqaqtani) was the daughter verged on the Song capital of Lin’an. Now patriotic mili- of Ja’a Ghambu, the younger brother of ONG KHAN, ruler tias commanded by fanatic loyalists such as Wen of the KEREYID Khanate. When CHINGGIS KHAN conquered Tianxiang (1236–83) came to the fore. Resistance became the Kereyids in 1203, he gave Sorqaqtani Beki as a bride stiffer, resulting in Bayan’s massacre of the inhabitants of to his son TOLUI, then little more than 10 years old. She 512 soum bore Tolui their first son, Möngke, in 1209. In 1215 she 63,860 square miles), most sparsely populated (barely bore her second son, Qubilai, and then HÜLE’Ü (1217), one person per four square kilometers, or per 1.5 square and ARIQ-BÖKE. miles), and southernmost province. It has a long frontier When Tolui died prematurely in 1232, ÖGEDEI KHAN with southwestern Inner Mongolia in China. made Sorqaqtani Beki chief of Tolui’s ulus, or appanage. Its territory was the southern part of KHALKHA Mon- From then on she ranked as one of the major personages golia’s prerevolutionary Tüshiyetü Khan and Sain Noyan in the empire. The Persian historians ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA- provinces. While mostly desert and gobi (habitable MALIK JUVAINI and RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH, writing in desert), several low ranges, such as the Gurwan Saikhan the service of her descendants, picture her as a woman of Range, traverse the area, moderating the otherwise dry exemplary prudence and wisdom. Her control over and relatively hot climate. Most of Mongolia’s major Tolui’s appanage, which included the bulk of the Mongols dinosaur fossils have been found in this province. and widespread districts in North China and Iran, gave Its population of 20,200 in 1956 has grown to 46,900 her great power. Their accounts have been doubted as in 2000. The province’s total herd of 1,489,600 head mere conventional panegyric, yet JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI, includes 92,800 CAMELS, accounting for almost 30 per- at the Mongol court in 1246, before the elevation of her cent of Mongolia’s total. The number of GOATS, 868,700 son to khan, says she was more renowned than any Mon- head, is second only to BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE and gol woman except TÖREGENE and more powerful than any GOBI-ALTAI PROVINCE. The capital, Dalanzadgad, has a Mongol noble except BATU (d. 1255). population of 14,200 persons (2000 figures). Religiously, Sorqaqtani, as a Kereyid, was raised a See also CASHMERE; DINOSAURS; GOBI DESERT; MATRI- Christian in the Church of the East and kept to that faith LINEAL CLANS; MINING. until her death. Even so, she also financed the construc- tion of a madrasa (Islamic school) in Bukhara and gave South Hangay See SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. alms to both Christians and Muslims. She played the main role in instructing her sons, and they all seem to have inherited her ecumenical piety, although they were South Khangai province (South Hangay, Övörhangai, quite diverse in their eventual beliefs. Övörchangaj, Ubur Khangai) Created in 1931, South On the death of Ögedei in 1241, the MONGOL EMPIRE Khangai province lies in west-central Mongolia, straddling entered a prolonged period of uncertainty over the suc- the border of KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerevolutionary Sain cession. Sorqaqtani Beki spoke for the Toluids in all these Noyan and Tüshiyetü Khan provinces. The province has conflicts, but until late in GÜYÜG’s reign she avoided mak- an area of 62,900 square kilometers (24,290 square miles), ing any steps that could be construed as partisan. When extending from the wooded southeastern slopes of the KHANGAI RANGE into the GOBI DESERT. In Kharkhorin Sum, Güyüg Khan (r. 1246–48) moved the court west, how- ever, she warned Batu that the khan intended to attack near the province’s northern frontier, are the ruins of the him, thus cementing an alliance with Batu against Mongol imperial capital, QARA-QORUM, and Khalkha’s first Ögedei’s heirs. After Güyüg’s sudden death, she sent her monastery, ERDENI ZUU. eldest son, Möngke, to Batu’s QURILTAI (assembly), where The province’s total population has grown from Batu chose him as the next khan. In the ensuing contro- 49,900 persons in 1956 to 113,000 in 2000, the second- versies and purges, Sorqaqtani played an active role in highest of any province in Mongolia. The total herd of live- assisting MÖNGKE KHAN to secure his power. In February stock reached 2,956,600 in 1999, the largest ever in a or March 1252 she fell ill and died. Mongolian province, but it was reduced by the severe ZUD After Sorqaqtani’s death she eventually became the (winter disaster) of 1999–2000 to 2,159,000 by the end of subject of a long-lasting cult. In 1335 it was reported to 2000. Cattle were struck particularly hard, dropping from the Mongol court that Sorqaqtani Beki was enshrined in a 296,000 head to 174,800. South Khangai still has Mongo- Christian church in Ganzhou (modern Zhangye), and lia’s second-largest sheep herd, with 1,059,000 head. The sacrifices were ordered to be offered there. By around relatively large-scale arable agriculture of 1960–90 proved 1480 a cult was conducted at the ORDO (palace-tent) of almost completely unable to weather economic liberaliza- Eshi Khatun (the First Lady), that is, Sorqaqtani, kept by tion. South Khangai’s capital, Arwaikheer, was formed the CHAKHAR Mongols. This ordo appears to have been around Üizeng Zasag banner’s Arbai-Kheere-yin Khüriye moved to Ordos in the 17th century, where the cult was Monastery. In 2000 the town’s population reached 19,100. continued to the 20th century (see EIGHT WHITE YURTS). See also GENDÜN; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST. soum See SUM. South Seas With the conquest of South China, the Mongols entered actively into the commerce, diplomacy, South Gobi province (South Govi, Ömnögov’) Cre- and wars of the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. ated in the 1931 administrative reorganization, South In 1278 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) appointed Mang- Gobi is Mongolia’s largest (165,400 square kilometers, ghudai (d. 1290) of the TATARS, a general in the conquest Soviet Union and Mongolia 513 of the Song, to handle overseas trade. As head of the Mar- (Chou Ta-kuan), is a major source on Cambodian history itime Trade Supervisorate in Zaytun (modern Quanzhou), and society. which MARCO POLO called perhaps the world’s most flour- The Mongol IL-KHANATE in Persia also bordered the ishing port, Mangghudai followed the Song regulations, Indian Ocean. Trade between India and the Middle East levying a 10 percent tax on high-priced commodities and passed through Hormoz, a port city theoretically tribu- 6.7 percent on bulk goods. Merchants going abroad had to tary to the Il-Khans but effectively independent. From register their ships and declare their destinations, with the reign of Abagha on (1265–81) the sea route from Zay- deviations allowed only in emergencies. By 1293 six addi- tun to Hormoz was favored for embassies between the Il- tional ports, from Shanghai in the north to Canton in the Khans and the Yuan. Marco Polo and MUHAMMAD south, had Maritime Trade Supervisorates. ABU-‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA left vivid accounts of the The court actively funded overseas expeditions, issu- South Seas commerce and diplomacy. ing government capital to privileged ORTOQ merchants. See also INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; TRIBUTE SYSTEM. However, mercantilist anxieties showed in the prohibi- Further reading: Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Before Euro- tion on the export of metals, both precious and base; for- pean Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350 eign merchants had to sell their goods for paper currency (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); David Bade, (chao). Foreign policy and prestige considerations pro- Khubilai Khan and the Beautiful Princess of Tumapel hibited the export of slaves and weapons and occasioned (Ulaanbaatar: A. Chuluunbat, 2002). temporary embargoes against hostile states. Desire to profit by a government-carrier monopoly and vague wor- Soviet Union and Mongolia While Russia had been a ries over luxury exports led in 1285, 1303, and 1320 to patron of Mongolian independence since 1911, the con- prohibitions on all foreign trade by private domestic mer- servative society of theocratic Mongolia resisted making chants. None lasted long, and in any case foreign mer- reforms according to foreign models. From 1921 on, chants were never affected. however, Soviet Russia became not only the foreign In 1278 Mangghudai’s colleague Sodu (d. 1284) of patron but also the model of revolution, social transfor- the JALAYIR dispatched edicts to 10 South Seas kingdoms, mation, and modernization for Mongolia’s revolutionar- from Cham-pa in present-day south-central VIETNAM to ies. Despite the resistance of many Mongolian leaders, the Quilon on India’s southwest coast, demanding submis- Soviet Union molded every aspect of Mongolian life up to sion. By long-standing practice the South Seas realms its own collapse in 1991. This article describes the influ- were accustomed to paying nominal tribute to China, ence of Soviet Russia (1917–22/24) and then the Soviet receiving investitures and gifts in return. Now, demand- Union (1922/24–91) on Mongolia in political, ideologi- ing that their rulers attend his court, Qubilai in January cal, and economic spheres. (For Russian relations with 1280 dispatched Sodu to Cham-pa and a Canton Mongolia before 1917, for Russian cultural influence on DARUGHACHI (overseer), Yang Tingbi, to Quilon. By 1286 Mongolia in the Soviet period, and for Russian relations with Yang Tingbi had reached India’s Maabar and Quilon Mongolia after 1991, see RUSSIA AND MONGOLIA.) coasts several times, collecting eager professions of nomi- nal submission of rulers from Kerala to Malaya. Cham-pa SOVIET INTERESTS IN MONGOLIA had, however, turned hostile, and in December 1282 Internal documents and journalistic pieces from the first Sodu led a maritime invasion with 5,000 men. The Yuan decades of the Soviet-Mongolian relationship consistently troops occupied the capital, Vijaya (near modern Qui enumerate Moscow’s main interests in Mongolia: 1) as a Nho’n), but the king, Jaya Indravarman IV (1266–c.90), place to showcase Soviet Russian ideology and benevo- retreated to the mountains. Stymied by this withdrawal, lence; 2) as a buffer zone protecting Siberia; 3) as an ani- Sodu eventually sailed home in March 1284, just as Aq- mal products and mineral supplier; and 4) as a transit Taghai (1235–90) embarked with another 5,000 men on point for communication with China. While later assess- a fruitless mission to reinforce him. Sodu’s subsequent ments were far less frank, these four lines of interest can plan to invade Cham-pa through Vietnam resulted only be seen operating throughout the Soviet-Mongolian rela- in his death and a 10-year quagmire for the Mongol YUAN tion until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. While DYNASTY. In 1293 Ighmish (fl. 1266–1311), an Uighur the first of these items remained relatively constant, the envoy and Fujian high official with experience in Cham- composition of Mongolia’s exports changed sharply, as did pa (1281), Vietnam (1284), and Maabar (1287), led an the Soviet Union’s relationship with Mongolia as either a expedition against Java with 20,000 men. Ighmish occu- buffer zone (defensive) or a transit point (expansive). pied the capital, Kediri, but was soon driven out. Qubilai’s successor, Temür (1294–1307), abandoned EARLY SOVIET DIPLOMACY AND CHINA’S INNER the aim of conquering the South Seas and, content with ASIAN QUESTION only nominal tribute, received envoys from previously From 1920, when Soviet Russia first reestablished its hostile Siam and Cambodia. The account of the Yuan’s presence in Siberia and received an appeal from the Mon- 1296 envoy to Cambodia by the envoy Zhou Daguan golian People’s Party for assistance against China, Soviet 514 Soviet Union and Mongolia Russia’s key dilemma was how to balance its interests in a highly secret base for infiltration into China of perse- Mongolia with its desire to woo China. The Chinese cuted Chinese Communists and Inner Mongolian revolu- regarded China’s claims to the 1911 frontiers (including tionaries. This defensiveness continued after Japan’s Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet) as inviolable occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and was heightened by and the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence as clashes along the Mongolian-Manchurian frontier from part of unequal treaties, while Soviet Russia hoped to January 1935 on. Both Japan and the Soviet Union woo China by touting its renunciation of unequal treaty viewed relations in the context of their deep ideological privileges. hostility, and while internal documents show both had a Thus, while Russia’s “China hands” in the foreign primarily defensive strategy, each believed the other to service and the Communist International (Comintern) harbor aggressive aims. In 1939 the massive Battle of preferred to sacrifice Russia’s interests in Mongolia for Khalkhyn Gol established Soviet dominance on the fron- greater influence in China, the “Mongolia hands” in the tier and led eventually to the Soviet-Japanese Non- Siberian party apparatus preferred to forgo the uncertain Aggression Pact of May 1941. Chinese alliance for the certain benefits of a friendly In the last days of WORLD WAR II, the Soviet Union, Mongolia. In spring and summer 1921, with the occupa- with Mongolia in tow, declared war on Japan and invaded tion of Mongolia by anticommunist White Russian forces, Japanese-occupied Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. The the “Mongolia hands” won the debate, and the Soviet Red Soviet Union’s power now forced Chiang Kai-shek to rec- Army was sent south to occupy Khüriye (modern ULAAN- ognize formally Mongolia’s independence in 1946 (see BAATAR), setting the Mongolian People’s Party in power PLEBISCITE ON INDEPENDENCE), thus freeing Soviet-Mon- (see 1921 REVOLUTION). golian relations from its previous limbo. Despite this Since the Russian intervention was not against China recognition, Mongolia’s only real contact in China was but against the widely distrusted White Russians, Soviet with Inner Mongolian supporters until the Chinese Com- diplomats were able to finesse the issue of Mongolia in munist victory of 1949 paved the way for a decade of their negotiations with China. In May 1924 the new Sino- SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE. Joining this alliance, Mongolia’s Soviet treaty recognized Chinese sovereignty (i.e., full role as a buffer was replaced by a new role as transit point control) in Mongolia, all the while knowing that the Chi- between two allied powers (see TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAIL- nese government, divided among jealous warlord fac- WAY.) From 1960, however, the growing SINO-SOVIET SPLIT tions, was incapable of enforcing its claims. From this made Mongolia once again a buffer protecting Siberia time until 1945, while the Chinese government would from dangers to the south. The thawing of frozen Sino- periodically protest manifestations of Mongolia’s indepen- Soviet and Sino-Mongolian relations from 1987 was even- dence, these protests had no real bearing on Sino-Soviet tually overtaken by the end of the Communist system relations. Due to Moscow’s nominal recognition of and the breakup of the Soviet Union. China’s theoretical claim to Mongolia, however, Soviet During periods of high tension the Soviet Union has agreements with Mongolia were always “agreements” or stationed troops in Mongolia. In 1921–25 they were prin- “protocols” and never treaties, and its diplomats in Mon- cipally in the capital, in 1936–56 mostly in the east, and golia were “political representatives,” not ambassadors. in 1966–90 along the southern frontier. Although the Mongolian government found these conces- sions to Chinese claims galling, they had little recourse FORMAL ALLIANCES except to accept the assurances of Moscow’s men in Mon- Mongolia’s formal treaties with the Soviet Union and golia that Moscow’s concessions were purely nominal. Soviet-type organizations began with the November 5, 1921, agreement on mutual recognition. Trying to avoid INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT inflaming Chinese public opinion, this agreement did not From 1923 to 1927 Soviet interests in Mongolia were mention mutual defense, the continued presence of expansive. Allying with the Nationalist (Guomingdang) Soviet troops, or economic assistance, all of which pro- Party in Canton, the warlord Feng Yuxiang in China’s ceeded on an unpublicized basis. northwest, and pan-Mongolist nationalists in Inner Mon- One issue that threatened to damage Soviet-Mongo- golia, the Soviet Union armed and funded a multifaceted lian relations was that of Tuva. Administered with Outer campaign against Beijing’s warlord government and for- Mongolia under the Qing, the area had been virtually eign concessions in China. Mongolia served this coalition annexed by czarist Russia in 1914 and settled by 8,100 as a land conduit for weapons, Soviet advisers, and Chi- Russians. In August–October 1921, after a very confused nese and Inner Mongolian students and as an advertise- period of conflict, the TUVANS and the now Sovietized ment for postrevolutionary progress. Russian settlers created a separate Tuvan government. In April 1927, however, the Guomingdang leader, Mongolia’s leaders agreed to recognize this government Chiang Kai-shek, turned against the Soviet Union. From only on August 15, 1926. 1928, when Chiang unified China, Mongolia’s role for the In 1924, after the Third Congress (see MONGOLIAN Soviet Union thus became defensive, although it was also PEOPLE’S PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS OF), the Mongolian Peo- Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 ple’s Party (soon renamed the People’s Revolutionary with the Soviet bloc as a whole. In 1986 the 1966 treaty Party) became a formal member of the Communist Inter- was automatically renewed for 10 more years, although national (Comintern), the Moscow-based league of world the Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze in Communist and “People’s Revolutionary” (i.e., non-Com- Ulaanbaatar pointedly noted the improvement in Sino- munist but anticolonial) parties. Up to 1922 the Mongo- Soviet relations. With the breakup of the Soviet Union in lian revolutionaries had dealt primarily with the local 1991, the previous system of political relations had to be Siberian branch of the Russian Communist Party. From rebuilt. 1924 to 1932 the Comintern’s Eastern Department in Given Mongolia’s profound dependence on the Soviet Moscow became the chief organ for Soviet diplomacy and Union, Mongolians had several times proposed that Mon- interference in Mongolia. Its permanent representatives golia join the Soviet Union, yet Soviet leaders, wary of to the Mongolian party and special delegations to the accusations from China, were not supportive. In the late Mongolian party congresses played a decisive role during 1920s, radical western Mongols, such as the DÖRBÖD the LEFTIST PERIOD from 1929 to 1932 (see MONGOLIAN Badarakhu (Ö. Badrakh, 1895–1941) and the KHOTONG PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY, SEVENTH CONGRESS OF). Lagan (L. Laagan, 1886–1940), resented KHALKHA domi- When the failure of the Comintern’s policies threatened nance and proposed that western Mongolia and Tuva the Soviet position in Mongolia, Soviet leader Joseph together join the Soviet Union. In the 1940s and early Stalin intervened personally and ordered the Comintern 1950s the Soviet-trained technocrats under Choibalsang to reverse its policies there. From then on the general repeatedly questioned whether socialism could be built in direction of Soviet-Mongolian relations was handled Mongolia without joining the Soviet Union. The procura- directly by the two countries’ top leaders. tor B. Jambaldorj raised the possibility in 1944, when The first general state-to-state agreement since 1921 Tuva joined the Soviet Union, and DARAMYN TÖMÖR- was a secret Soviet-Mongolian agreement of June 27, OCHIR and YUMJAAGIIN TSEDENBAL raised it again late in 1929, binding each party to give preferential treatment to Choibalsang’s life. Choibalsang himself violently opposed the other in foreign trade. With the rise of Japan the such ideas, but after his death the Mongolian Politburo in Soviet Union became willing for the first time to make a 1953 approved unification, only to be rebuked by V. M. formal alliance with Mongolia. During the first of the Molotov for their “simple-minded error.” In the mid- many summit meetings between Stalin and the Mongo- 1970s the Soviet ruler Leonid Brezhnev sounded out his lian leaders, in this case Prime Minister GENDÜN (r. Mongolian counterpart. Tsedenbal about this issue. By 1932–36), a verbal “gentlemen’s agreement” was con- then, however, the very success of Mongolian industrial- cluded on November 27, 1934. Only after Gendün’s fall ization with Soviet aid had decreased Mongolia’s per- did the two countries formalize this as a Mutual-Defense ceived need for unification, and the issue was dropped. Protocol (March 12, 1936). Hoping to deter Japan, this protocol was the first agreement to be widely publicized ECONOMIC TIES: TRADE, AID, AND INTEGRATION by the Soviet and Mongolian press, provoking a pre- An important aim of the Soviet Union in Mongolia had dictable but pro forma Chinese protest. been the supply of animal products and minerals to In 1946, after China recognized Mongolian indepen- Siberia. For the first 40 years of the relationship, the dence, Mongolia and the Soviet Union renewed their mil- trade of minerals remained only potential, but Mongolia itary alliance, this time in a formal Treaty of Friendship soon began exporting animal products to the Soviet and Mutual Assistance, with a concurrent economic and Union. From 1922 to 1930 the Soviet Union went from cultural treaty on February 27. When the treaty lapsed being a minor player to securing a complete monopsony after 10 years, it was not renewed, as the Sino-Soviet on Mongolia’s exports of wool, furs, hides, and live cattle. alliance had rendered it moot. The frequent meetings More slowly, but also largely complete by 1930, the Soviet between Stalin and Mongolia’s ruler MARSHAL CHOIBAL- Union monopolized Mongolia’s imports. This monop- SANG (r. 1936–52) were not repeated in the 1950s as sony/monopoly position was acquired by the Mongolian Mongolia’s importance waned. government’s support of Soviet trade organs and Mongo- In 1966, however, during Leonid Brezhnev’s visit to lian cooperatives, both of which traded exclusively with ULAANBAATAR—the first by any Soviet ruler—a 20-year the Soviet Union. The Soviets worked in Mongolia Treaty of Cooperation, Friendship, and Mutual Aid was through joint-stock companies focused on trade (Stor- signed on January 15. The published treaty’s provisions mong, 1927–32, and Monsovbuner, 1932–34), banking about military measures were supplemented by secret (Mongolian Trade and Industrial Bank, 1924–35), and defense-related protocols directed against the Chinese transportation (Mongoltrans, 1929–36). All these compa- threat. Mongolia’s June 1962 entry into the Council of nies were eventually transferred to Mongolia. Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon, or CMEA), the The advance of the Soviet trade monopoly in organization integrating the Soviet Union’s economy with 1928–30 resulted in a shortage of consumer goods previ- that of its East European satellites, marked the broaden- ously imported from China. A Soviet delegation in 1932 ing of bilateral Soviet-Mongolian ties into multilateral ties credited this shortage with being a factor in the revolts. 516 Soviet Union and Mongolia Stalin ordered that the terms of trade be improved for ing in Mongolia reached 2,679, many of whom were Mongolia. At the same time, the fledgling Mongolian workers. In 1924 the Mongolian army had 14 trainers, industrial plants beginning in 1933–34 with Soviet assis- but the Mutual-Aid Cooperatives, responsible for wool tance actually increased the need for spare parts, electri- purchases, employed 273 Russians. Controversies over cal goods, and other inputs. As a result, by 1935 the the advisers centered first on their generally low quality, chronic deficits first arose that would characterize Mon- which even Soviet sources acknowledged, and second golia’s trade with the Soviet Union from then on. Once over the hiring of experts from the 15,000 or so Buriat the lamas had been destroyed and Choibalsang installed refugees from the Russian Revolution in Mongolia (see as unchallenged dictator, Stalin in 1940 demanded Mon- BURIATS OF MONGOLIA AND INNER MONGOLIA). golia sell 30,000 metric tons (33,069 short tons) of sheep The exchange of Mongolians educated in the Soviet wool, 1,000 metric tons (1,102 short tons) of camel hair, Union, particularly at the Communist University of the and 1,000 metric tons (1,102 short tons) of CASHMERE at Toilers of the East (known by its Russian acronym KUTV) low prices. Mongolia’s actual 1940 production of these and at the Red Army academy in Tver proved more effec- items was 10,600, 2,000, and 100 metric tons, respec- tive than advisers in transmitting Soviet influence in Mon- tively (equal to 11,680, 2,205, and 110 short tons). He golia. Returned students were essential in implementing also asked Mongolia to increase its herd, then at 26 mil- the leftist policy line of 1929–32. The special classes for lion, to 200 million head. Mongolians, BURIATS, and KALMYKS at the Oriental Insti- While such demands proved impossible, World War tute in Leningrad nurtured many of Mongolia’s later II succeeded in reversing Mongolia’s trade deficit with the authors and scholars. The Mongolian Rabfak (from Rus- Soviet Union as the German invasion devastated the sian Rabochii fakul’tet, or workers school) in ULAN-UDE Soviet economy and the Mongolian government mobi- from 1930 to 1941 furnished at Soviet expense 166 Mon- lized the population to supply its ally. In 1942 exports to golians with a middle school education as preparation for the Soviet Union exceeded imports by 122 percent. In the higher education in Russia; graduates included the aca- postwar period the deficits reappeared and expanded demician BAZARYN SHIRENDEW, while Tsedenbal graduated through the 1950s. Despite the expansion of coal mining from a similar program in Irkutsk (see DAMDINSÜREN, and the establishment of a small petroleum industry, as TSEDIIN; RINCHEN, BYAMBYN; YADAMSÜREN, ÜRJINGIIN). late as 1958 98 percent of Mongolia’s exports were still The post–World War II baby boom and the vast animal products or live animals. expansion of the industrial economy supplied a similarly The Brezhnev-Tsedenbal years completely trans- vast increase in the number of students studying in the formed the Soviet-Mongolian economic relationship. Aid Soviet Union. By 1981–82 almost 10,300 Mongolian stu- promised in the 1966 treaty came to supply 40 percent of dents were studying in 362 separate Soviet research insti- Mongolia’s investment capital, financing projects all over tutes, universities, colleges, professional middle schools, the country. Investment in mining finally realized the and technical schools. Knowledge of Russian became a Soviet dream of making Mongolia a major mineral sup- prerequisite for any sort of responsible position in Mon- plier, as mineral exports rose from 0.6 percent of Mongo- golia. By 1990 virtually the entire ruling class of Mongo- lia’s exports in 1965 to 39.2 percent in 1985. The great lia had received education in the Soviet Union or in bulk of this was supplied by the massive copper-molyb- Eastern Europe (see BATMÖNKH, JAMBYN; DASHBALBAR, denum mine at ERDENET CITY, which came on line in OCHIRBATYN; ZORIG, SANJAASÜRENGIIN). 1978–81 as the centerpiece of Soviet aid. With the devel- During the mid-1930s the number of Soviet advisers opment of extractive industries, however, Mongolia’s increased from 81 in 1935 to 205 in 1936. The previous imports of machine technology, petroleum, trucks, and economic focus of Soviet advisers changed, and military other goods again increased, so that imports from the advisers increased to 110 in 1936 and 681 in 1939. A Soviet Union regularly exceeded exports by 30–45 per- more sinister class of advisers trained the security organs cent. Mongolia’s foreign debt to the Soviet Union accu- in counterespionage, with a focus on the use of torture to mulated relentlessly, although Brezhnev’s belief that fabricate ever-expanding spy cases. Several cases in the Mongolia would eventually join the Soviet Union meant early 1920s, such as that of BODÔ in 1922, were clearly that repayment was not seriously expected. fabricated by Soviet advisers, but the security services were reigned in after 1925 until the outbreak of the much STUDENTS AND ADVISERS larger LHÜMBE CASE in 1933. From 1937 to 1940 Soviet Exchange of people was an essential part of the Soviet- security advisers assisted Mongolians from lowly investi- Mongolian relationship. In this exchange the Soviet gators up to Marshal Choibalsang himself in creating Union sent advisers and trainers, while the Mongols sent thousands of cases and snaring tens of thousands of vic- students to the Soviet Union. Soviet instructors worked tims in a far-off theater in Stalin’s war against his own with the Mongolian partisans from the very beginning, society. Encouraged by Choibalsang’s compliance, many and after the formation of the new government virtually advisers began to give edicts on subjects far beyond their every office had its Soviet personnel. By 1927 Soviets liv- competence. Soviet Union and Mongolia 517 From 1940 to the mid-1960s Soviet academics and IDEOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM artists working in Mongolia opened up field after field of In the early years of Soviet-Mongolian relations symbolic academic research. The chief physics, chemistry, and exchanges of delegates, telegrams, demonstrations, biology professors at Mongolian State University’s found- memorial services, and membership in Moscow-based ing in 1942 were all Russian; up to the 1980s more than internationals, such as the Communist Youth Interna- 400 Soviet academics had taught at the school. Soviet tional, the Profintern, or Red International of Trade geological, botanical, paleontological, and archaeological Unions, and so on, stimulated solidarity with the interna- surveys became the training ground for Mongolia’s first tional revolutionary cause. The Mongolian painter “BUSY- specialists in those disciplines (see ARCHAEOLOGY; BODY” SHARAB’s portraits of V. I. Lenin and other world DINOSAURS.) Circus, cinema, classical music, and ballet revolutionary leaders, painted from photographs, were all eventually became nativized in Mongolia through placed in congresses and offices. Themes of “Lenin” and Soviet advisers in Mongolia and Mongolian students “October” began appearing in works by authors such as studying in the Soviet Union. NATSUGDORJI and BUYANNEMEKHÜ from 1931 on. The vast expansion of Soviet aid swelled the num- With the rise of Choibalsang the growing cult of the ber of Soviets working in Mongolia. In the 1980s an leader in Mongolia was matched with a similar cult of estimated 32,000 Soviet civilians in addition to the Stalin and Lenin. Stalin’s statue was erected in 1949 in 75,000 military personnel lived in Mongolia. Those in front of the Stalin State (or National) Library, and in Ulaanbaatar had a network of special apartments, stores, 1950–54 his complete works were published. Lenin buses, and clubs that kept them almost completely iso- received his own statue and Mongolian-language com- lated from the Mongolians. Popular resentment of the plete works in 1954 and 1967, respectively. The subject Soviet presence broke out over a Soviet bus’s collision of the meeting of Lenin and GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR with a Mongolian one in 1979, but it was immediately (which may or may not have happened and was certainly squelched by the authorities. The Russian-language not a one-on-one interview) was first treated by the grade school no. 23 in Ulaanbaatar, founded in 1965, painter D. Choidog (1917–56) in 1942 and became a became the favored school for the children of the elite, stock theme of Mongolian art. due to both its high academic standards and its lan- The emphasis on the theme of Soviet-Mongolian guage of instruction. friendship was carried to baroque excesses under A Meeting with Lenin by A. Sengetsokhio, painted in 1967 in the Mongol zurag style. Lenin’s meeting with Sükhebaatur was a favorite theme of art during the Communist era. (From Orchin Uyeiin Mongolyn Dürslekh Urlag [1971]) 518 Soyombo script Tsedenbal (r. 1952–84). Publicity focused on events such SCRIPT but written in horizontal rows, not columns. Before as the March 22–30, 1981, joint Soviet-Mongolian space Zanabazar, all Mongolian scripts had been vertical, but flight of the Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir A. Zhanibekov Sanskrit and Tibetan were both written in rows. Zan- and his Mongolian partner, J. Gürragchaa. Its perfect abazar’s horizontal scripts thus may have been intended to expression was a children and youth’s encyclopedia, ease production of interlinear parallel texts. The Soyombo which devoted one volume to Mongolia after 1921, one script was one of the lesser-used scripts taught in courses volume (under the name “A Great Friendship”) to the organized by the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA (the administrative Soviet Union after 1917, and a third volume to the rest office of the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU’s estate) in the late of human civilization. 19th and early 20th centuries. Only a few texts of any length are known, and none was originally written in the LEGACY Soyombo script. Given its pervasive character, it is difficult to separate The name Soyombo derives from Sanskrit Svayam- the Soviet legacy in Mongolia from that of post-1921 bhu, “self-existing,” and it was called in Mongolian the Mongolia as a whole. The most important aspect of “brilliant self-existent script” (öber-iyen bolugsan gegen Soviet influence on Mongolia was the degree to which its üsüg). The SOYOMBO SYMBOL was placed at the beginning advocates, both Soviet and Mongolian, fused indepen- of texts written in the script, displaying in several signs dence from China, modernization, Communist ideology, the union of skills in means and wisdom that generates and Soviet-Russian culture into one inseparable package, the self-existing bliss of enlightenment. insisting that rejecting one would lead to rejecting all The Soyombo script is, like the Tibetan and ’Phags- four. Mongolian attempts to break apart this package and pa (square) script, a script of the Indic type. While funda- separately evaluate its contents were repeatedly mentally alphabetic, it is written in blocks of one syllable. squelched, until the collapse of the Soviet empire made Graphically, every syllable is based on a superscribed the issue moot. downward pointing solid triangle and a vertical beam on See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; 1990 DEMO- the right. The vowels are marked either above or below CRATIC REVOLUTION; ECONOMY, MODERN; FOREIGN RELA- the triangle and the initial consonant is marked below the TIONS; KHALKHYN GOL, BATTLE OF; MINING; MONGOLIAN triangle. Syllable-final consonants are attached to the PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY lower part of the vertical beam. As in all Indic scripts, an PARTY; MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY YOUTH LEAGUE; REVO- a is implied when no vowel is written. Diphthongs are LUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. indicated by vowel signs added outside the beam on the Further reading: Christopher P. Atwood, “Sino- right, while long vowels are indicated by a slanting exten- Soviet Diplomacy and the Second Partition of Mongolia, sion of the vertical beam. The resulting initial and final 1945–1946,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Land- letters for Mongolian are conventionally counted at 59. locked Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and Bruce A. The alphabet also includes 33 special signs for Sanskrit Elleman (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 137–161; words and eight for Tibetan words. Tsedendambyn Batbayar, “Stalin’s Strategy in Mongolia, Orthographically, the Soyombo script was, like other 1932–1936,” Mongolian Studies 22 (1999): 1–17; Bruce A. Mongolian scripts, not fully consistent. In general, it Elleman, “Final Consolidation of the USSR’s Sphere of retains many Uighur-Mongolian forms characteristic of Interest in Mongolia,” in Mongolia in the Twentieth Cen- Middle Mongolian, such as the diphthongs and archaic tury: Landlocked Cosmopolitan, ed. Stephen Kotkin and verbal forms. Even so, it reflects KHALKHA pronunciation Bruce A. Elleman (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), in distinguishing ts from ch and dz from j only by the 123–136; Irina Y. Morozova, The Comintern and Revolu- absence or presence of an i following the consonant. tion in Mongolia (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 2002); Interestingly, Zanabazar also used this same etymological Kyosuke Terayama, “Soviet Policies toward Mongolia device to distinguish s from sh. after the Manchurian Incident,” in Facets of Transforma- See also MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. tion of the Northeast Asian Countries, ed. Tadashi Yoshida and Hiroki Oka (Sendai: Center for Northeast Asian Soyombo symbol Derived from Sanskrit svayambhu, Studies, 1998), 37–66. “self-existent,” the Soyombo symbol was designed by the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU Zanabazar (1635–1723). Soyombo script This script, designed by the First On the top of the Soyombo and often used separately JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, Zanabazar (1635–1723), in 1686, appear a sun disk and crescent moon surmounted by a was used mostly for writing short ornamental Buddhist three-pointed flame. The lower part of the Soyombo has texts. The Soyombo script was apparently created as a way the arga-bilig (skill-wisdom), or yin-yang, symbol (often to write Mongolian with Sanskrit and Tibetan in a single interpreted as two fish). Framing it are two long vertical script. Zanabazar also experimented with a “horizontal sidebars, while above and below are downward pointing square script” (khebtege dürbeljin üsüg), a rare and imper- triangles and short horizontal bars. The Soyombo rests on fectly known script similar to ‘Phags-pa Lama’s SQUARE a lotus. square script 519 The Soyombo symbol was named after the famous in the empire’s administrative documents or as a phonetic Svayambhu stupa, or Buddhist reliquary, outside Kat- transcription to help Mongols learn Chinese. Qubilai mandu city in Nepal. Since the 18th century, the crescent thus commissioned ’Phags-pa to create a script that could moon, sun disk, and flame have surmounted stupas in represent the sounds of the empire’s major languages, both Tibet and Mongolia. The EIGHTH JIBZUNDAMBA particularly Mongolian and Chinese. KHUTUGTU, as theocratic ruler of Mongolia (1870–1924), ’Phags-pa based his new alphabet closely on the used the symbol on both Mongolia’s flag and state SEAL. Tibetan script, itself derived from an Indic script. While From there it has become the symbol of the independent the Indian and Tibetan scripts were written in horizontal Mongolian nation, found on all FLAGS since then, rows from left to right, however, ’Phags-pa arranged his although without the lotus since 1940. Since 1990 the alphabet in vertical columns, left to right, following the sun disk, crescent moon, and flame have been adopted on Uighur-Mongolian script. The forms of the letters were the flags of the BURIAT REPUBLIC and the AGA BURIAT mostly taken from Tibetan, with a number of slightly AUTONOMOUS AREA, as well as by Mongolian, Buriat, and altered letters added to cover Mongolian and Chinese Inner Mongolian opposition political organizations. sounds that did not exist in Tibetan. ’Phags-pa squared While the full meaning of the original symbol is off most of the letters, thus giving rise to the modern obscure, the sun and the moon and the arga-bilig symbol Mongolian name of “square script” (dörbeljin bichig, clearly refer to the union of wisdom (bilig), identified modern Mongolian, dörwöljin bichig). In adapting basi- with the sun and the feminine principle, and the skillful cally Tibetan letters to Mongolian, ’Phags-pa made use of means (arga) to teach that wisdom, identified with the devices that had been pioneered centuries before in the moon and the masculine principle. The surmounted writing of the Uighur language (phonetically similar to flame thus refers to the thought of enlightenment (bodi Mongolian) in the Brahmi script. sedkil) generated by the union of feminine wisdom and The orthography of square-script Mongolian shows a masculine skill in means. number of conventions borrowed from the Uighur script, In 1945, when the anomaly of a Buddhist symbol on particularly relating to the representation of vocal har- a Communist flag became disturbing, the scholar BAMBYN mony. At the same time, it is an important witness to the RINCHEN concocted for Mongolia’s maximum leader MAR- phonology of 13th-century Mongolian. Unlike the SHAL CHOIBALSANG a secular explanation: the flame repre- Uighur-Mongolian script, for example, the square script sents the people’s glory, its three points their past, distinguishes a closed e- from the more open one and present, and future; the sun and moon, the people’s eter- marks the early Altaic initial h- that disappears in later nity; the downward pointing triangles, the destruction of Mongolian. Like the Chinese transcription of the SECRET the people’s enemies; the horizontal bars, the people’s HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS from around 1400, it also testi- struggle for justice; the two fish, with their unblinking fies to the widespread shifts between weak and strong eyes, unceasing vigilance against enemies; and the verti- stops in the dialect spoken among the Mongols in North cal bars, that if the people remain united they will be China. The square script orthography for Chinese also firmer than a stone wall. While this explanation is obvi- furnishes an accurate representation of Chinese phonol- ously grossly anachronistic, it preserved the symbol and ogy in a stage between Middle Mandarin and modern is now widespread in Mongolia. Chinese. It does not, however, distinguish between tones. See also SOYOMBO SCRIPT. After the script was presented to the court, Qubilai immediately decreed that all documents with the impe- rial seal be written in this “new Mongolian script,” and sports and games See ARCHERY; CHESS; HORSE RACING; schools were created to teach it (see CONFUCIANISM; EDU- HUNTING AND FISHING; NAADAM; WRESTLING. CATION, TRADITIONAL). Court records, including the Mongolian Veritable Records written by Sarman in 1288, square script (’Phags-pa Script) First designed by the were drafted in the script by the Mongolian Hanlin Tibetan ‘PHAGS-PA LAMA, the square script was designed as Academy. The new script rapidly replaced the Uighur- a universal script of the Mongol Empire yet was never Mongolian script for Mongolian-language inscriptions widely adopted even for the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. In on tablets of authority (PAIZA), cast-copper coins, and 1269 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) ordered ’Phags-pa Lama paper money, while a number of inscriptions of ’Phags- (1235–80), his state preceptor (guoshi), to create a new pa dating from 1276 to 1368 have been found. Even so, script for the Mongolian language. While the UIGHUR- repeated decrees issued from 1271 to 1284 insisting that MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, in use since the time of CHINGGIS the bureaucracy use the square script show that passive KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27), was well adapted in many resistance to the script change was widespread. Records ways to the Mongolian language, certain peculiarities of publication of a number of translated Chinese histo- made it ambiguous, lacking any distinction between t and ries and Confucian works and fragmentary remains of d, k and g, and so on. It was even less adequate for writ- books, including Buddhist translations and a birchbark ing the Chinese names and terms increasingly common verse found on the Volga, show there was at least a small 520 Ssanang Ssetsen readership of books in the square script. The majority of extant square-script documents, however, were written not in Mongolian but in Chinese and show the widespread use of the square script by Mongols and UIGHURS to read and write Chinese. After the expulsion of the Yuan from China, the square script disappeared among the Mongols. As the Hor-yig, or “Mongolian script,” it was still used for orna- mental purposes on the Tibetan plateau, and handbooks of the script were block printed there until the 20th cen- tury. Often what is called the “Mongolian script,” how- ever, is actually simply squared-off Tibetan script and not genuine square script at all. See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY. Further reading: Nicholas Poppe and John R. Krueger, Mongolian Monuments in hP‘ags-pa Script (Wies- baden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1957). Ssanang Ssetsen See SAGHANG SECHEN. stag stones See ELK STONES. “stone men” (baba) Stone figures formed a distinctive genre of funerary art during the Türk (552–742) and early Uighur (744–840) period. They cover the steppe from Mongolia to the Black Sea. About 400 such figures are known, of which about half are in Mongolia, primar- ily central Mongolia (around the sacred Ötüken forest) and the ALTAI RANGE (the old Türk homeland). All the figures hold a cup to their chests with one or both hands; in the former case the left hand holds the Seated “stone man.” His clothing is typical of the Yuan era. pommel of a sword. The men are belted and bearded. (From N. Tsultem, Mongolian Sculpture [1989]) Stone men occur in distinct funerary complexes often associated with Old Turkish inscriptions. Elaborate com- plexes consist of a templelike structure with walls, a regional origin and dates suggest that they belonged to the ditch, and a figure of a seated man often with a seated ÖNGGÜD or possibly QONGGIRAD tribes and show the grad- woman, his wife, attended by standing or kneeling fig- ual transformation of funerary beliefs during the Yuan ures. Outside, to the east or southeast, extends a line of under Confucian and Buddhist influence. Stone men erect stones (baba), sometimes including schematic stone found with ELK STONES (Mongolia) or Scythian graves men. Ordinary complexes contain usually a single stone (Ukraine) may represent either early examples or more man in an enclosure defined by stone slabs and a line of likely intrusive artifacts due to reuse of old grave sites. babas. Qipchaq babas in the Black Sea steppe (11th and See also FUNERARY CUSTOMS; QIPCHAQS; RUNIC SCRIPT 12th centuries) are either male or female, often with AND INSCRIPTIONS. exaggerated breasts and belly, and generally hold a cup with both hands to the chest or abdomen. Sübe’etei Ba’atur (Sübü’etei, Sübödei, Sübetei) In southeastern Mongolia and north-central Inner (1176–1248) Chinggis Khan’s most formidable general, Mongolia occur distinctive stone men seated on armchairs who campaigned in North China, Iran, Russia, and Hungary with one hand holding a stemmed cup and the other the Sübe’etei belonged to the Uriyangkhan clan. By CHINGGIS figure’s left knee. They are located southeast of mounds KHAN’s time the clan had been subject to the khan’s ances- with remains of templelike structures. Many figures are tors for five generations. As a blacksmith clan, the Mon- naked and androgynous, with prominent male genitalia gols also ascribed supernatural powers to them. and breasts; none has a moustache or weapons. Others, According to the YUAN SHI (more accurate here than the however, are clothed and elaborately carved, often holding SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS), Sübe’etei was the son of a rosary in their left hand. Details of hairstyle and clothing Qaban, who joined Chinggis Khan’s cause with 100 match those of the 13th-century MONGOL EMPIRE. Their households at Baljuna in 1203 (see BALJUNA COVENANT). Subei Mongol Autonomous County 521 Sübe’etei first fought for Chinggis in the decisive vic- proudly formed the “four dogs” of Chinggis Khan, a title tory over the NAIMAN Khanate at Keltegei Cliffs (1204). In that reflected their tenacious ferocity in the Mongol van- the conquest of North China’s JIN DYNASTY, Sübe’etei was guard. In 1229 Ögedei bestowed the imperial princess the first over the walls at the siege of the frontier town of Tümugen on Sübe’etei. JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI, who vis- Huanzhou (February 1212). His first independent cam- ited Mongolia in 1246, says that he was known simply as paign was against the MERKID of northern Mongolia, who Ba’atur, “Hero.” His son Uriyangqadai (1199–1271) and had revolted in 1216. Sübe’etei subdued them and by grandson AJU continued his martial reputation. 1218–19 had pursued the remaining Merkid deep into the See also KAIFENG, SIEGE OF; KALKA RIVER, BATTLE OF; Qipchaq steppe north of the Caspian Sea. This campaign MUHI, BATTLE OF. made Sübe’etei the Mongols’ expert on western peoples. Further reading: P. D. Buell, “Sübötei Ba’atur,” in In In May 1220, during his campaign against the Kho- the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early razm shah, Sultan ‘Ala’ud-Din Muhammad, Chinggis Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz Khan dispatched Sübe’etei together with JEBE and three et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrossowitz, 1993), 13–26. tümens (nominally 30,000 men) to pursue the fleeing sul- tan and subdue the west. Racing forward, they captured ‘Ala’ud-Din Muhammad’s wife and treasures and block- Subei Mongol Autonomous County (Su-pei) Occupy- aded him on an island in the Caspian Sea. With news of ing two noncontiguous blocks in Gansu province, Subei the sultan’s death in winter 1220–21, Sübe’etei and Jebe Mongol Autonomous county has an area of 66,748 square pushed on, reconnoitering the west while scattering the kilometers (25,772 square miles). The southern block, in remaining Khorazmian troops. This mission led them which is situated Dangchengwan, the county seat, occu- through western Iran into GEORGIA and Azerbaijan and pies the valley of the Danghe River as it flows from the through the Derbent Pass. Everywhere they placed over- Tibetan plateau northwest into the desert near Dunhuang. seers (DARUGHACHI) in cities that surrendered and slaugh- The northern block occupies the desert from Mazong tered those who resisted. Passing into the Caspian and Shan Mountain to the Mongolian frontier, between Xin- Black Sea steppes, they attacked the Alans (OSSETES) first, jiang and Inner Mongolia. then the southern QIPCHAQS, and finally a force of Subei’s small Mongol population has increased from Qipchaqs and Russians at Kalka River (May 31, 1223). 3,834 in 1982 to 4,219 in 1999, at which time it formed The Mongol generals then rode east to Mongolia. 38 percent of the county’s 11,215 people. The county’s After this extraordinary campaign, never before economic base is pastoralism, and it has 235,000 head of attempted and never again repeated, Sübe’etei spent sev- livestock but only 10,000 hectares (24,710 acres) of culti- eral years warring in China. From 1226 he commanded vated fields. the western wing in Chinggis’s final campaign of annihi- The Mongol population of Subei is mostly UPPER lation against the Tangut XIA DYNASTY in northwest MONGOLS migrating from Kökenuur (Qinghai). From China. In 1230 the new emperor ÖGEDEI KHAN dispatched 1766 to 1897 bannermen from the Kökenuur Khoshud’s him to rescue Doqolqu from the Jin armies ensconced in Körlög Beile and Körlög Jasag BANNERS (in modern north- the strategic Tongguan Pass, but for the first time he was east Haixi) fled to the Serteng (in modern Aksay Kazakh stymied. In 1232 Ögedei’s brother TOLUI and Sübe’etei Autonomous county, just west of southern Subei) and found an alternate route around the Jin fortifications, and Danghe valleys to avoid first Tibetan and then Hui (Chi- in 1233–34 Sübe’etei victoriously besieged both the Jin nese-speaking Muslim) depredations. By 1940 the two capital, Kaifeng, and the Jin emperor’s final refuge in valleys had 599 Mongol households and 250,000 live- Caizhou (modern Runan). Sübe’etei asked to exterminate stock. Northern Subei was long a no-man’s land haunted the entire population according to Mongol practice, but by refugees and adventurers such as DAMBIJANTSAN. In Ögedei, influenced by his civilian adviser YELÜ CHUCAI, 1926 KHOSHUDS from Xinjiang (in modern Bayangol pre- ordered the population spared. fecture) and in 1931 TORGHUDS from Khobogsair settled In 1235 Ögedei dispatched Sübe’etei against the the area, making about 90 families. unsubdued Qipchaqs. On this great western campaign, In 1940–41 invading Xinjiang KAZAKHS routed the which would carry the Mongols as far as Hungary, Serteng and Danghe Mongols. The Chinese People’s Lib- Sübe’etei mostly let the younger princes, such as BATU, eration Army entered the area in 1949, restored order, GÜYÜG, and Möngke, take the lead. Still, he took over the and on July 29, 1950, made Subei a Mongol autonomous siege of Torzhok after Batu’s attack failed and played a area. The 268 surviving Mongol households had only crucial role in the battle on the Muhi River in Hungary 20,724 livestock left. In 1953 it was decided to give (April 11, 1241). Batu later said, “Everything that we Serteng to the now-pacified Kazakhs, reserving Danghe captured at that time is Sübe’etei’s merit.” and Mazong Shan for the Mongols. Subsequently, Sübe’etei retired as an immensely See also BAYANGOL MONGOL AUTONOMOUS PREFEC- respected elder statesman until his death in 1248. TURE; HAIXI MONGOL AND TIBETAN AUTONOMOUS PREFEC- Sübe’etei, along with Qubilai Noyan, Jebe, and Jelme, had TURE; KHOBOGSAIR MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. 522 Sübetei Sübetei See SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR. After being mobilized as a soldier during the 1911 RESTORATION, he compiled a distinguished record com- Sübödei See SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR. manding a machine gun platoon, despite leading a mutiny over poor living conditions. During this time, if not before, he learned a little spoken Russian. Discharged Süchbaatar See SÜKHEBAATUR PROVINCE. in 1918, he became a copy editor for the publication of Mongolia’s law code. In 1913 he settled down with Sühbaatar See SÜKHEBAATUR, GENERAL; SÜKHEBAATUR Yangjima, who lived near his family’s first yurt-courtyard PROVINCE. in Khüriye. They had one son, Galsang. Suiyuan See HÖHHOT. IN THE REVOLUTION With the 1919 REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY Sükhebaatur Suke-Bator See SÜKHEBAATUR, GENERAL. made a living as a teamster for Russian and Tatar mer- chants in Khüriye, which joining the secret “officials’ fac- tion” led by Danzin and Dogsum (D. Dogsom, Sükhbaatar See SÜKHEBAATUR, GENERAL; SÜKHEBAATUR 1884–1941) aiming to restore Mongolian autonomy. In PROVINCE. July 1920 the new Mongolian People’s Party chose Sükhe- baatur as one of the “first seven” sent to Soviet Russia to Sükhebaatur, General (Damdiny Sükhbaatar, Süh- appeal for assistance against the Chinese. Once he baatar, Suke-Bator) (1893–1923) Founder and first com- crossed the border, Sükhebaatur cut off his queue and mander of the Mongolian armed forces; his role in the 1921 began wearing Russian-style clothing. Revolution was later exaggerated to make him the revolu- From November Sükhebaatur was sent to the border tion’s sole leader town of Troitskosavsk (in modern KYAKHTA) to begin Sükhebaatur’s parents immigrated from Yosutu Zasag recruiting Mongolian soldiers. On February 9, 1921, banner (modern Sükhebaatur Sum, Sükhebaatur) to Sükhebaatur was designated commander in chief, and he Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) in 1890, where his built up a several-hundred-strong partisan force from father, and later Sükhebaatur himself, worked as a man- frontier pickets and border banners. Assisted by a Soviet ual laborer. The future commander was born on February Red Army staff command, Sükhebaatur led them on the 2, 1893. In 1907–09 he learned to read and write from night of March 17–18 against the much larger Chinese the scholar official Jamyang (O. Jamiyan, 1864–1930). garrison at Mongolian Kyakhta (modern Altanbulag) in his first victory as a commander. Sükhebaatur’s family had been under surveillance first by the Chinese and then by the White Russians, but now Yangjima escaped to Altanbulag. Sükhebaatur’s small force played only a sec- ondary role in the Red Army’s later victorious advance on Khüriye in June–July 1921. IN THE NEW GOVERNMENT In July 1921 Sükhebaatur was confirmed commander in chief and minister of the army in the new government and a member of the Military Commission with ELBEK- DORZHI RINCHINO and later MAGSURJAB. Sükhebaatur organized military reforms: establishing a 210-bed mili- tary hospital, a factory at Altanbulag to produce mili- tary uniforms, and a military academy. Proposals not implemented during his life included a universal con- scription system, the replacement of the postroad duty with hired transport, and an eight-hour workday for all office workers. He also paid close attention to military intelligence. Sükhebaatur joined Danzin (now party chief and finance minister) and the deputy foreign minister General Sükhebaatur (seated left), his deputy Choibalsang TSERINDORJI on the mission to negotiate the November 5 (seated right), and his chief of staff Valentin A. Khuya (stand- friendship treaty with Soviet Russia in Moscow. Sükhe- ing) (a Soviet), winter 1922. (Photo from Damdiny Sükhbaatar baatur had long disliked Prime Minister BODÔ and on his [1980]) return strongly supported his resignation. sum 523 In his lifetime Sükhebaatur had a great reputation somewhat less than half the city’s inhabitant are of Darig- among the Mongols for his battlefield courage and heroic anga Mongol origin. demeanor. His main policy interests were in the building See also DASHBALBAR, OCHIRBATYN; MINING. of a strong European-style military and the advocacy of severe measures against real or suspected counterrevolu- tionaries. Not religious, Sükhebaatur was a heavy drinker sum (sumu, somon, soum) First introduced as a militia and chain smoker and from 1920 had frequent bouts of unit under the QING DYNASTY, the sum (Middle Mongo- illness. At his death he was heavily in debt. lian, sumu) is now the basic unit of rural administration After completing a tour of the eastern frontier in in both Mongolia proper and Inner Mongolia. November 1922, Sükhebaatur was replaced by Magsur- Sum or sumu translates the Manchu term niru, jab as army minister while remaining commander in “arrow,” and designated a militia company. Under the chief. On February 14, 1923, while inspecting the Manchus’ Qing dynasty (1636–1912) the Mongol sumus troops guarding against a counterrevolutionary plot were fixed as a unit of 150 households, each supplying allegedly timed for the WHITE MONTH (lunar new year), one able-bodied man. The sumu was divided into three Sükhebaatar became ill. He was bedridden from the next 50-man units that rotated with one unit on active duty day until his death on February 23. His death immedi- and the other two on reserve. The sumu was headed by a ately occasioned suspicions of poisoning, which have company captain (sumun-u janggi) assisted by a lieu- continued to the present, although the only autopsy, tenant (orolan khööegchi) who supervised the active duty done in Chita, considered a liver disease the likeliest unit. Sumus were divided into 50s and 20s so called from cause of death. By the late 1920s Sükhebaatur was the number of households. In large, sparsely inhabited already becoming legendary, and his one-time deputy areas such as KHALKHA and ALASHAN, the subdivisions MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG later developed this legend into a were called bag (teams). myth of Sükhebaatur as the brilliant leader of the Mon- The Mongolian sumus were combined into BANNERS. golian revolution. The number of sumus per banner varied widely. Inner See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; 1921 REVOLU- Mongolia’s 49 autonomous banners averaged more than TION; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. 25 sumus per banner, and one banner, Monggoljin Further reading: L. Bat-Ochir and D. Dashjamts, (Fuxin), had 97. KHALKHA’s 86 autonomous banners, on “Sükhbaatar the Supreme Hero,” in Mongolian Heroes of the other hand, averaged less than two sumus per banner, the Twentieth Century, trans. Urgunge Onon (New York: and none had more than 14. While membership in the AMS Press, 1976), 143–192; Owen Lattimore, National- sumus was hereditary, they were not territorial communi- ism and Revolution in Mongolia (Oxford: Oxford Univer- ties, and herders could pasture their flocks anywhere in sity Press, 1955). the banner. In 1931 Mongolia was redivided into 18 provinces each with 15 to 25 sums. In 1990 the slightly more than Sükhebaatur province (Süchbaatar, Sühbaatar, Suke- 300 sums had an average of 5,000 square kilometers Bator, Sükhbaatar) Sükhebaatur province, lying in (1,930 square miles) of territory and a little more than southeastern Mongolia, was carved out of Eastern (then 2,500 persons each. Sum members are not allowed to pas- Choibalsang and Khentii provinces in 1941. The province ture their flocks outside their sum except in case of emer- is named after GENERAL SÜKHEBAATUR, who was a native gency. Under collectivization, from 1960 to 1992, the of the province. It has a long frontier with central Inner sums were coextensive with either cooperatives (negdels) Mongolia in China. or state farms (sangiin aj akhui). The sum local adminis- The province’s territory includes all the prerevolu- tration was thus largely merged with the cooperative or tionary DARIGANGA herd, an area that raised livestock for state farm management (see COLLECTIVIZATION AND COL- the Qing emperor in Beijing and that until 1912 was LECTIVE HERDING). Since DECOLLECTIVIZATION the sums attached to CHAKHAR in Inner Mongolia. To the north and have reemerged as a discrete, purely territorial adminis- east it includes territory that belonged to KHALKHA Mon- trative unit. Under collectivization the sums were divided golia’s prerevolutionary Setsen Khan and Tüshiyetü Khan into brigades, which have now been renamed bags. provinces. In the INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION sumus Its 82,300 square kilometers (31,780 square miles) are the subbanner rural administrative unit in areas belong to Mongolia’s eastern steppe and are the site of where Mongols are either the majority or a large minority. several extinct volcanos. Its population of 30,700 in 1956 (Elsewhere the subbanner or county rural unit is the rose to 55,900 in 2000. Its total livestock population of xiang, or township.) From 1958 to 1985 Inner Mongolian 1,492,500 head is notable for the relatively high numbers herding and agriculture were also collectivized, and the of HORSES (192,200 head) and CATTLE (209,600 head). sumu was coextensive with the commune (gongshe). In SHEEP, however, are the most numerous, at 717,300 head. Buriatia the term somon was adopted in 1923 as the low- The capital, Baruun-Urt, has 15,100 people (2000 figure); est unit of rural administration, equivalent to Russian selo 524 Su-pei (settlement) and used until 1965, when the Russian term Bhatta’s Ocean of Story (Sanskrit, Kathasaritsagara). was reinstated. Shiregetü Güüshi Chorjiwa (fl. 1578–1618), while at ERDENI ZUU, first translated the 52-jataka version into Su-pei See SUBEI MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. Mongolian from Tibetan as Shilughun onol-tu sudur (Sutra of the simple and the experienced). Toin Güüshi at HÖH- Sutra of the Wise and Foolish (Ocean of Story, Üliger- HOT made another translation around the same time. In ün dalai) Stories of Shakyamuni Buddha’s earlier lives, 1655 ZAYA PANDITA NAMKHAI-JAMTSU (1599–1662) trans- called jataka in Sanskrit (chadig in Mongolian), have lated the 51-jataka version using the Oirat CLEAR SCRIPT been a popular genre of literature in Mongolia as in all as Medeetei medee ügeyigi ilghagchi kemekü sudur (Sutra to Buddhist countries. These stories often resemble beast distinguish the wise and foolish). Shiregetü Güüshi fables but have been transformed to teach Buddhist ethi- Chorjiwa’s version remained the most common, being cal lessons. A Chinese translation from a lost Sanskrit block printed separately in 1714 and 1728 as well as original was translated into Tibetan as the mDzangs-blun being included in the printed Mongolian scriptures (bKa’- zhes-bya-ba’i mdo (Sutra to distinguish the wise and fool- ’gyur). Üliger-ün dalai (Ocean of story), the block printed ish), or mDo mdzangs-blun (Sutra of the wise and foolish) title, became the usual Mongolian name. for short, in 632. Other slightly differing Tibetan transla- See also DIDACTIC POETRY; LITERATURE. tions with 51 or 52 jatakas also circulated, however. Further reading: Stanley Frye, trans., Sutra of the Extant, more literary, Indian versions include Arya Wise and Foolish (Mdo mdzan˙s-blun) or Ocean of Story Shura’s Jatakamala (Garland of jatakas, English transla- (Üliger-ün Dalai) (Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works tion, Once the Buddha Was a Monkey) and Somadeva and Archives, 1981). Ta’achar (Taghachar, Tâjir) (d. 1296) Mongol comman- der in the Middle Eastern Il-Khanate who overthrew three T the army, while the other conspirators escaped from prison. They killed Geikhatu on March 24, 1295. khans before being executed by his fourth khan, Ghazan The crown was forced on the easygoing Baidu, who Khan knew his likely fate, and the kingdom was divided among Ta’achar, of the minor Suqai’ud branch of the Baarin clan, the conspirators, with Ta’achar and Sadr-ud-Din receiving served in the KESHIG (imperial guard) and ORDO (palace- Anatolia and Diyarbakır. Even so, they resented tent) of Abagha Khan (1265–82) ruler of the Mongols in Tödechü’s receiving the wealthy city of Baghdad and the Middle East. In 1281 Abagha deputed Ta’achar and Jamal-ud-Din Dastjerdani’s receiving the ultimate prize of Ordu-Qaya (d. 1291) to investigate charges against the vizierate. Thus, in May 1295 Ta’achar and Sadr-ud- ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI of withholding revenue. Din secretly contacted the clique around Arghun’s son Under Abagha’s brother Sultan Ahmad (1282–84) Ta’achar Ghazan (1271–1304) in northeast Iran. When Ghazan and Abagha’s other intimate servitors—Qunchuqbal of the and Baidu’s armies met on September 26, Ta’achar’s deser- QONGGIRAD (d. 1296), Doladai of the TATARS (d. 1296), tion gave the challenger victory. As agreed, GHAZAN KHAN and Ordu-Qaya—formed a faction supporting the rival made Sadr-ud-Din vizier, but Ta’achar was again relegated candidacy of Arghun, Abagha’s eldest son. Imprisoned by to Anatolia, where Ghazan had him discretely murdered Ahmad in January 1284, they were freed in July after BUQA in May 1296. Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani was executed two enthroned Arghun. years later. Although Arghun made Ta’achar commander of his personal Qara’una tümen (10,000), Ta’achar resented Taghachar See TA’ACHAR. Buqa’s arrogance and tight control over state finances. Buqa fell in 1289, but the new vizier, SA‘D-UD-DAWLA, Ta Hsing-an Ling See GREATER KHINGGAN RANGE. now with Ordu-Qaya’s support, continued this tight control. In 1291 Ta’achar’s clique murdered the para- lyzed khan (March 10) and then Sa‘d-ud-Dawla and Taichuud See TAYICHI’UD. Ordu-Qaya. After enthroning Arghun’s brother Geikhatu and taiji (tayiji, taij) The title taiji was the title of the nobil- making Ta’achar’s client Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani (d. 1298) ity among the Mongols proper and the OIRATS from the vizier, the Mongol commanders (NOYAN) achieved free- 16th century. (It is not be confused with TAISHI, which is dom from financial oversight. Nevertheless, offended by of completely different origin and significance.) The title Geikhatu’s pederasty among the keshig pages, Tödechü originated from Chinese taizi (prince, son of the emperor) jarghuchi (Judge Tödechü) of the Qongqotan conspired and was first used for the proliferating aristocracy com- to enthrone Baidu instead. Geikhatu imprisoned posed of sons and descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s descen- Qunchuqbal and Doladai but entrusted Ta’achar with two dant BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN (1480?–1517?). By 1594 tümens (10,000) to fight Baidu. Ta’achar seized control of the Chinese observer Xiao Daheng was already treating 525 526 taishi these taiji as a kind of petty nobility between the king or Further reading: Junko Miyawaki, “Birth of the sovereign and the common Mongols. Khung-Tayiji Viceroyalty in the Mongol-Oyirad World,” When the Manchu QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) reor- in Altaica Berolinensia: The Concept of Sovereignty in the ganized Inner Mongolia into autonomous BANNERS Altaic World, ed. Barbara Kellner-Heinkele (Wiesbaden: (appanages), it confirmed most of the privileges of the Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 149–155. Mongolian taiji class and extended the term to those local Mongol rulers claiming descent from Chinggis Khan’s brothers. Even the completely non-Chinggisid nobility of taishi (tayisi, taisha) The title taishi was used for dis- the KHARACHIN and Monggoljin (modern Fuxin) banners tinguished non-Chinggisid rulers among the Mongols, were designated (within their banners) as taiji. At the OIRATS, and BURIATS. (It is not to be confused with TAIJI, a same time, the mostly non-Chinggisid nobility of the title of completely different origin and significance.) Oirats in the 17th century adopted the title, which was Taishi in Chinese means “grand preceptor” and was preserved among the KALMYKS until the late 19th century. used as a high honorific title. The Kitan Liao dynasty When the Qing conquered the Oirats, however, only the (907–1125) bestowed the title on prominent chiefs of the banner ZASAGs (rulers) received rights of nobility, while MONGOLIAN PLATEAU, thus making it a prestigious title their petty nobility were entitled zaisangs and not given among the KEREYID tribe and the MONGOL TRIBE in the the privileges of taiji. decades before CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27). In Under the Qing dynasty the taiji were all ranked based 1217 Chinggis Khan granted it to his viceroy in North on their traditional prominence, seniority, and service to China, MUQALI. the dynasty. Below the titled nobility of princes and dukes, Under the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY (1206/71–1368) the ordinary taijis were graded in four ranks. In practice, Emperor Temür (posthumous reign name Chengzong, the term taiji by itself often referred only to these lower 1294–1307) revived the time-honored Chinese practice nontitled nobility. The commoner population was either of granting the court’s three chief officials honorific titles: wholly (Inner Mongolia) or partially (KHALKHA Mongolia) “grand preceptor” (taishi), “grand mentor” (taifu), and assigned to the various taijis. The taijis and their ladies “grand guardian” (taibao). From then until the end of the received domestic and pastoral services from their subjects. dynasty, these titles confirmed the power of the top-rank- Taijis divided up their subjects among their sons and also ing Mongol officials, usually of prestigious NÖKÖR (com- bestowed subjects as dowry (INJE) along with their daugh- panion) families. They were never held by members of ters. Qing law, however, removed their previous criminal the royal family. jurisdiction and limited their exactions. Only taijis could After the expulsion of the Yuan from China, the Mon- be zasags or administrators (tusalagchi taiji). gol khans of the northern Yuan continued to grant these The number of taijis proliferated compared to the titles to their officials. After 1403 Arugtai Taishi (d. 1434) commoners, reaching up to 42 percent of some banners, of the Asud clan (see OSSETES) became the first of many although the average in Khalkha was about 10 percent of taishis to reduce their khans to puppets. Under him and the lay population. As the taiji class increased in size, the Oirats Toghoon (d. 1438) and ESEN (r. 1438–54) the many inherited no subjects and became khokhi taijis, taishis became the real rulers. As with the beglerbegis of “destitute taijis.” the western khanates (see KESHIG), a key privilege of the As descendants of Chinggis Khan or his brothers, the taishi was to be QUDA (marriage allies) with the khan. The taijis bore the clan name BORJIGID or its synonym, Kiyad. title also entered the Chinggis Khan cult, in which a taishi The banner offices kept taiji genealogies, updated every headed the shrine’s mock court (see EIGHT WHITE YURTS). three years. In many banners different families of taijis The Chinggisid revival under BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN were represented, sons of different Dayan Khanid lines or KHAN (1480?–1517?) drove out the Oirats and eliminated of brothers of Chinggis Khan. Generally, taijis married the taishi, replacing it with rule through princes (taiji) of commoners; husbands of taiji women received the rank his own blood. Among the Oirats the title of taishi con- of tabunang. By the 17th century intermarriage among the tinued to be used for the chiefs of the great tribes (con- descendants of Chinggis Khan himself and those of his ventionally numbered as four), even though they no brothers was accepted, although some authors such as longer were associated with Chinggisid khans. In the Rashipungsug (fl. 1774–75) criticized the practice. 17th century the Oirats slowly replaced taishi with khan The taijis’ privileges were abolished in Kalmykia in or khung-taiji, while taiji (originally restricted to petty 1892, in Mongolia in 1922–24, and in Inner Mongolia Chinggisid nobility) became used for lesser Oirat chiefs. under the Japanese (1931–45). During the leftist period of Russian diplomats, familiar since 1600 with the term 1929–32 in Mongolia, activists disenfranchised the taiji, taishi (under the form taisha), confused it with the new confiscated their herds, and burned their genealogical taiji, so that taisha thus became the Russian translation records. In Inner Mongolia the Soviet invasion of 1945 and for the Kalmyk-Oirat taiji (petty nobility). rural class conflict and herd reform supported by the Chi- Among the Buriats, who lacked centralized single- nese Communists in 1946–52 led to similar measures. lineage rule, the term taisha (from taishi) was used, along Tanjur 527 with other administrative terms borrowed from older generation. Service as a tammachi was thus sometimes tan- Oirat and early Khalkha usage, for the highest level of tamount to exile. When Sali, on being assigned to conquer clan chiefs. While some taishas ruled a few hundred India and KASHMIR, asked the khan how long he would be households, the head taisha of the Khori and Aga tribes there, Möngke replied, “You will be there forever.” The had at least nominal authority over thousands. tammachi commanders, appointed to frontiers far from the khan, had virtually unlimited power over their territories, Tâjir See TA’ACHAR. appointing darughachis and collecting taxes freely. As regular Mongol administration expanded out to Tamerlane See TIMUR. the frontiers, the autonomy of the tammachi armies declined. Only Sali’s tammachis, isolated on the border of tammachi Tammachi armies were dispatched by the India, retained their former independence, becoming the Mongol khans as permanent garrison troops in sedentary turbulent QARA’UNAS. Under Ögedei and Möngke Khans lands. The term originated from the Chinese tanma civil administrators gradually restricted the power of (medieval pronunciation, tamma), “scout horse,” used Chormaqan and his successor, BAIJU, of the Besüd. When during the Tang dynasty (608–906). Succeeding dynas- Möngke’s brother HÜLE’Ü (1256–65) arrived in western ties used the term for escort or bodyguard soldiers. Iran with a vast army, Baiju first lost his autonomy and After shattering the main armies of the JIN DYNASTY in was later executed. While Chormaqan’s son Shiremün North China, CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis, 1206–27) enjoyed authority under Hüle’ü and his son, Abagha appointed his old companion MUQALI his viceroy in China Khan (1265–81), most of his tammachi commanders were in 1217 and assigned him a tammachi. The 1,000-man van- eventually disgraced and their units reduced to the status guard was chosen two by two from each of the other 10 of the other Mongol units. clans and tribes of the Mongols and so designated Qoshiqul, In North China the descendants of Muqali retained “pairs.” Of the rest, 12,000 were from five semiautonomous their high position but soon lost control of the tammachi. clans of the MONGOL TRIBE: the Uru’ud, the MANGGHUD, the In 1236 Ögedei assigned new troops to the tammachis of QONGGIRAD, the Ikires, and Muqali’s own JALAYIR. These five North China and ordered them to garrison the major pre- clans came to be called the “Five Touxia,” or “Five fectural seats. In 1255 the tammachi households were Appanages.” Another 10,000 men were from the large Turk- demobilized. In the conflicts after Möngke Khan’s death ish-speaking ÖNGGÜD tribe in Inner Mongolia. Finally, an the heads of the “Five Touxia” clans all supported QUBILAI undetermined but large number came from local Kitan, KHAN (1260–94), and in 1262 Qubilai ordered the tam- Tangut, and Han (ethnic Chinese) troops who had deserted machi men called up again, this time serving under the the Jurchen-dominated Jin dynasty. Although Muqali’s tam- general military command. In 1284 the tammachi armies machi soldiers were mostly discrete tribal units, the com- were transferred to the jurisdiction of JINGIM, the heir mand was exceedingly diverse, and Muqali’s leading apparent. Jingim’s mother and wife were the Qonggirad lieutenants were from the TATARS, KEREYID, and Han. family, and the tammachi armies became the military ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) formed new tammachi units foundation for the Qonggirad influence in the dynasty and dispatched them to the frontiers. One tammachi of until the clan’s decline in 1340. three (some sources say four) tümens (10,000s) was levied Tammachi armies served to the end of the YUAN and put under CHORMAQAN, a member of Chinggis’s body- DYNASTY (1271–1368) primarily as garrisons in the Hebei, guard. This unit, like Muqali’s, was also ethnically diverse, Shandong, and Shanxi areas of North China. Repeated consisting of Sönid, Besüd, and Ghorolas clans of the Mon- levies of soldiers impoverished many tammachi house- gols, in addition to a tümen of men conscripted from holds, and the government attempted unsuccessfully to Uighuristan, the cities of Turkestan, and Türkmen nomads. encourage agriculture among them. In 1320 reports of These men conquered and held the area of western Iran, tammachi households leasing their pastures in North the Caucasus, KURDISTAN, and Iraq. Another tammachi unit China to provide equipment for their tour of duty show under Tangghud was dispatched to the border of Korea both their hardship and yet how their lives still revolved and Manchuria. MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) placed Sali of around pastures and military service. the Tatars in command of two tümens sent to northeast See also INDIA AND THE MONGOLS; MILITARY OF THE Afghanistan with a mandate to conquer India. MONGOL EMPIRE. The SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS links the tam- Further reading: Koichi Matsuda, “On the Ho-nan machi and alginchi (scouts) troops with the DARUGHACHIs, Army,” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo or overseers, as the pillars of Mongol rule over distant Bunko 50 (1992): 29–55. sedentary lands. The darughachis oversaw the local offi- cials in the cities, while the alginchis and tammachis sup- Tanguts See XIA DYNASTY. plied the local military force to deal with any revolt. Tammachi armies were accompanied by their families and were expected to reproduce their ranks from generation to Tanjur See BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR. 528 Tannu Tuva Tannu Tuva See TUVANS. his capital, SHANGDU. After a favorable interview, the mas- ter returned south, leaving his disciple Zhang Liusun (d. Taoism in the Mongol Empire (Daoism) While the 1322) behind at the court. Zhang was an able physician Taoist adept Changchun won favor under CHINGGIS and won the favor of Qubilai’s heir apparent, JINGIM KHAN, Taoism suffered persecution under QUBILAI KHAN (Zhenjin), who prevented enforcement of Qubilai’s anti- but was again honored by later Yuan emperors. At the Taoist edicts. In 1278 Qubilai appointed Zhang the patri- time of the Mongol conquest of North China, Taoism was arch of a new Mysterious Teaching (Xuanjiao) order, undergoing important changes. Under the JIN DYNASTY separate from that of the Celestial Masters. Under Zhang’s (1115–1234) a controversial new Taoist sect called Com- advice he put southern Taoist temples under a govern- plete Realization (Quanzhen) spread from its cradle in ment office staffed by literati, the Academy of Scholarly Shandong. Its founders combined extraordinary ascetic Worthies. powers, strict monastic organization, and a popular After Qubilai’s death and the accession of Jingim’s preaching style. At the time of the Mongol conquest, this sons and grandsons, Taoism again received lavish patron- school’s MASTER CHANGCHUN (1148–1227) received invi- age. Zhang Liusun’s disciple Wu Quanjie managed prayer tations from the rival powers in North China, but Master services at the coronation of Temür (titled Chengzong, Changchun accepted the summons of Chinggis Khan 1294–1307). Temür made Zhang Liusun cochair of the (Genghis, 1206–27) only, visiting him in Afghanistan. In Academy of Scholarly Worthies and appointed him to lec- return for his instruction, Chinggis bestowed on ture on the Zhuangzi. The other branches of Taoism were Changchun edicts making him and his temples DARQAN, not forgotten, however. In 1304 Temür invested the or tax exempt, and appointing him chief of all the monks Celestial Master of Dragon and Tiger Mountain as head of in China. In the hardship and chaos of the Mongol inva- the Orthodox Unity (Zhengyi) school. South Chinese sion, many laymen sought a living by joining tax exempt Confucian scholars began using their friendship with Complete Realization Taoist temples. Chinese settlers influential southern Taoist clerics to advance at court, deported to cities such as Chinqai (see CHINQAI) and stimulating a close synthesis between Confucianism and QARA-QORUM established Taoist temples in Mongolia and Taoism in South China. Central Asia. Changchun’s disciples also took over large Zhu Yuanzhang (titled Ming Taizu, 1368–99), who numbers of Buddhist temples. overthrew Mongol rule and founded the MING DYNASTY, This aggressive expansion brought resistance, and abolished the Mongol-created Mysterious Teaching order in 1230 Changchun’s disciple Li Zhichang was briefly but left untouched the ascetic Complete Realization order arrested for defaming Buddhism. Under ÖGEDEI KHAN in the north and the more flexible Celestial Master order (1229–41) the Buddhist-Confucian minister YELÜ CHU- in the south. CAI secured equal treatment for Buddhism, Taoism, and See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; EAST ASIAN CONFUCIANISM. In 1237 Yelü Chucai tried to limit the SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN number of monks and control heretical teachings by THE MONGOL EMPIRE. using examinations to dismiss improper Taoist and Bud- Further reading: Li Chih-ch’ang, Travels of an dhist monks, yet marks of special favor to Complete Alchemist, trans. Arthur Waley (1931; rpt. New York: Realization Taoism continued. Li Zhichang tutored the AMS Press, 1979); K’o-k’uan Sun, “Yü Chi and Southern Mongol princes in Yanjing (modern Beijing), while Taoism during the Yüan Period,” in China under Mongol Empress TÖREGENE sponsored a historic block printing Rule, ed. John D. Langlois, Jr. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton of the complete Taoist canon in 1240–44. In 1251 University Press, 1981), 212–253. MÖNGKE KHAN appointed Li chief of all Taoist priests. From 1255 to 1257, however, Li actively promoted in tarqan See DARQAN. Qara-Qorum the Taoist view that Buddhism was only a barbarous form of Taoism. In 1258, after a debate in the presence of Möngke’s brother Qubilai, this claim was Tartars See TATARS. officially declared refuted, and 237 temples were forcibly converted to Buddhism. When Qubilai became Tatars The tribal name Tatar served successively as a khan (1260–94), the controversy continued, until in name for the nomads of Mongolia as a whole, for a Mon- 1281 Qubilai banned the newly printed Taoist canon, golia-speaking tribe in the HULUN BUIR area, for the Mon- sparing only Laozi’s Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching). gol conquerors as a whole, and for the Turkish-speaking In South China the leading school was the Celestial Muslim peoples in the Russian Empire. The Tatar name Master (Tianshi) sect, based at Dragon and Tiger Moun- first appears in the Turkic Kül-Tegin inscription of 731, tain (Longhu Shan) in Jiangxi. Southern Taoism was less in which the “Thirty Tatars” and the “Nine Tatars” are ascetic, more cultured, and had a smaller following than grouped with various peoples as enemies of the Türks the northern form. After his conquest of the south in (see TÜRK EMPIRES). The Tatars seem to have been east of 1276, Qubilai Khan summoned the Celestial Master to the Türks’ central Mongolian heartland, perhaps in the Tatars 529 area east and southeast of LAKE BAIKAL, in what would of Tatars. Later, YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, another Mongol chief, later be the Mongol heartland. was poisoned by a party of Tatars when coming home The Tatars next appear around 842, when they sub- from the camp of his son’s betrothed Qonggirad bride. mitted to the Kyrgyz Empire based in southern Siberia This son, Temüjin (later CHINGGIS KHAN), was himself (modern Khakassia). After the decline of the unstable named in 1164 after a captive Yisügei had taken from the Kyrgyz Empire, the Tatars flourished. They appear regu- Tatars in battle. Chinggis Khan thus inherited the tradi- larly in the Chinese records as “Dadan” (derived from tional Mongol feud with the Tatars. Tatar) and also in Persian and Islamic records. Ibn al- Not until 1196, however, did Chinggis Khan get an Athir described the Tatars and the KITANS in 1043 as the opportunity for revenge. After 1190 the new Jin emperor only nomads untouched by Islam. Around the same time had ceased the raids on the Mongols, and in 1196 his Mahmud Kashghari, the Turkish lexicographer, described grand councillor, Wanyan Xiang, was dispatched to the Tatars as people who speak their own language but attack Me’üjin-Se’ültü, who had unified the Tatars around “also know Turkish.” This presumably indicates that the his fortress on the Ulz River. Wanyan Xiang sought the Tatar were Mongolic speaking. By this time the Kitan aid of Chinggis Khan’s Kiyad Mongols, the Yürkin Mon- Liao dynasty in North China and Manchuria had estab- gols, and Toghril Khan’s Kereyid Khanate. Chinggis and lished its dominance over the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. In Toghril killed Me’üjin Se’ültü and seized rich booty. Later, 942 Kitan armies attacked and defeated several branches the Tatars, under Jalin-Buqa of the Alchi Tatar, supported of the “Tatars,” a term that Kitan inscriptions used for a Chinggis Khan’s rival, JAMUGHA, who was enthroned as a wide variety of nomadic peoples of Mongolia. rival to Chinggis in 1201. Chinggis Khan dispersed this Sources based on Mongol oral history, however, use coalition and in autumn 1202 launched a campaign of the term Tatar only for a particular tribe in the modern annihilation against four major Tatar clans. The Mongols Hulun Buir area of northeast Inner Mongolia. The Tatars, were victorious, and Chinggis Khan, remembering the even in this narrow sense, numbered 70,000 households long Mongol feud, decreed that all Tatars taller than a according to RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH. The tribe was linch pole would be slaughtered and the small children divided into numerous clans, such as the Chagha’an enslaved. When the Tatars learned of this decision, they (White) Tatar, the Alchi Tatar, and the Tutuqli’ud (Chiefly) organized for a desperate last stand but were destroyed, Tatar. The JIN DYNASTY in North China enrolled the Tatars and the sentence carried out. The Tatars disappeared as a as jüyin, or border auxiliaries, receiving subsidies from the corporate tribal body. dynasty in return for joining Jin attacks on hostile tribes, When the Mongols conquered Eurasia, Muslim and especially the MONGOL TRIBE to their west. At times, how- Chinese writers continued to call all the nomads of the ever, the Tatars would threaten the Jin themselves and had Mongolian plateau Tatars, as they had since the 10th cen- to be attacked. Rashid-ud-Din describes the Tatars as tury. In western Europe this unfamiliar name was dis- courageous and savage warriors, like the Kurds and the torted further to “Tartar”; medieval writers punned that Frankish Crusaders; if they had only been united, they the name was appropriate for a savage people from Tar- would have been irresistible. Economically, the Tatars seem tarus (that is, hell). The Chinese envoy Zhao Gong to have benefited from their relations with the Jin dynasty. reported that in the 1220s the Mongols still accepted this The children of Tatar chiefs had silver cradles, gold nose term for themselves. The Mongols, however, soon came rings, gold-embroidered silk clothes, and pearl-encrusted to object to this term and insisted that they be called quilts. The Mongol chiefs, by contrast, were reduced to Mongols. Eventually, the term Tatar went out of use wooden stirrups and arrows of bone. among writers subject to the Mongols, but it continued to Apart from their internal feuds, the Tatars fought be used by Indians, Arabs, Russians, and Europeans. repeatedly against the Mongol tribe and the KEREYID Through the Russian use of the term the people of the Khanate. The feud with the Mongols was blamed on the Turco-Islamic successor states of the GOLDEN HORDE came Tatar shaman Chargil-Nudui, who had been invited to to refer to themselves as Tatars, although only a few lead- cure Sayin-Tegin, the QONGGIRAD brother-in-law of the ing families were of Mongol descent. Mongol Qabul Khan. When Sayin-Tegin died, the Qong- Despite the extermination of the Tatar tribe, a sur- girad killed Chargil, and the Mongols backed them as prising number of Tatars achieved high office in the later allies. On later occasions, when the Tatars captured Mon- MONGOL EMPIRE. SHIGI QUTUQU, a Tatar foundling, gol chiefs, they would hand them over to the Jin dynasty became chief judge (JARGHUCHI) of the Mongol Empire. to be nailed to a wooden mule. Qabul’s son Ökin-Barqaq Chinggis took two Tatar women, Yisüi and Yisülün, as his and his successor, Hambaghai Khan, both died this way. empresses, and several men from their family remained In their battles against the Kereyid, the Tatars at one alive due to their intercession; Sali, Mongol conqueror of point captured the wife of the Kereyid khan and her son KASHMIR, was a descendant of one. Other Tatar clans who Toghril (later ONG KHAN). joined the Mongol aristocracy presumably started in the One khan of the Mongols, Hambaghai, was captured same way. Even so, the Tatars never again achieved inde- after sending his daughter in marriage to a friendly clan pendent influence, and the clan name Tatar is currently 530 Tatar-Tong’a found only among the Monggoljin in southeast Inner defeated Jamugha, finally defeated the Tayichi’ud and Mongolia. enslaved them. Few members of the Tayichi’ud later achieved prominence in the MONGOL EMPIRE. The Tatar-Tong’a (Tatatungga) (fl. 1204–c. 1235) First scribe Tayichi’ud clan name is currently found in southeastern at the Mongol court Inner Mongolia. An Uighur scribe, Tatar-Tong’a first served at the court of the western Mongolian NAIMAN ruler Tayang Khan. (The tayiji See TAIJI. spelling Tatatungga is an erroneous reconstruction from Chinese). After Tayang Khan’s defeat by CHINGGIS KHAN tea Tea, almost always boiled with milk and salt, forms at the Battle of Keltegei Cliffs in 1204, the Mongols cap- one of the chief foods of the Mongols. While the Mon- tured Tatar-Tong’a as he wandered the battlefield with the gols, of course, had to import their tea from China, the state seal frantically looking for his sovereign. Chinggis habit of drinking it appears to have been a Tibetan influ- Khan was impressed by the scribe’s loyalty and brought ence. From the Northern SONG DYNASTY (960–1127) on, him into his service. Under Tatar-Tong’a’s influence Chinese tea was traded on a large scale to Tibetans and Chinggis Khan also began to use a seal to authenticate UIGHURS. In the 15th century only those Mongols in official documents. He had Tatar-Tong’a teach the crown Gansu, ancestors of today’s Yogur nationality and loyal princes how to read and write the Uighur script, which, Tibetan Buddhists, drank tea (see YOGUR LANGUAGES AND once adapted to the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE, became the PEOPLES). Tea first came to the rest of the Mongols as part Mongol script still used today. When one of Tatar-Tong’a’s of Tibetan-rite Buddhist services; the first Mongolian pupils, Ögedei, became khan, he again put Tatar-Tong’a requests to trade horses for tea with China in 1577–78 in charge of the imperial jade seal as well as the imperial were connected with religious rites. By 1600, however, treasuries. Ögedei asked Tatar-Tong’a’s wife to serve as tea was becoming a regular part of the Mongolian diet. wet nurse for his son Qarachar. Tatar-Tong’a died in In recent centuries “milk tea” (Uighur-Mongolian, ÖGEDEI KHAN’s reign; his sons all served in the court of sü-tei chai, Cyrillic, süütei tsai) has become the regular QUBILAI KHAN. accompaniment of every meal and often the meal itself. See also UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. Tea is boiled with water, milk, and salt in a large wok (togoo) with repeated ladling as it comes to a boil. Some- Tatatungga See TATAR-TONG’A. times milk tea is made without any tea at all, only water, milk, and salt; this is called khyarman tsai and is mostly Ta-tu See DAIDU. drunk in eastern KHALKHA, by youths, and in the summer. Milk tea is drunk throughout the year, although during the winter milk may run short so that plain tea with salt Tayichi’ud (Taichuud) The Tayichi’ud clan was one of is sometimes drunk. Tea aspersions are made as offerings the leading clans of the Mongols before CHINGGIS KHAN’s to heaven during the celebrations of the WHITE MONTH rise and the main rivals of his youth. The second khan of (lunar new year). the Mongols, Hambaghai Khan, was of the Tayichi’ud Milk tea often forms the whole morning meal, partic- clan. After his death the Tayichi’ud became rivals of the ularly in cold weather. Not only butter but also millet, Kiyad clans (the descendants of Hambaghai Khan’s rice, or flour is mixed into tea. In the morning cold meat cousin and predecessor, Qabul Khan). is often heated up by being put in tea. The result is not so Like all Mongol clans, the Tayichi’ud consisted of a much tea as a kind of salty stew. ruling lineage, the descendants of Charaqa Lingqum and Under the QING DYNASTY the Mongols made tea with their subject clans. Subject clans included the Suldus, brick tea imported from the Hubei area in central China. Besüd, Targhud, and Je’üred. Later Mongol legend esti- Such bricks were even used as money in Khalkha Mongo- mated the clan’s total number at 300 households. The lia. After 1929 independent Mongolia’s trade with China Tayichi’ud rulers were notorious for their divisions. was restricted to the Soviet bloc, and the Mongols even- In 1172, when YISÜGEI BA’ATUR, a major Kiyad leader, tually changed their tastes to prefer black tea from GEOR- died, the Tayichi’ud seized power away from his widow GIA in the Caucasus. The INNER MONGOLIANS still use Ö’ELÜN ÜJIN. When Yisügei’s son Temüjin (the future Hubei brick tea. Chinggis Khan) reached adolescence, they captured him. See also CHINESE TRADE AND MONEYLENDING; FOOD Temüjin escaped with the aid of a Suldus family, and as AND DRINK; MONEY, MODERN. he matured he nourished a deep hatred of the Tayichi’ud. Chinggis secured the allegiance of several Tayichi’ud subjects and at one point induced the whole Teb Tenggeri (Kökechü) (d. c. 1210) Shaman who pro- Je’üred to defect. claimed Chinggis Khan’s heavenly mission The Tayichi’ud eventually supported JAMUGHA of the Teb Tenggeri’s father, Münglig, was of the commoner Jajirad clan as khan. In 1201 Chinggis Khan, having Qongqotan lineage and a senior follower of CHINGGIS Temüder 531 Preparing tea inside a Mongolian yurt. Khöwsgöl Province, 1992 (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) KHAN. He had seven sons. For his services Chinggis Teh, Prince See DEMCHUBDONGRUB, PRINCE. Khan later granted Münglig his widowed mother, Ö’ELÜN, in marriage. Münglig’s middle son, Kökechü, Temple of Chinggis Khan See CHINGGIS KHAN CON- was a powerful shaman able to walk naked in Mongo- TROVERSY. lia’s coldest winters and to make ice steam. The Mon- gols believed he rode into heaven on a gray steed. He is Temüder (d. 1322) Notorious financial official who also said to have understood ASTROLOGY. His shamanist attempted to resolve the Mongol Yuan dynasty’s chronic title, “Teb Tenggeri,” means “Wholly Heavenly.” His deficits with aggressive taxation proclamation that Chinggis Khan was the heaven-des- A personal retainer of QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94), Temüder tined ruler powerfully influenced the Mongols, and the served in the palace provisions and postroad (JAM) title Chinggis was bestowed on him in 1206 by Teb administrations under Temür (1294–1307). During the Tenggeri. Around 1210 Teb Tenggeri and his brothers interregnum of 1311 his patroness, Empress Targi of the began to challenge Chinggis’s family, attacking the QONGGIRAD, had Temüder briefly promoted to senior khan’s brothers Qasar and Temüge Odchigin while grand councillor. In 1314 Temüder was again promoted claiming that heaven might take the throne from Ching- to the office and proposed an aggressive plan for fiscal gis. Stiffened by his mother and wife, who saw the seven retrenchment. The plan involved collecting salt and iron brothers of the Qongqotan as a threat to the dynastic monopoly taxes a year in advance, a comprehensive land succession, Chinggis allowed his brother (Qasar or survey, and strict control over both the bureaucracy and Temüge—accounts differ) to kill Teb Tenggeri in a the Mongol appanages. Although Emperor Ayurbarwada WRESTLING match, and the Qongqotan family declined (1311–20) approved the plan, violent opposition blocked in power. Chinggis Khan himself assumed the shamanic the cadastral survey. Despite this setback, government function of communicating with heaven. expenditures were cut significantly. In 1317 censors See also SCAPULIMANCY; SHAMANISM. exposed numerous instances of personal corruption and 532 Temür nepotism, forcing Temüder to flee to the ORDO (palace- The Mongols believed their “Eternal Heaven” to be tent) of Targi. Protests greeted Temüder’s later appoint- the tian (Heaven) of Chinese religions, the Islamic Allah, ment as tutor to the heir apparent until the heir’s sudden and the Christian God. This claim, reflected in vocabular- death made the issue moot. In 1320, with Ayurbarwada’s ies and translation practices, was at the heart of the Mon- death, Empress Targi again made Temüder senior grand golian religious policy, based on asking the clergy of councillor. While Temüder’s persecution of his opponents many religions to pray to God/heaven for the khan. Mus- in the censorate alienated the new emperor, Shidebala lim authors such as ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI and (1320–23), Temüder remained in power until his death RASHID-UD-DIN FAZL-ULLAH thus considered the Mongols in 1322. Temüder’s coterie, including his son Sonam, top- basically monotheistic, despite the many local and house- pled Shidebala a year later, but the new monarch, Yisün- hold cults. Temür (1323–28), executed Sonam. With the conversion to Buddhism, the Mongols fol- lowed the Uighur example and used the term tenggeri as Temür See TIMUR. the name of the Hindu gods (deva). (In writing, the Mongols used the archaic Uighur spelling tngri, written without vowels.) In Buddhism these gods are not the Tenduc See ÖNGGÜD. creators or ultimate objects of worship but instead con- stitute simply one of the six births, mightier and more tenger See TENGGERI. blessed than the human birth, but just as much in need of enlightenment. In practice, they are seen simply as tenggeri (tengri, tenger) Tenggeri refers to both heaven supernaturally powerful and wealthy patrons of the Bud- and, in older Mongolian, to God and the gods, although dhist dharma. Of these Indra, already identified by the in modern KHALKHA Mongolian it usually means simply UIGHURS with the Zoroastrian Ahura Mazda and written “sky.” Khormusta, thus entered the Mongolian pantheon as the The word tenggeri is a common Turco-Mongolian king of the gods. word possibly used as early as the XIONGNU (Huns), In recent centuries Mongolian peoples have tradi- 2,000 years ago. It is found in Old Turkish as tengri, but tionally spoken of 99 gods (now pronounced tenger), of in Mongolian appears as tenggeri (modern tenger), with whom the 55 in the west are helpful and the 44 in the the basic meaning of “heaven.” According to the 11th- east are harmful. (The number 99 is related to the 33 century Turkish lexicographer Mahmud al-Kashghari, gods headed by Indra in the Buddhist scriptures.) In tengri meant God (writing in Arab he wrote Allah), the ORDOS Khormusta/Indra is said to be chief of them all, sky, and anything huge and immense. Other Turkish while Myalaan Tenger (Anointing God) heads the west- texts used tengri for Christian, Hindu, and Zoroastrian ern gods and Ataa Ulaan Tenger (Jealous Red God) the gods. eastern; among the western BURIATS Khormusta heads the Under the MONGOL EMPIRE Möngke Tenggeri (Eter- western gods and Ataa Ulaan Tenger the western, and nal Heaven) was the center of the Mongolian civic reli- Malaan (i.e., Myalaan) Tenger is over all. Among the gion. Below heaven was Mother Etüken (or Ötüken), KHORCHIN Bayan Chagaan Tenggeri (Rich White God) in the sacred forest of the TÜRK EMPIRES, now designating the southwest opposes Irô Shoro Tenggeri (Omen-Fork all the earth and protecting the Mongol ruling family. God) in the northeast. Some clans, such as the Khatagin The ruling lineage of CHINGGIS KHAN (1206–26) was of Ordos, worship only the Jealous Red God. The Buriat originally born “with a destiny from Heaven above,” and GESER epic speaks of the war of the two camps and the heaven spoke to the Mongols, identifying their true defeat of the Jealous Red God by Khormusta, a conflict sovereign both through miraculous signs and through that has been linked to the moiety-based social structure shamans who divined by mantic trance and SCAPULI- based on marriage exchange (see KINSHIP SYSTEM; QUDA). MANCY. During moments of crisis or great decision, As in empire times, Eternal Heaven and the 99 gods Chinggis and his successors would go to a high hill, are worshiped by Mongols annually at the opening of the remove their hats, sling their belts around their necks in mare-milking season with 99 aspersions of the first fruits a sign of humility, and plead with heaven for victory for of milk. Also, before dawn on the first of the WHITE the Mongols. All decrees began with the formula “By the MONTH (lunar new year), the Mongols burn incense, bow power of Eternal Heaven, by the fortune of the Khan.” down before heaven, and sprinkle TEA, butter, and fried At the opening (late May–early June) and closing (late bread to the 10 directions. Prayers to Eternal Heaven, as July–early August) of the mare-milking season, the great the one who destines all things, are also given during fire khans, accompanied by a shaman, offered to heaven, the worship (see FIRE CULT) and the dedication of a new YURT, ancestors (including Chinggis Khan), and other deities seeking good fortune and happiness for one’s children aspersions (sachul, modern satsal or tsatsal,) of fer- and protection from disease and violence. mented mare’s milk (KOUMISS or airag) taken from herds Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “A Prayer to Qan of pure white HORSES. Ataga Tngri,” Central Asiatic Journal 21 (1977): 199–207. theocratic period 533 tengri See TENGGERI. borne by the Qing emperor, and like the Qing emperor proclaimed a reign title, making 1911 Year One of Olan-a Tengyur See BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR. Ergügdegsen (modern Olnoo Örgögdsön), “Elevated by the Many.” The capital was named Neislel (Capital) theocratic period (Autonomous, Bogd Khaan, Olnoo Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR). Örgögdsön) The theocratic period began with the 1911 The new government consisted of five ministries: RESTORATION of Mongolian independence and ended with interior, foreign, finance, army, and justice. Except for the the turbulent period of the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY, Interior Ministry, headed by Da Lama (monastic adminis- the White Russian restoration of independence, and the trator of the GREAT SHABI) Tserinchimed (1872–1914), all 1921 REVOLUTION that installed a Soviet-supported revo- the ministers were KHALKHA aristocrats. At first Tse- lutionary government. Its distinguishing feature was the rinchimed functioned as the prime minister, but aristo- supreme role of the Bogda (Holy One) or EIGHTH JIBZUN- cratic opposition to clerical influence led in August 1912 DAMBA KHUTUGTU (1870–1924), who ruled as the head of to the creation of an office of prime minister, a position both religion and state. filled by the Sain Noyan Khan, Namnangsürüng (1878–1919). In September 1915 the prime minister’s INTERNATIONAL STATUS powers were greatly weakened, and another monk- Like its southern neighbor the Republic of China bureaucrat, BADMADORJI (d. 1920), was put at the head of (1912–49), theocratic Mongolia emerged from the fall of the Interior Ministry. Clerical domination of domestic the QING DYNASTY in 1911–12. Both entities were thus administration thus increased. bound by the treaty system that the world powers had Local government continued on the pattern of the created with the Qing dynasty after 1840. This treaty sys- Qing dynasty’s BANNERS (appanages) and AIMAGs/LEAGUES, tem prohibited the Chinese government from erecting with their hereditary aristocracies. The four Khalkha and barriers to international trade. To contain rivalries among two DÖRBÖD leagues covered most of the territory. Far the powers, it also enjoined all signatories—the major from restricting aristocratic privileges, the theocratic gov- powers of Europe, as well as Russia, the United States, ernment extended them to areas where they had not pre- and Japan—to respect China’s formal sovereignty over viously existed (Dariganga, many Khowd banners, HULUN the entire territory of the late Qing, including Mongolia BUIR), and gave all high officials ranks of nobility. Saids, and Tibet. Even so, all were allowed to create spheres of or viceroys, were appointed for KHOWD CITY, ULIASTAI, influence, in which one or another power had preferen- and KYAKHTA CITY (modern Altanbulag), but they had lit- tial rights to finance railroads and telegraph lines and sta- tle influence and represented far less of a burden than the tion garrison troops. Respect for China’s formal old Qing AMBANs. sovereignty did not preclude foreign powers from dealing The Bogda’s personal estate and his Great Shabi, or directly with local governments. personal subjects, were administered by a separate min- Thus, while the Mongolian government hoped to istry headed by the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA, the Bogda’s tra- become independent and the Chinese government hoped ditional steward. The Great Shabi, as the Bogda’s personal to incorporate Mongolia as an integral part of China, the subjects, did not pay taxes or perform military or corvée internationally recognized formula, ratified in the services for the state. After 1915 joining the Great Shabi KYAKHTA TRILATERAL TREATY of 1915, was that Mongolia became a profitable means of evading public duties, and was an autonomous state within Chinese suzerainty but the numbers climbed sharply. By 1918 about 15 percent also in the Russian sphere of influence. The Russian Rev- of the population belonged to the Great Shabi. olution of 1917–21 upset this formula by allowing the Mongolian aristocrats had participated briefly in Republic of China to recover real control over Mongolia the late Qing parliament, and following a report by in 1919. In 1920–21, however, the White Russian com- the Buriat adviser TSYBEN ZHAMATSARANOVICH ZHAMT - mander BARON ROMAN FEDOROVICH VON UNGERN-STERN- SARANO (1881–1942), a bicameral advisory parliament BERG drove out the Chinese before being himself driven was created in 1914. The upper house consisted of the out by the Soviet Red Army and its Mongolian partisan titled nobility, INCARNATE LAMAs, and banner rulers, supporters. These changes were not recognized either by while the lower house consisted of officials and clerks China or by the other powers, and the vexed question of in the various ministries. While neither elective nor Mongolia’s status was bequeathed to the succeeding “peo- controlling the cabinet, the parliament became a signif- ple’s government.” icant organ of public opinion. GOVERNMENT FRONTIERS AND THE MILITARY The 1911 Restoration of Mongolian independence cre- While the 1911 Restoration began among the Khalkha, ated an absolute monarchy under the Eighth Jibzun- the Bogda’s ambition, shared by the top cabinet minis- damba Khutugtu (1870–1912). He assumed the title of ters, was to unify all the Mongolian BANNERS of the Qing Bogda Khan (Holy Emperor), which had previously been dynasty into one state. This ambition was all the more 534 theocratic period important as many important officials and much of the industry formed only an estimated 6 percent of the soldiery on hand were Inner Mongolian emigrés. The national income. aim was stymied both by Chinese military resistance Financially, the expenses of the banners and and by diplomatic opposition from the powers, espe- aimags/leagues went on as before, not fully monetized, let cially Russia. In 1912 the new government incorporated alone budgeted, yet they are estimated at four times that Hulun Buir, Dariganga, and the Khowd-Altai frontier of the central government. The abolition of the Manchu districts. The Khowd-Altai frontier proved difficult to ambans significantly lightened the burden on the com- demarcate. On December 21, 1913, after repeated moners, particularly in the west. The central govern- clashes, the Russian consul and China’s Altay high com- ment’s revenues depended on internal and external missioner divided the Altay district, leaving some ALTAI customs revenues (600,000 rubles in 1916), despite the URIYANGKHAI Mongols on the Chinese side of the fron- exemption of Russian firms. Telegraph and telephone fees tier. Despite the 1913 invasion of Inner Mongolia (see (128,000 rubles) and user fees for pastures, timber, and SINO-MONGOLIAN WAR), Russian pressure forced the livestock (123,000 rubles) were the only other significant Mongolian government at the 1914–15 Kyakhta Trilat- items. Expenditures in the same year included the nobles’ eral Conference to renounce both Hulun Buir and Inner salaries (123,542 rubles), military training (157,000), Mongolia. Equally frustrating for the Mongols was the and unspecified “central government administration” separation of Tuva (Tangnu Uriyangkhai) into an almost (573,714). This latter rubric covered the government’s wholly Russian-controlled protectorate. Cossacks had massively increased religious expenditures. entered Tuva in 1912, and in October 1914 the area was To cover Mongolia’s war debt to Russia, 332,000 annexed to Russia’s Yenisey province. By 1915 the cur- rubles were paid in 1916 and the considerable budget rent territory of the modern State of Mongolia was basi- deficit was made up by funds from a 2-million-ruble loan cally defined. contracted in January 1913. As these facts make clear, the From 1911 to 1914 the theocratic government mobi- Mongolian government was financially completely lized local banner troops, eventually building up a stand- dependent on Russia. This leverage was used not only to ing army of 10,000 men. The battles of the 1911 force Mongolia to comply with Russian diplomatic and Restoration brought out a series of notable commanders, territorial ambitions but also to force Mongolia to give particularly GRAND DUKE DAMDINSÜRÜNG of BARGA and monopolistic railroad and telegraph concessions. After MAGSURJAB of Sain Noyan Khan province. To ensure cen- 1914, however, Russia was too involved in World War I tral control the Bogda assigned oversight over the west- to take advantage of these concessions. ern and eastern borders to his fellow incarnate lamas the The increase in Chinese influence from 1917 on JALKHANZA KHUTUGTU Damdinbazar (1874–1923) and the brought in a trickle of Chinese settlers, and in 1919 Chi- Yegüzer Khutugtu Galsangdashi (1870–1930), respec- nese firms again began demanding payment of official tively. Even so, in Khowd the Kalmyk adventurer DAMBI- and nonofficial debts. The chaos in Russia, the catas- JANTSAN (d. 1922) was virtually independent until his trophic devaluation of the gold ruble, which had been deportation by the Russians in 1914. made Mongolia’s official currency in 1913, and the record glut in the wool markets caused by the post–World War I ECONOMY AND FINANCE depression all delayed a return to the pre-1911 trade, The economy of theocratic Mongolia showed only incre- until the savage conflicts of 1920–21 swept away such a mental change from that of the late Qing. The 1911 possibility forever. restoration caused frequent looting and violence against Chinese, and the expulsion of Chinese colonists CULTURE AND THE ARTS brought about a decline in farming output. The theo- Culturally, the theocratic period saw both the culmina- cratic government tried to revive agriculture with Mon- tion of late Qing trends and the advent of new trends golian farmers and to protect Chinese firms from that would continue into the 1920s. The decades looting. It appears that the official debts of the Mongo- between 1900 and 1920 in Khalkha were a barren lian leagues and banners to Chinese firms were not ser- period for original literature, particularly in comparison viced, although private debts could still be collected. to Inner Mongolia. Translations of Chinese novels and The damage done to Chinese firms brought on a tempo- the performing arts (unfortunately very poorly known) rary “goods famine” in Mongolia that Russian imports such as tsam and traditional Tibetan- or Chinese-influ- could not fill, particularly after the beginning of World enced opera flourished. In the visual arts the projects War I. The role of British and particularly American sponsored by the Eighth Bogda—his “Green” and firms in the wool export trade increased. In 1918 an “Brown” palaces, the CHOIJUNG LAMA TEMPLE, the Migjid American company established a motor-car service Janraisig Temple and statue, and the Andingmen Gate— between Khüriye and Zhangjiakou (Kalgan). Russian marked the apex of Mongolian Buddhist architecture firms had began gold mining in 1907, and Nalaikh coal (see GANDAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY; PALACES OF THE mine was opened in 1915, although by 1918 mining and BOGDA KHA). Overall, the artistic monuments reflect the Three Guards 535 cultural tone of the theocratic period: luxurious, sensu- THE GUARDS SYSTEM ous, and hierarchical. In 1389 the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) set up three While other painters followed traditional thangka- “loose-rein” (jimi) guards (wei) for Mongol chiefs on the painting canons, “BUSYBODY” SHARAB and Tsagan eastern slopes of the Khinggan. The Uriyangkhan clan (White) Jamba adopted the new media of pencil draw- formed the Döyin (Chinese, Duoyan) Guard on the ings and ink. Tsagan Jamba’s colored drawings portray Chaor River, and the Mongolized Tungusic Üjiyed (Chi- Mongolian figures such as the deity Lhamo and the epic nese, Wuzhe) formed the Fuyu Guard near modern Qiqi- hero Dugar Zaisang, in ways influenced by Chinese nov- har. The Ming put two surrendered princes (Mongolian, els. His chief interest, however, was in drawing livestock ong, from Chinese wang) from the line of CHINGGIS and game animals. KHAN’s brothers over the Taining Guard; its people were Public education began in Mongolia with the needs called the Ongni’ud (“the ones with ongs/princes”). Com- of the ministries. The first state-funded elementary monly, however, but inaccurately, the Three Guards were school opened at the Foreign Ministry in March 1912 all called Uriyangkhad (Chinese, Wuliangha[te], plural of with 47 students. The teachers were all BURIATS attached Uriyangkhan) Guards. to the Russian consulate. The government founded a tele- As “loose-rein” guards, the Three Guards’ chiefs par- graph school and a printing school, while the Russian ticipated in the Ming’s “tribute” and horse fair systems, consulate enrolled Mongols in its Russian-Mongolian through which chiefs and ordinary guardsmen traded Translators’ School. At public expense 12 students were HORSES and other livestock, furs, ginseng, mushrooms, sent to gymnasia (high schools) in Irkutsk and Troit- honey, and lumber for silk, satins, cotton, robes, cooking skosavsk (in modern Kyakhta). In 1915 a public middle pots, and spades. The Three Guards did some of their school was added, the number of students expanded to own FARMING but in famine years also received grain in 80, and the curriculum established as a definitely modern aid and exchange. If payments were unsatisfactory, how- one. Finally, military training also involved basic educa- ever, the Three Guards frequently turned to raiding. tion. The small number of graduates of these schools Within a few decades the rise of powerful Mongol played a wholly disproportionate role in the subsequent rulers threatened the sustainability of the Three Guards revolutionary government. system. From 1421 the powerful Arugtai Taishi of the A leading advocate of education, Tsyben Zhamt- Asud (d. 1434) took over the Three Guards and confis- sarano, also founded the first movable-type press in cated their seals. The Three Guards eagerly continued Mongolia, the Russko-Mongol’skaia tipografiia (Russian- tribute relations with the Ming, but in face of their actual Mongolian Press). His Shine Toli (New mirror) journal, control by hostile Mongol powers the Ming was less tol- which began publication on March 6, 1913, was the first erant of their raids, staging a massive counterattack in Mongolian-language periodical to be widely distributed. 1444. From 1446 to 1448 the powerful Oirat leader ESEN He also published many books and translations, some of Taishi (d. 1454) smashed the Three Guards. which generated tremendous controversy. A final aspect of the opening cultural horizons of the THE RESETTLEMENT OF THE THREE GUARDS period was the Mongolian officials and private people The Three Guards mostly fled south and were resettled who traveled abroad not only to Russia but also to along the modern-day Inner Mongolia–Liaoning frontier. Europe and Japan. Many of these private travelers later Many Fuyu guardsmen remained in the north, however, became leaders in the 1921 Revolution. along the Nen River and ONON RIVER; they became the See also ANTHEM; ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; FLAGS; KHORCHIN Mongols. Esen drove a body of Döyin MINING; MONEY, MODERN; SEAL. Uriyangkhan to southwest Inner Mongolia, where they Further reading: George A. Cheney, The Pre-revolu- were known as Monggoljin. Finally, another body incor- tionary Culture of Outer Mongolia (Bloomington, Ind.: The porated into the OIRATS became the Khoshud tribe. Mongolia Society 1968); Thomas E. Ewing, Between the Rightly doubting the Three Guards’ autonomy from the Hammer and the Anvil? Chinese and Russian Policies in Mongol rulers, the Ming suspended the horse fairs in Outer Mongolia, 1911–1921 (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- 1449. Facing Ming hostility, Three Guards commanders versity, 1980); Owen Lattimore and Fukiko Isono, The such as Kötei of the Üjiyed/Fuyu and Tölöögen (fl. Diluv Khutagt: Memoirs and Autobiography of a Mongol 1470–88) of the Monggoljin/Döyin became active players Buddhist Reincarnation in Religion and Revolution (Wies- in Mongol politics while joining raids from Shaanxi to baden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1982). Liaodong. Still, they sent tribute missions to the Ming, and in 1479 regular horse fairs resumed. Three Guards The Three Guards were Mongol THE THREE GUARDS AND THE SIX TÜMENS appanages that surrendered to the Chinese MING DYNASTY By 1495 the Three Guards became an important part of in the 14th century and later became the ancestors of the Mongol reunification under BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN many eastern Inner Mongolian peoples. KHAN (1480?–1517?) and were incorporated into his SIX 536 “Threes of the World” TÜMENS. The Üjiyed/Fuyu Guard, resettled in the south, lama is regret / Without skills in the in-laws’ house for a formed part of the southern KHALKHA tümen. The Döyin girl is regret.” Sometimes the three refer only to features formed the southern part of the Uriyangkhan tümen, of the natural world: “That the sky has no pillar is some- which also included the northwestern Uriyangkhan in thing missing / That the mountains have no belt is some- the KHANGAI RANGE. (The northwestern Uriyangkhan thing missing / That the sea has no churning staff is revolted and were largely wiped out in 1538; from then something missing.” The “Threes of the World” vividly on the Uriyangkhan were not counted as a TÜMEN.) express the range of Mongolian values and views of the Meanwhile, the Monggoljin resettled in the southwest natural and social world. (around modern HÖHHOT) under Tölöögen’s son See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES. Khooshai Tabunang and became key local allies for Dayan Khan’s conquest of the western tümens. Neverthe- throat singing (overtone-singing, khöömii, höömii, less, however tension filled, the Three Guards’ dual rela- xöömii) In throat singing the singer produces two or tionship with the Ming and the Mongols’ revived even three separate vocal lines at the same time. In the NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY continued. early 20th century it was found in the Mongolian world in Dayan Khan’s western grandsons, ALTAN KHAN far western Mongolia and Tuva only but in recent years has (1508–82) ruling the Monggoljin and TÜMED and become popularized as an emblematic aspect of Mongolian Bayaskhal (b. 1510) ruling the KHARACHIN, both estab- music. The word is pronounced khöömii in modern Mon- lished QUDA (marriage ally) relations with the Döyin golian, Köömä in Kalmyk-Oirat, and khöömei in Tuvan. Uriyangkhan, and frequent movement between them Western Mongolian and Tuvan throat singing usually resulted by the 17th century in the merger of large bodies involves producing a low drone over which by squeezing of Tümed and Kharachin with the Döyin Uriyangkhan. the larynx tightly, one or two high whistling sounds are Meanwhile, Daraisun Khan (1548–57) brought the produced as controlled overtones. In recent decades a Fuyu/Üjiyed and Training/Ongni’ud Guards under his number of different styles have been identified by per- direct control, and they collaborated in raiding China. formers and musicologists in Mongolia and Tuva. In Around 1586 Tümen Khan (b. 1539, r. 1558–92) made Mongolia the styles are divided into “melodic” (uyangyn) the Fuyu/Üjiyed chief Subakhai head of the southern throat singing and kharkhiraa (Tuvan, kargyraa). The lat- Khalkha tümen. ter, which has a sound described as a rushing waterfall, Most of the Three Guards joined the great rebellion involves an exceptionally deep and powerful voice but is against LIGDAN KHAN in 1628. The succeeding Manchus produced with an open throat and lacks the whistling made descendants of the Döyin chiefs rulers (jasag) of overtone. the Kharachin and Left Tümed (Monggoljin) BANNERS Throat singers often link the origin of their art to the (appanages) in Josotu league. The Üjiyed were divided sounds of nature, especially wind and water, and con- among other princes in JUU UDA league, but the Ongni’ud tinue to find inspiration from the different sounds of dif- and their offshoot, the Abaga, became banners of Juu Uda ferent landscapes. The masterwork of throat singing, and SHILIIN GOL leagues, respectively. which every singer must be able to perform, is the “Praise See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; FUXIN MONGOL AUTONO- of the Altai” (Altain magtaal; see YÖRÖÖL and MAGTAAL). MOUS COUNTY; MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; Throat singing was traditionally restricted to men not TRIBUTE SYSTEM. only because of its physically exhausting character but also because of its link to the mountain cult, epic singing, “Threes of the World” “Threes of the World” and other aspects of patrilineal religious beliefs. (yörtöntsiin guraw) is a genre of oral poetry that expresses Something like throat singing is first described proverbial wisdom by linking three items found in the among the TÜMED of Inner Mongolia in the late 16th cen- world with one common feature. The title is then derived tury. The musical concept of a low drone accompanied by from that common feature: “Three Roughs of the World,” a high whistling sound is found also in folksong duets “Three Missings of the World,” and so on. Each of the and in the HORSE-HEAD FIDDLE accompaniment of the three descriptions forms one line, which must alliterate long song. The deep drone and the overtones link throat in the first syllable with the other two and is isosyllabic, singing to both the epic-singing voice (khailakh; Kalmyk- with a fairly strict prosody. There are also a few examples Oirat khäälkh) and the tsuur, or vertical flute. The low of “Fours of the World.” Sometimes the comparison drone of Tibetan Buddhist chants also produces over- brings out the peculiarity of something in the human tones, yet performers distinguish it sharply from throat world by means of comparisons in the natural world. singing. Indeed, throat singing was in decline in the early Thus, “In government, a messenger is rough / In metals, a 20th century, perhaps due to clerical disapproval. It was file is rough / In a hole, a hedgehog is rough.” Sometimes widespread only among the ALTAI URIYANGKHAI, BAYAD, the three illustrate a similar pattern in diverse examples KAZAKHS, and TUVANS of western Mongolia and the of human life: “Without an arrow in the hunt is regret / KHALKHA of Chandmani Sum (Khowd province). It was Without (memorized) scriptures in the assembly for a discovered by musicologists in the 1930s as an aspect of Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 folk art first in Tuva and then in Mongolia. Since 1990 (see BUDDHIST FINE ARTS). Mongolian monks wrote and throat singing has become a major part of world MUSIC, performed Tibetan performing arts genres of TSAM and both Tuvan and Mongolian groups, such as Huun dances, gür (tibetan mgur) songs and melodies in the Huur-tu and Altai-Khangai, have achieved international style of Mi-la-ras-pa (Milarepa, 1040–1123), and shabdan recognition. poems to accompany the DANSHUG offering to revered Recordings: Altai-Khangai, Gone with the Wind (Win- incarnations. dow to Europe, 1998); Huun Huur-tu, Sixty Horses in My Mongolian PERSONAL NAMES came to be overwhelm- Herd (Shanachie/Asia, 1994). ingly Tibetan Buddhist in origin, although pronounced with a distinctive Mongolian pronunciation. Tibetan let- Tibetan culture in Mongolia Mongolia’s SECOND CON- ters were also used to write Mongolian (see TIBETAN LAN- VERSION to Buddhism (c. 1565–1655) resulted in a strong GUAGE AND SCRIPT). Tibet’s great GESER epic spread to influence of Tibetan culture, both literary and popular, on Mongolia by 1716, when a Mongolian translation was Mongolia. The spirit of Mongolia’s Second Conversion to printed in Beijing. Many subsequent versions were Buddhism was summed up in words attributed to ALTAN printed in both Mongolian and Tibetan. As late as 1928 KHAN in 1578: “In short, everything in this country more than two-thirds of literate men could recognize should be done in the way it is done in . . . Tibet.” An Tibetan letters. important issue was the question of the language of Bud- Tibetan influence on Mongolian culture was not dhist services. On the one hand, many strong personalities even. As one might expect, the UPPER MONGOLS of in the early conversion and after, such as Neichi Toin Kökenuur (Qinghai) were the most heavily influenced, (1557–1653), the THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN (1717–66), and adopting Tibetan dress and, for the majority, the Tibetan Prince To (Togtakhu-Törö, 1797–1878, ruling in modern language. Nowhere else did Tibetanization proceed so Khalkhgol Sum, Dornod) insisted that the Mongols must far. It was stronger in KHALKHA, where Tibetan names of have the Buddhist dharma in their own language. On the Buddhist deities and days of the week replaced the orig- other hand, desire to introduce new or more complete ser- inal Uighur-Mongolian ones, than in Inner Mongolia. vices for Buddhist deities led to the frequent transplanta- The international frontier between the Qing Empire and tion of Tibetan services to Mongolian monasteries. As a Russia to some extent retarded Tibetan influence on the result, by the late 19th century only a few BANNERS con- BURIATS and KALMYKS. Even so, in the later 19th century ducted services in Mongolian, while the vast majority Buriat and Kalmyk lamas such as AGWANG DORZHIEV conducted them purely in Tibetan. (1840–1938) and Baaza-Bagshi Menkejuev (1846–1903) The original process of Tibetanization was first gen- managed to visit Tibet and on returning home erated by long stays of Mongolian monks in Tibet. On attempted to imitate in their homeland what they had their return to Mongolia they usually brought back texts, found there. images, and memories of how things ought to be done. In the 20th century modernization movements led Powerful visitors, such as the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA by Mongol intellectuals ascribed to Buddhism all that was KHUTUGTU (1635–1723), would bring back artists, backward in their society, a judgment sealed by Soviet- astrologers, precentors, and other specialists. Every and Chinese-inspired antireligious persecutions. Tibetan INCARNATE LAMA discovered in Tibet brought to Mongolia personal names became less common in both Mongolia large entourages of family, tutors, and servants. After and Inner Mongolia and Tibetan language skills very rare. 1750 ordinary Tibetan lamas also began making pilgrim- While lamas have preserved the Mongolian tradition of ages to Mongolia, where their prestige as Tibetans Tibetan learning and direct contacts with Tibetans have ensured favorable treatment from local patrons, although been revived all over the Mongolian world in the 1980s at the same time the “Tangut (Tibetan) Lama” became a and 1990s, large-scale Tibetan influence on mass culture stock figure of bawdy tales. has not returned. By the 19th century every known genre of Tibetan See also BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR; CHOIJUNG LAMA monastic culture was being practiced in Mongolia in TEMPLE; DANCE; DANZIN-RABJAI; DIDACTIC POETRY; EDUCA- both KHALKHA and Inner Mongolia. Scholars wrote in TION, TRADITIONAL; FOOD AND DRINK; FUNERARY CUSTOMS; Tibetan on a full range of topics, from Buddhist history JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU; KHUTUGTAI and hagiographies to Tibetan syntax and artistic canons. SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI; MEDICINE, TRADITIONAL; MUSIC; TEA; While Tibetan scholars still evinced a certain condescen- TIBET AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TREASURY OF APHORISTIC sion toward Mongolian Buddhist scholarship, Mongolian JEWELS; TWO CUSTOMS. writers enriched the range of Tibetan-language scholar- Further reading: Sh. Bira, Mongolian Historical Lit- ship with works on new topics, such as the history of erature of the XVII–XIX Centuries Written in Tibetan, Chinese Buddhism (see GOMBOJAB, DUKE). Mongolian trans. Stanley N. Frye (Bloomington, Ind.: The Mongo- sculptors, thangka painters, and temple-banner seam- lia Society, 1970); A. G. Sazykin and D. Yondon, “Travel- stresses created works that European and American Report of a Buriat Pilgrim, Lubsan Mid^zid-Dord^zi,” Acta museums have mistaken as masterpieces of Tibetan art Orientalia 39 (1985): 205–241. 538 Tibetan language and script Tibetan language and script From at least the late follow the conservative UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT forms, 17th century the Tibetan language and script came to while others closely reflect pronunciation. Poems and dominate Mongolian monastic life and through education songs written according to pronunciation offer valuable influence the secular world as well. Despite the tremen- evidence for PROSODY. Consonants were relatively easy to dous effort from 1578 to 1749 made to translate the Bud- render, but Mongolian’s seven vowels, each with its long dhist scriptures and canonical treatises (see BKA’-’GYUR and short forms (as opposed to Tibetan’s five vowels), AND BSTAN-’GYUR) and many later works into Mongolian, were either not distinguished clearly or were distin- by the 18th century the Buddhist services (khurals) were guished by various expedients with the ‘a-chung and wa- conducted purely in Tibetan in the vast majority of areas. zur, two letters often not pronounced in Tibetan. At the highest levels this resulted in the formation of a See also EDUCATION, TRADITIONAL; LAMAS AND MONAS- major literature written in Tibetan by Mongols. Still, TICISM; TIBETAN CULTURE IN MONGOLIA. administration in the Mongolian BANNERS (appanages) Further reading: Stéphane Grivelet, “Preface,” The was always carried out in the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE, and Journal of the Lamas: A Mongolian Publication in the in all but the most purely Buddhist or Tibetan fields, Tibetan Script (Bloomington, Ind.: Mongolia Society Mongolian lamas continued to study and write major 2001), i–vi. works in Mongolian as well. The only nonmonastic school for Tibetan language maintained by the Qing gov- ernment was the Tangut School under the LIFAN YUAN Tibet and the Mongol Empire The Mongol conquest (Court of Dependencies) in Beijing, which trained clerks of Tibet brought it for the first time under the rule of one to handle Tibetan and Kökenuur affairs. Until 1785 the of China’s Inner Asian dynasties. instructors, mostly Mongolian lamas, taught Mongolian From the assassination of the last Tibetan emperor, and Manchu students. Glang Dar-ma (836–42), to the time of the Mongol con- In the YUAN DYNASTY Mongolian pronunciation of quest, Tibet lacked any central government. Contempo- Tibetan was very conservative, simplifying only the initial rary Chinese records divided the plateau into four areas: consonant clusters. The modern Mongolian pronuncia- Tufan (Tibetan, mDo-smad), along the Qinghai-Gansu tion of Tibetan, as used in services and to represent frontier; Xifan (Tibetan, mDo-khams), along the Sichuan Tibetan personal names and terms, reflects not the Lhasa frontier; Dafan (Tibetan, dBus-gTsang), or Central Tibet; dialect now considered standard, but that of A-mdo (in and Xiaofan (Tibetan, mNga’-ris), or westernmost Tibet. Gansu, northern Qinghai, and northern Sichuan), with Along the Chinese border Tufan and Xifan principalities modifications enforced by Mongolian phonology. flourished on the horse trade with China. In mNga’-ris Due to monastic education Mongolian was often writ- and dBus-gTsang from 978 on, local chiefs sent Tibetan ten in Tibetan letters. Novices began with five to 10 years monks to Kashmir and India and invited gurus to revive of memorizing the pronunciation of Tibetan prayers. Since Buddhism. Indian-trained Tibetan gurus formed new 45 percent of KHALKHA’s male population (1918 statistics) monastic lineages based around fortress-monasteries such spent some years in the monasteries, although most left as Rwa-sgreng (near modern Lhünzhub, refounded in after memorizing the services, the monasteries created a 1057) of the bKa’-gdams-pa order; Sa-skya (modern Sa’- large number of householders who knew the pronuncia- gya, founded in 1073) of the Sa-skya-pa order; and ’Bri- tion of Tibetan letters but had never actually learned to gung (modern Zhigung, founded in 1179) and read or write either Mongolian or Tibetan. Those who gDan-sa-thel (near modern Sangri, founded in 1198) of stayed in the monasteries to become monks learned the multifarious bKa’-brgyud-pa order. The great monas- Tibetan, but perhaps only one-tenth learned to read and tic founders usually belonged to powerful landed fami- write Mongolian. Thus, even many able lamas were unable lies that controlled the monasteries from generation to to write in the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, although they generation. In northwest China the Tangut ruling family were fluent in the Tibetan language and were able to trans- of the XIA DYNASTY (1038–1227) followed Tibetan-rite late it into spoken Mongolian. Buddhism and recruited bKa’-brgyud-pa clerics as guoshi, Thus, some householders and many, if not most, “state preceptors.” lamas wrote Mongolian in Tibetan letters. Extant examples The earliest Mongol contact with ethnic Tibetans of this script include signs and advertisements appealing to came in 1236, when a Tibetan chief near Wenzhou (mod- a lama clientele, business correspondence between lamas, ern Wenxian) submitted to the Mongols campaigning in Tibetan-Mongolian dictionaries, and songs and benedic- Sichuan. In 1240 a Mongol border prince, KÖTEN, sta- tions written down by monastery-educated householders. tioned at Liangzhou (modern Wuwei), sent a Tangut In 1936 the Mongolian government produced a Journal of commander, Dor-ta Darqan, with a small force to dBus- the Lamas (Lama-nar-un sedkhül) in Mongolian written in gTsang. Dor-ta burned Rwa-sgreng, killing about 500 per- both the Uighur-Mongolian and the Tibetan scripts. sons. The bKa’-brgyud-pa monasteries of sTag-lung and As a script only in private use, Tibetan-script Mongo- ’Bri-gung, with their old link to the Xia, were spared. The lian had no standardized orthography. Some examples ’Bri-gung abbot suggested the Mongols invite the Sa-skya- Tibet and the Mongol Empire 539 pa hierarch, Sa-skya Pandita. He complied but died in imperial preceptor, always a Sa-skya-pa lama and resi- Liangzhou at 1251, leaving two nephews stranded among dent of DAIDU (modern Beijing), appointed a Sa-skya-pa the Mongols. monk as dpon-chen (great official) to concurrently Under MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) the Mongols administer Sa-skya lands and dBus-gTsang as a whole. advanced in both the Sino-Tibetan borderlands and The abbots and hierarchs at Sa-skya Monastery had dBus-gTsang. In 1251 the khan made Qoridai comman- influence but no direct political authority. The Commis- der of the Mongol and Han troops in Tufan, and in sion for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng yuan) 1252–53 Qoridai invaded dBus-gTsang, reaching as far in Daidu, one of whose two commissioners was nomi- as ’Dam (modern Damxung). Once the Central Tibetan nated by the dishi, headed a parallel bureaucratic hierar- monasteries submitted, the Mongol princes divided chy. The commission supervised three Pacification them as their appanages and sought the blessings of Commission-Chief Military Commands (Xuanwei si-Du prominent lamas. Möngke Khan patronized Karma yuanshuai fu): that of Tufan, placed at Hezhou (modern Baqshi (1204–83) of the Karma-pa suborder and the Linxia), that of mDo-khams (Xifan), and that of dBus- ’Bri-gung Monastery, while HÜLE’Ü, khan of the Mongols gTsang at Sa-skya. Each had four to five commissioners; in the Middle East, sent lavish gifts to both ’Bri-gung dBus-gTsang’s Pacification Commission always included and the Phag-mo-gru-pa suborder’s gDan-sa-thel the dpon-chen. Finally, the descendants of Qubilai’s son monastery. In 1253 Prince Qubilai summoned to his Manggala supervised Tufan from Shaanxi, while Mang- court the Sa-skya-pa hierarch’s two nephews, Blo-gros gala’s half-brother Auruqchi and his descendants periodi- rGyal-mtshan, known as ’PHAGS-PA LAMA (1235–80), cally toured dBus-gTsang. and Phyag-na rDo-rje (d. 1267). After 1280 Sangha and Qubilai attempted to curtail The fierce Song-Mongol battles for Sichuan and the Tibetan influence in the administration, employing civil war between QUBILAI KHAN (r. 1260–94) and ARIQ- UIGHURS over Tibetans and demoting ’Phags-pa’s powerful BÖKE spilled over into the Tibetan borderlands, and the ’Khon family. Emperor Temür (1294–1307) and his suc- Xifan and Tufan borderlands were pacified only after the cessors reversed the policies. The ’Khon family was again defeat of Ariq-Böke in 1264. In 1265 Qongridar ravaged honored as kürgen (imperial son-in-law, in 1296), as dishi the Tufan/mDo-smad area, and from 1264 to 1275 several (1315 on), and finally as princes of Bailan (1322 on). campaigns pacified the Tibetan and Yi peoples of Xifan After 1292 Tibetans gradually displaced the Uighurs in (mDo-khams) around Jiandu (modern Xichang). By 1278 the bureaucracy. myriarchies (commands of 10,000) and postroads Local administration in the eastern mDo-smad and reached through mDo-khams as far west as Litang. mDo-khams borderlands with China was under Mongol- At first Qubilai made ’Phags-pa Lama and Phyag-na Chinese garrisons and local chieftains; western mDo- rDo-rje the preferred instruments of his policy in Central khams and mDo-smad had virtually no Mongol Tibet. In 1264 the two returned to dBus-gTsang, with administration at all. In dBus-gTsang the 1268 census ’Phags-pa as the religious authority and Phyag-na rDo-rje divided 37,203 registered households into 13 myri- as prince of Bailan and son-in-law (kürgen) of the imperial archies, each with a hereditary myriarch (khri-dpon). The family. Despite ’Phags-pa’s mastery of Buddhist learning, census takers established 27 postroad stations (JAM), with his Mongolian clothing and habits alienated many lamas. designated staff serving under the supervision of Mongol After Phyag-na rDo-rje’s sudden death in 1267, the ’Bri- officials. The postroad system proved particularly oner- gung-pa order, whose leading lamas had supported Ariq- ous for the local population. Although the Tibetan and Yi Böke over Qubilai, led an armed revolt against this tribes in mDo-khams used salt for money, dBus-gTsang Mongol-Sa-skya-pa domination. From 1267 to 1269 Mon- used the Yuan’s paper currency. gol troops crushed the revolt and implemented regular Mongol-Sa-skya rule in Tibet remained unques- Mongol rule in Tibet. tioned into the 1330s, and the census was revised Further unrest continued in 1275–76, when ’Phags- around 1335. However, an intractable border dispute pa returned to Tibet with a Mongol escort under Qubi- emerged between the sNe’u-gdong (modern Nêdong) lai’s son, Prince Auruqchi. After ’Phags-pa died in 1280 and the gYa’-tsangs myriarchies, each affiliated with the Mongols’ Tibetan official, SANGHA, entered Tibet with monasteries of rival bKa’-brgyud-pa sublineages. The 7,000 troops and executed the Sa-skya administrator in monk-myriarch Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan (1302–64) of 1281 on charges of poisoning ’Phags-pa. In 1290 sNe’u-gdong’s Phag-mo-gru-pa sublineage eventually Auruqchi’s son and successor, Prince Buqa-Temür, again came into conflict with the Sa-skya-pa dpon-chens who assaulted the ’Bri-gung Monastery, now openly allied with supported gYa’-tsangs. Frequent interventions by extor- Qubilai’s rivals in Turkestan. Only after this final assault, tionate Mongol officials and princes only exacerbated which cost 10,000 Tibetan lives, did resistance to Mon- the conflict. Protesting his loyalty throughout, Byang- gol rule cease. chub rGyal-mtshan twice defeated invasions by the dpon- Mongol administration in Tibet, as elsewhere, relied chen’s forces (September 2, 1348, and April 19, 1349) on many overlapping layers of authority. The dishi, or before receiving the dpon-chen’s personal submission on 540 Timur New Year’s Day 1354. Although he abolished the Mon- The Yuan-Sa-skya Period of Tibetan History (Rome: Insti- golized dress and customs of the Sa-skya administration, tuto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1990); Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan avoided any open break with Elliot Sperling, “Hülegü and Tibet,” Acta Orientalia 44 the Yuan, defusing accusations of disloyalty from the (1990): 145–157. dishi at Daidu and receiving from the court the honorific title Tai Situ. In 1370 the Tufan pacification commis- sioner surrendered to the advancing MING DYNASTY Timur (Temür, Tamerlane) (1336?–1405) Conqueror of (1368–1644) armies, and in 1372–73 the dBus-gTsang Mongol ancestry who ravaged the lands from India to authorities, including Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan’s suc- Turkey and founded the Timurid dynasty in Central Asia cessors, recognized the new dynasty. and Iran Tibet’s influence on the Mongols of the empire was The son of Taraghai, member of a junior sublineage of primarily religious. Under Mongol patronage Tibetan the Barulas (Barlas) clan near Samarqand, Timur gathered lamas became a frequent sight from China to Azerbaijan. a personal following of 40 to 300 horsemen through raid- While its influence among the Middle Eastern Mongols ing and sheep stealing. (Timur is the Persian form of his was shattered by Islamic conversion (1295), in Turco-Mongol name, Temür.) The Barulas were a promi- MOGHULISTAN and in the Mongols’ YUAN DYNASTY in East nent clan of Mongol ancestry in the CHAGHATAY KHANATE. Asia Tibetan-rite Buddhism remained a court religion into Timur and his entourage remained nomads until his the 1360s. Although the Mongol conquest was far from death, but he was thoroughly familiar with the Persian bloodless, Tibetan writers showed little bitterness, pre- sedentary world. By this time all the western Chaghatayids sumably due to the Mongols’ later generous patronage of were at least nominally Muslim. Parts of the Chaghatayid Buddhism. Later writers saw the relationship between population still spoke Mongolian into the 16th century, ’Phags-pa and Qubilai as one of “priest and patron” but Timur, as far as is known, spoke only Turkish and (mchod-yon), manufacturing a supposed donation of all Persian. The Uighur script, used extensively by the Mon- authority in dBus-gTsang from Qubilai to his priest gols, remained the preferred script for writing Turkish ’Phags-pa. While this grossly exaggerated ’Phags-pa’s until about 1450, when it was replaced by the Arabic actual authority, it expressed the basically religious nature script. of the Mongols’ interest in Tibet. In 1334 the Khanate’s eastern area of MOGHULISTAN Mongol rule transformed Tibet politically creating (Mongol Land) had broken away, and in 1346–47 the the institutions that unified the country. Byang-chub southern clans, aligned with the QARA’UNAS, had seized rGyal-mtshan incorporated compliant members of the power, leaving the northern Chaghatayid clans, such as old myriarch (khri-dpon) aristocracy into his new ruling the Barulas, caught between Moghulistan and the Qara’u- class of fortress chiefs (rdzong-dpon) and preserved many nas. From 1360, when the invading Moghul khan Tugh- titles and institutions of Mongol rule. The continued uni- lugh-Temür (1351–63) first made Timur chief of the fication of dBus-gTsang and the active relations of Barulas clan, to 1369, when Timur finally defeated Emir Tibetan lamas with the Ming dynasty after 1372, com- Husain of the Qara’unas, Timur made his way between pared with the disintegration and isolation before the Moghulistan and the Qara’unas, allying now with one Mongol conquest, demonstrated the permanent nature of and now with the other. Having defeated and killed Emir the changes Mongol rule made in Tibet. Husain, Timur called a general assembly, or QURILTAI, to Incorporation of Tibet in the MONGOL EMPIRE confirm his rule over the Chaghatay Khanate on April 9, expanded Tibet’s artistic and cultural repertoire. The 1370. By this time an injury or illness had deformed his Nepalese-influenced style created by ANIGA at the Mongol right leg, giving him the Persian name Timur-i Lang, court continued under Ming patronage and influenced “Timur the Lame,” whence Tamerlane. later Tibetan iconography. Tibetans also became aware of Like previous contenders for power in the Chaghatay Chinese history, both through translations and consulta- Khanate, Timur, who was not of Chinggisid blood, did tions with Mongols, stimulating their own historical tra- not assume the title of KHAN. Instead, he married a ditions. Earlier Tibetan historical writing had been Chinggisid princess, Saray Malik, daughter of the limited to spiritual lives and lineages of limited scope; the Chaghatayid Qazan Khan (1343–46), and set up an Tibetan tradition of general history writing began in 1323 Ögedeid as puppet khan, taking the titles of kürgen (son- with Bu-ston’s history of Buddhism. in-law) and emir (commander). See also BKA’-’GYUR AND BSTAN-’GYUR; BUDDHISM IN After becoming Chaghatayid commander Timur cam- THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; EAST paigned regularly northward against Moghulistan and the ASIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE. QONGGIRAD dynasty in KHORAZM. At the same time, he Further reading: Herbert Franke, “Tibetans in Yüan faced repeated rebellion among the independent-minded China,” in China under Mongol Rule, ed. John D. Langlois, Chaghatayid clans, particularly the JALAYIR. Patient defeat Jr. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981): of these revolts subdued them all by 1378–79, after which 296–328; Luciano Petech, Central Tibet and the Mongols: Timur’s ambitions turned outward. The subjugation of Toghus Khatun 541 Khorasan and Mazandaran, completed by 1384, led to the Samarqand. He commissioned numerous masterpieces of first of his expeditionary campaigns against western Iran architecture at Samarqand and his summer capital of Kish and the Caucasus in 1386–87. By now his chief rival was a (modern Shakhrisabz). one-time protegé, TOQTAMISH, ruler first of the BLUE Timur gave little power to his Persian divan (secre- HORDE and then of the reunified GOLDEN HORDE in the tariat), and in 1403 he divided his realm among the houses northern steppe. First sacking Urganch (1287), the capital of his four sons. Although like many Mongol rulers he of Toqtamish’s allied country, Khorazm, Timur launched a appointed a grandson as his heir apparent, the surviving “five-year campaign” (1392–96) against Baghdad’s Jalayir sons refused to recognize this appointment. After Timur’s dynasty as well as against western Iranian, Turkmen, and death his youngest son, Shahrukh (1377–1447), reunified Georgian powers, culminating in the sack of Toqtamish’s the empire in 1409, but Khorazm had been lost to the capital, New Saray, on the Volga and crippling Toqtamish’s Golden Horde and Iraq, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the power. After a successful razzia against Delhi in 1398, Jalayirids and the Turkmen. Shahrukh moved the capital to Timur overrode the war weariness of his emirs to launch Herat and abandoned the pretense of Chinggisid rule, tak- his “seven-year campaign” (1399–1404), defeating the ing the title sultan. Praised by their subjects as benevolent armies of MAMLUK EGYPT in Syria (winter 1400–01) and rulers and great patrons of the arts and sciences, Shahrukh the Ottomans in Turkey (July 1402). While Timur exer- and his son Ulugh-Beg (1394–1449), Shahrukh’s regent in cised forbearance with his Chaghatayid enemies, outside Samarqand, could not defend the empire effectively. The the khanate he used massacres and terror as policy, emu- illuminated manuscripts from the kitabkhana (royal lating earlier Persian and Indian rulers by building pyra- library-atelier) of Shahrukh’s son Baysonghur (1397–1434), mids of skulls outside city gates. Timur’s final plan was the Turkish poems of Ali-Shir Nawa’i (d. 1567), and the conquest of Ming China, but he died in Otrar on the Ulugh-Beg’s observatory at Samarqand and his astronomi- night of February 17, 1405. cal chart are only three of the great cultural monuments Timur’s original army was a hodgepodge of leftover from this era. After the deaths of Shahrukh and Ulugh-Beg, Chaghatayid units: clans (Barulas, Jalayir, etc.), local the Turkmen sacked Herat, and the Uzbeks, a new confed- soldiery created a century earlier under the Mongol cen- eration formed out of the Golden Horde, invaded the sus (called qa’uchin, old units), independent KESHIG south. Collateral lines maintained Timurid authority in (guards) tümens (nominally 10,000) that had outlived Khorasan and Transoxiana until the Uzbeks occupied their khan, and the Qara’unas, an old TAMMACHI garri- Herat in 1507. Zahir-ud-Din Babur (1483–1530), a fifth- son. Timur did not disperse these traditional units but generation descendant of Timur, fled to India, where he controlled them by changing their leadership, removing founded the famous Mughal (Mongol) dynasty major cities such as Bukhara from their control, and (1526–1858) that continued the Timurids’ melding of eventually recruiting new armies outside the Chaghatay Turco-Mongol rule and Persian culture. Khanate, especially local units from the defunct Mongol See also ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SARAY AND IL-KHANATE. Foreign troops and craftsmen—Indians, NEW SARAY. Persians, Arabs both settled and bedouin, and Turks— Further reading: Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, Narrative were deported and settled around Samarqand and of the Spanish Embassy to the Court of Timur at Samarkand Bukhara. By 1400 his own companions commanded in the Years 1403–1406, trans. Guy le Strange (London: about 13 tümens, while his sons commanded at least Hakluyt Society, 1859); Thomas W. Lentz and Glenn D. nine. Timur’s sons’ tümens were assembled from troops Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision: Persian Art and Cul- of all origins. The core of Timur’s army was its Inner ture in the Fifteenth Century (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Asian cavalry, but he also valued Tajik (Iranian) infantry County Museum of Art, 1989); Beatrice Forbes Manz, units. In an inscription he claims to have attacked Toq- Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- tamish in 1391 with 20 tümens, a statement that at the versity Press, 1989). usual 40 percent nominal strength is plausible. Like many Muslim Mongols, Timur claimed special affinity to the family of ‘Ali, son-in-law of the prophet Toghus Khatun (Doquz, Toquz) (d. 1265) The wife of Muhammad. Like the Chinggisids, the Barulas tribe was Hüle’ü, the first Il-Khan, and patroness of Christians in the descended from ALAN GHO’A, and on Timur’s tombstone it Middle East was written that the man of light who impregnated her Toghus Khatun (Lady Toghus) was the granddaughter of was a son of ‘Ali. Timur kept many Islamic scholars and ONG KHAN (d. 1203) of the KEREYID. After defeating Ong sheikhs (leaders of Sufi mystical orders) at his court. The Khan, CHINGGIS KHAN gave Toghus to his youngest son, Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun, who met Timur at Dam- TOLUI, but the marriage was never consummated. As ascus, described him as very intelligent and, despite his Tolui’s son HÜLE’Ü was setting out for the Middle East, he illiteracy, addicted to intellectual debate. Timur’s personal married his stepmother, and she accompanied him on his tastes ran to the monumental, and his conquests brought campaigns against Baghdad (1257–58) and Syria (1259–60). booty and artisans from Turkey to India to the suburbs of Hüle’ü and Toghus had no children, but Hüle’ü respected 542 Toli her as a senior wife, accepting her intercession to protect Orphaned as a child, Tömör-Ochir from age 15 hired him- the Christians of Baghdad, for example. Toghus, like other self out to shear wool and do other odd tasks before pursu- Kereyid princesses, was a Christian of the Assyrian Church ing an education and becoming one of the early graduates of the East (Nestorians), and she kept in her ORDO (palace of Mongolian State University. In 1950 Tömör-Ochir, as tent) a linen chapel-tent with a clapper to announce wor- one of Mongolia’s noted new intellectuals, signed his name ship, while giving Christian instruction to the young and to a collective letter questioning whether Mongolia could patronizing clergy of all denominations. Despite Hüle’ü’s really build socialism without joining the Soviet Union. later turn to Buddhism, for which she often reproached This letter led to an investigation by MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG him, she continued to intercede for his Christian subjects. and his more nationalist associates (YUMJAAGIIN TSEDEN- She died on June 16, 1265, a few months after her hus- BAL, however, supported Tömör-Ochir). In 1953 Tömör- band, sincerely mourned by her Christian subjects. Her Ochir defended his master’s degree in philosophy (that is, stepson Abagha (r. 1265–82) gave her ordo to his new Marxism-Leninism) from Moscow State University and in queen, Toghus’s niece, Tuqtani. The ordo’s chapel was in 1957 received the title (rare in Mongolia’s Soviet-based aca- use past 1291, and the ordo and her Kereyid relatives demic system) “professor.” remained influential to 1319. In the early Tsedenbal years Tömör-Ochir became a See also CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE. member of the Politburo (the leading body) of the MON- GOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY (MPRP), assisted Toli See TOLUI. in Tsedenbal’s 1956 criticism of intellectuals, and wrote the 1959 article that attacked BYAMBYN RINCHEN for his “nationalism.” Tsedenbal admired Tömör-Ochir’s com- Tolui (Toli, Tuluy) (1191?–1232) Chinggis Khan’s mand of Marxism-Leninism, and in 1961 he was elected youngest son and father of two great khans, Möngke and an academician in the ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. By this time, Qubilai however, Tsedenbal began to see Tömör-Ochir as an Although not involved in the battles of his father CHING- unstable individualist being taken in by “nationalism.” GIS KHAN’s rise, Tolui was almost killed at age five by a Certainly Tömör-Ochir’s ideas were in flux; he now com- hostile tribesman. In 1203 his father bestowed on Tolui as pletely repudiated his previous support for unification wife SORQAQTANI BEKI, the niece of the KEREYID’s ONG with the Soviet Union and in 1962 sought to have his KHAN; their first son, Möngke, was born in 1209. Chinggis 1956 and 1959 criticisms withdrawn. Tömör-Ochir’s Khan considered Tolui to be the best warrior among his party-historical textbook that frankly pointed out the non- sons. He first entered combat against North China’s JIN Marxist nature of the early MPRP infuriated Tsedenbal. In DYNASTY in 1213, scaling the walls of Dexing with his 1962 Tömör-Ochir was one of several supporting the cele- brother-in-law Chigü. Tolui’s first independent campaign bration of CHINGGIS KHAN’s birth, which, when criticized came in 1221, when his father dispatched him to Kho- by the Soviet Union, gave Tsedenbal the opportunity to rasan in Iran. The cities in this area had revolted several dismiss him from the Politburo as a “nationalist” on times, and Tolui ordered total massacres at Merv (Mary) September 10. and Nishapur (Neyshabur). Tolui was with his father on Tömör-Ochir asked for the chance to translate Karl his last campaign against the XIA DYNASTY, and after his Marx’s Das Kapital into Mongolian but was instead made father’s death he supervised the empire until the election head of a construction office in BAYANKHONGOR PROVINCE. of his brother ÖGEDEI KHAN in 1229. As youngest son, he The office’s poor performance was attributed to him, and inherited as his appanage the undistributed part of his he was expelled first from the party and then his job and father’s people, who occupied the center of Mongolia. returned to ULAANBAATAR, where he was jailed briefly. Tolui campaigned with Ögedei and Möngke against the Exiled to KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE, he returned to Ulaan- Jin dynasty, serving as both strategist and field comman- baatar for medical reasons before being sent to DARKHAN der. In 1232, with the Jin’s defenses breached, Ögedei CITY in 1968, where, despite being under constant returned north, and Tolui died. ‘ALA’UD-DIN ATA-MALIK surveillance, he opened a museum, “Friendship,” while JUVAINI says he died from alcoholism, yet Mongol sources his wife, Ninjbadgar, taught at the polytechnic institute. say that when the vengeful spirits of North China brought After Tsedenbal was ousted in 1984, his wife delivered an Ögedei to the brink of death, Tolui volunteered to take his appeal to Ulaanbaatar for reconsideration of his case; brother’s place, drinking a potion brewed by the court while she was away, Tömör-Ochir was brutally murdered shamans and dying shortly thereafter. Modern suspicions in his apartment. The murderer was never apprehended. that the shamans poisoned Tolui with Ögedei’s connivance See also CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY; MONGOLIAN cannot be proven. PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; SOVIET UNION AND MONGOLIA. Tömör-Ochir, Daramyn (1921–1985) Mongolia’s first Tongliao municipality Tongliao city is a small city in prominent Marxist-Leninist, who was dismissed in 1962 for southeastern Inner Mongolia with a metropolitan area his defense of Chinggis Khan population in 1982 of 225,400, of whom Mongols num- Toqto’a 543 bered 34,500. Tongliao municipality also administers five Toqto’a (Toghto, Tuotuo, T’uo-t’uo) (1314–1356) Min- rural Mongol BANNERS and two Chinese counties, cover- ister in the late Yuan dynasty who attempted ambitious plans ing 59,500 square kilometers (22,970 square miles). In of financial and economic renovation 1990 this area had 2,753,727 inhabitants, of whom Mon- Toqto’a first rose to power among the Mongols in China gols were 1,160,851 (42 percent). as the nephew of BAYAN (1281?–1340), one of the leaders The city was originally founded as a Chinese county of the 1328 coup d’état and grand councillor from 1335 in KHORCHIN territory in 1914. It was reached by rail in on. Toqto’a’s father, Majardai (1285–1347), had given his 1921. In 1934, under Japanese occupation, Tongliao was son Toqto’a a Confucian education, and Toqto’a did not transferred to form part of the autonomous Mongol approve Bayan’s anti-Confucian policy. Khinggan South province. In 1945–46 Tongliao became In March 1340 Toqto’a secured Bayan’s dismissal, and the center of Jirim league, and in 1949 the Chinese Com- in November Toqto’a became grand councillor. With munist government assigned Jirim league to Inner Mon- Bayan’s fall the Confucian examination system was imme- golia. In 1999 Jirim league was renamed Tongliao diately revived. In 1343 Toqto’a sponsored the long- Municipality. delayed completion of the histories of the Yuan dynasty’s See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION. immediate predecessors, the Song (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234), treating all three as legitimate dynasties. In 1244, however, an overambitious Toqtamish (Tokhtamysh) (fl. 1375–1405) Last strong plan to divert the Yongding River to facilitate water trans- ruler to unify the Golden Horde port to the capital of DAIDU (modern Beijing) generated Toqtamish’s father was a descendants of Toqa-Temür, one heavy opposition, and Toqto’a resigned, joining his father of the “princes of the left hand,” or the BLUE HORDE, in in Gansu. modern Kazakhstan, and his mother was of the QONGGI- During the 1330s plague and famine devastated the RAD clan from near KHORAZM. At the time the Blue Horde Huai River area, while unrest appeared in South China, was ruled by Urus Khan (d. 1377) and his sons, whose Manchuria, and the Sino-Tibetan borderlands. As Toqto’a seat was at Sighnaq (near modern Chiili). By allying with was dismissed, massive flooding of the Huang (Yellow) the Chaghatayid conqueror TIMUR, Toqtamish succeeded River inundated 17 cities, putting the Grand Canal out of after many reverses in taking control of the Blue Horde service and beginning the river’s migration to a new chan- (spring 1377). Later, local chronicles speak of Toqtamish nel north of the Shandong peninsula. Meanwhile, piracy as defending four tribes (el)—Shirin, Baarin, Arghun, and made the sea route for transporting South Chinese grain Qipchaq—from the tyranny of Urus Khan. Once enthroned to the capital increasingly risky. The new grand council- in Sighnaq, Toqtamish led his four tribes west to defeat lor, Berke-Buqa, had no effective response. In August Emir Mamaq (Mamay) of the Qiyat clan (1380) and 1249 Toqto’a was reappointed grand councillor. reestablish GOLDEN HORDE rule over Russia by sacking Under Toqto’a’s second administration he focused on Moscow (1382). the grain transport issue. In winter 1350–51 his attack on Eventually, Toqtamish turned against his old patron, the pirate chief Fang Guozhen failed. With the support of Timur, to pursue the Golden Horde’s old territorial claims Emperor Toghan-Temür (1333–70), Toqto’a advocated in Azerbaijan (1385 and 1387), Khorazm, and the Syr rerouting the Huang (Yellow) River back to its southern Dar’ya region down to Bukhara (1388). Timur responded channel as a way to repair the Grand Canal. In April 1351 with a massive punitive expedition into Kazakhstan, he began his great project, employing 150,000 civilian which finally cornered and defeated Toqtamish’s army workers, 20,000 soldiers, and 1,845,636 ding (yastuq) of near Orenburg (June 1391). Timur also wooed away Emir paper currency. Earlier issues of paper currency had been Edigü, leader of the Manghit (MANGGHUD) clan, from limited by silver reserves, but Toqto’a issued 2 million Toqtamish’s camp. After rebuilding his power in the west, ding of unbacked paper currency to pay for labor and Toqtamish again invaded Azerbaijan (1394); Timur materials. crushed his army again on the Terek (March 15, 1395) In May 1351 uprisings of sectarian “Red Turbans” and sacked Saray and Astrakhan. rebels animated by Buddhist millenarian beliefs broke out Toqtamish fled and for the next 10 years vainly in Yingzhou (modern Fuyang). The rebels spread and sought allies to defeat Emir Edigü and regain the throne. defeated successive attacks by guards units and volunteer His son Qadir-Berdi killed Edigü in 1420; Toqtamish’s armies, including one led by Toqto’a’s brother Esen- four clans eventually found rest in the CRIMEA and in Temür. Toqto’a did not lose his high position, however, Kazan under khans of collateral Toqa-Temürid descent. and in 1252 assembled a “Yellow Army” of mostly Chi- See also RUSSIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SARAY AND nese volunteers, so-called for the color of their uniforms. NEW SARAY. On October 23, 1352, he retook the strategic city of Further reading: D. DeWeese, “Toktamish,” in Ency- Xuzhou after a six-day siege. Other provincial officials clopaedia of Islam, 2d ed., vol. 10 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960 raised Chinese, Mongol, and Miao armies to attack the on): 560–563. rebels. By winter 1353–54 the “Red Turban” movement 544 Toquz was virtually extinct. Even so, piracy and the occupation at first, she soon turned this regency into a position of of the Grand Canal at Gaoyou by the salt smuggler Zhang active power. Eventually she tried to arrest several of Shicheng still blocked grain shipments from the south Ögedei’s major officials. CHINQAI, his chief secretary, and and caused hunger in the capital. Toqto’a proposed Mahmud Yalavach, chief administrator in North China, another grand plan for rice farming in central Hebei, fled to the ORDO (palace-tent) of her son Köten, while importing 2,000 South Chinese farmers and spending 5 Mahmud’s son Mas‘ud Beg, chief administrator in million ding of currency, all the while assembling another Turkestan, fled to Batu’s ordo (see MAHMUD YALAVACH AND army to attack Gaoyou and reopen the Grand Canal. MAS‘UD BEG). In Persia she ordered KÖRGÜZ arrested and A court rival, Qama of the Qangli (d. 1356), handed over to the family of Cha’adai, whom he had exploited Toqto’a’s absence to arrange his dismissal and unwisely defied; they executed him. She replaced Körgüz banishment by imperial decree, just as the siege of with ARGHUN AQA, a Mongol official of the Oirat tribe. Gaoyou was nearing victory. After Toqto’a’s banishment Töregene had friendlier relations with some of Ögedei’s on January 7, 1355, many of his units mutinied, and North Chinese officials and commanders, such as ZHANG Zhang Shicheng exploited Yuan peace offers to seize the ROU, who she ordered, with the Mongol general Lower Chang (Yangtze). Toqto’a, exiled to YUNNAN, was Chagha’an, to attack the SONG DYNASTY. Even so, under poisoned by Qama’s agents on January 10, 1356. Fatima’s influence she put the hated tax farmer ‘Abd-ur- Financially, Toqto’a’s overambitious programs and the Rahman in charge of general administration in North rebellions led Yuan paper currency into a hyperinflation- China. These administrative changes, together with the ary spiral. Even so, his dismissal on the very eve of suc- lack of accountability, led the Mongol ruling class into a cess ended the last chance for the Yuan to suppress the frenzy of extortionate demands for revenue. rebellions and restore the dynasty. Although Töregene desired her eldest son, Güyüg, to be the next khan, he delayed the calling of the quriltai for several years. Her second son, Köten, whose territory was Toquz See TOGHUS KHATUN. in northwest China, opposed his mother’s plans for Güyüg and desired to be elected khan himself. When Töregene (regent, 1242–1246, d. 1246) Wife of Ögedei Chinggis Khan’s youngest brother, Temüge Odchigin, Khan and first empress-regent of the Mongol Empire gathered his men and unsuccessfully tried to seize the Born in the NAIMAN tribe, Töregene was given as wife to throne, the princes realized the time had come to call the Qudu, the eldest son of the MERKID chieftain Toqto’a Beki. long-awaited quriltai. Köten’s election bid was rejected, When the Merkid were conquered by the Mongols in and with the support of Töregene and of the Toluids, 1204, CHINGGIS KHAN gave her as a second wife to his Güyüg became khan in August 1246. Töregene retired third son Ögedei. While Ögedei’s first wife had no sons, west to Ögedei’s appanage on the Emil and Qobaq Rivers Töregene gave birth to five sons, including GÜYÜG, (Emin and Hobok), and officials such as Chinqai were KÖTEN, Köchü, and Qashi, and she soon eclipsed all of restored to power. After a few months Fatima was Ögedei’s other wives. Qashi (b.c. 1205) became Chinggis accused of using witchcraft to damage Köten’s health, and Khan’s favorite grandson before his untimely death from when Köten died soon after Güyüg insisted that his alcoholism. During the reign of her husband ÖGEDEI mother hand Fatima over. Töregene threatened that if her KHAN Töregene, whose ability was acknowledged even by son insisted on seizing her she would commit suicide to her enemies, gradually increased her influence but still spite him. After a period of deadlock Güyüg’s men seized resented Ögedei’s officials and their policy of centralizing Fatima, tortured her into confessing, and executed her. administration and lowering tax burdens. Her religious Töregene died soon after. beliefs are unclear, although she did sponsor the reprint- ing of the Taoist canon in North China, and one of her favorites, Fatima, was an active Shi‘ite Muslim who had Torghuds (Torghut, Torgut, Torguud) The Torghuds been deported from the Shi‘ite shrine city of Meshed. are a component tribe of the Oirat Mongols. (Oirat tribes Through the influence of Fatima, a Muslim tax farmer, were not consanguineal units but politico-ethnic units ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, received the contract to collect taxes in composed of many yasu, or patrilineages.) The Torghud North China in 1240. ruling dynasty traced its descent to ONG KHAN (d. 1203) When Ögedei died in December 1241, at first power of the KEREYID tribe, and while that claim appears to be passed to the hands of Möge, one of Chinggis’s wives, legendary, the Torghud’s name does derive from the who Ögedei had inherited. Ögedei had nominated his Kereyid “day guards” (turqa’ud). (The name is written grandson Shiremün as heir, but he was universally Torguud in Cyrillic-script Mongolian, Torghoud in the regarded as too young. With the support of Ögedei’s Clear Script, and Torghud in Cyrillic-script Kalmyk.) brother CHA’ADAI and her sons, in spring 1242, Töregene The Torghud first appear as an Oirat tribe in the mid- received the consent of the princes to act as regent until a 16th century. The bulk of the Torghud migrated from QURILTAI (assembly) named a new khan. Beginning slowly Zungharia (northern Xinjiang) west to the Volga in 1630, Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels 545 forming the core of the KALMYKS. A few Torghud princes from Ulan-Ude to Naushki on the Mongolian border, and followed TÖRÖ-BAIKHU GÜÜSHI KHAN into Kökenuur, in 1939, with Soviet assistance, a paved road was becoming part of the UPPER MONGOLS. In 1698 a Torghud extended on to ULAANBAATAR. Delayed by WORLD WAR II, Kalmyk nobleman on pilgrimage to Tibet with his family the Naushki-Ulaanbaatar line was completed in 1949. and 500 subjects was unable to return home. They were With the SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE the Soviet Union, Mongo- resettled by China’s QING DYNASTY in Ejene, in far western lia, and China agreed to link Ulaanbaatar and Jining by Inner Mongolia (see ALASHAN). Ejene Torghuds numbered rail; the line was formally opened by the Inner Mongolian 5,000 in 1990. leader ULANFU on January 1, 1956. The railroad was In 1699 15,000 Torghud households returned from entirely built by soldiers of the Soviet Union’s 505th the Volga to Zungharia, where the Zünghar ruler TSE- Penal Unit in Mongolia, manned by Soviet soldiers WANG-RABTAN KHUNG-TAIJI attached them to the Khoid imprisoned for surrendering to the Germans in World tribes. With the Qing conquest of the ZÜNGHARS in 1755, War II and other crimes. In 1958 the line transferred to a body of these Züngharian Torghuds fled to Russia and diesel engines and automated switching. Branches off the were resettled among the Volga Kalmyks. railway were built to coal mines at Sharyn Gol (1963) In 1771 most of the Kalmyks’ Torghud princes and and Baganuur (1982), the new ERDENET CITY (1975), and subjects migrated back to Zungharia, where they were the fluorspar mine at Bor-Öndör (1987). resettled by the Qing dynasty as “Old Torghuds” (see XIN- The 1,109 kilometers (689 miles) of the railway in JIANG MONGOLS). Mongols in Xinjiang’s primarily Torghud Mongolia are managed by the Ulaanbaatar Railway Com- counties today number more than 65,000 (1999). The pany, a Russian (formerly Soviet)-Mongolian joint-stock Zungharian Torghuds returned together with their Kalmyk company. Railway transport in Mongolia, which also clansmen in 1771 and were resettled in western Mongolia includes the unconnected Choibalsang-Borzya line built (modern Bulgan Sum, Khowd province) as “New in 1938–39, carried 96 percent of Mongolia’s total freight Torghuds.” Large numbers of Torghuds also remained in transportation and 55 percent of its total passenger traffic Kalmykia, however. They traditionally inhabited the in 1998. “Black Lands,” the Caspian Sea shore, and the Volga area See also CHOIR; DARKHAN; EAST GOBI PROVINCE; ECON- above the Khoshud lands. OMY, MODERN; SELENGE PROVINCE; SHILIIN GOL. In 1906 the Qing dynasty put western Mongolia’s New Torghuds under the new Altai district, with its capi- tal at Chenghua (modern Altay). In 1911–12 one New Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels The Treasury of Apho- Torghud prince opposed Mongolian independence and ristic Jewels was the most popular of the many Sanskrit fled to Xinjiang, taking the lamas and wealthy herders and Tibetan didactic aphoristic works translated into with him. The others were reincorporated into Mongolia’s Mongolian. The collection, entitled Subhashitaratnanidhi Khowd frontier. They numbered 4,700 in 1956 and about in Sanskrit and Legs-par bshad-ba rin-po-che’i gter in 10,200 in 1989. Tibetan, was written in Tibetan by the monk-scholar Sa- See also AYUUKI KHAN; BAYANGOL MONGOL AUTONOMOUS skya Pandita (Scholar of the Sa-skya Order) Kun-dga’ PREFECTURE; BOROTALA MONGOL AUTONOMOUS PREFECTURE; rGyal-mtshan (1182–1251) before his summons to the HENAN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; KALMYK REPUBLIC; Mongol court in 1244. While modeled on Sanskrit apho- KHOBOGSAIR MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; KHOO-ÖRLÖG; ristic verses and containing many allusions to Indian KHOWD PROVINCE; SUBEI MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. legends, only 35 of the 457 aphorisms are actually translations, close or loose, of Sanskrit originals. The Torghut See TORGHUDS. aphorisms set forth the contrasting characters of the wise and the foolish and the importance of good lineage and dutiful rulers. Addressed to householders, the basic Torgut See TORGHUDS. message was expressed in the final aphorism: “If one knows the deeds of this world well, by that one is also Torguud See TORGHUDS. fulfilling the way of the Dharma [i.e., Buddhist reli- gion].” It was familiarly known in Tibetan as the Sa- skya legs-bshad, or “Sa-skya’s Aphorism,” and in Töv See CENTRAL PROVINCE. Mongolian as the Subashida (modern Suwshid), from Sanskrit Subhasita, “aphorisms.” Trans-Mongolian Railway Completed in 1956, the The earlier translations into Mongolian by Sonom- Trans-Mongolian Railway cuts through Mongolia north to Gara (c. 1300), ZAYA PANDITA NAMKHAI-JAMTSU south and links ULAN-UDE in Russia to Jining in China. (1599–1662), and the THIRD MERGEN GEGEEN LUBSANG- Chinese and Russians had long planned railways into DAMBI-JALSAN (1717–66) were relatively literal, while that Mongolia to secure control, while Mongolians desired a of Chakhar Gebshi (student of Buddhist philosophy) railway for development. In 1937 a railway was built Lubsang-Tsültim (1740–1810) was a free translation in 546 tribute system elegant verse. Lubsang-Tsültim also translated with addi- The Mongols, after conquering China and founding tions of his own the Subashida’s Tibetan commentary by the YUAN DYNASTY (1206/71–1368), faced the possibility Rin-chen dPal-bzang-po (1230–92), which explained the of continuing the traditional tribute relations with South- allusions to Indian legends. This commentary transmitted east Asia. At first, under QUBILAI KHAN, the Mongols tried to the Mongols a skeletal knowledge of the Indian epics to turn these loose tribute relations into the much tighter Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Lubsang-Tsültim’s trans- control sanctioned by Mongol precedents. This attempt lation and commentary were block printed in 1778–79, failed, however, and subsequent emperors were content reprinted in Inner Mongolia in the early 20th century, with continuing the traditional tribute system with and published in Cyrillic transcription by TSENDIIN Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. DAMDINSÜREN in 1958. The operations of the tribute system between China See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; DIDACTIC and the nomads is best documented under the Ming POETRY; LITERATURE; ‘PHAGS-PA LAMA. dynasty, when the Chinese dealt with Mongol and Oirat Further reading: James E. Bosson, A Treasury of (west Mongol) envoys. Their tribute goods presented at Aphoristic Jewels: The Subhasitaratnanidhi of Sa-Skya Pan- the capital were principally horses but also included dita in Tibetan and Mongolian (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- CAMELS and furs. The emperor responded to this tribute versity, 1969). by giving rewards to the emissaries, which were deter- mined by a fixed schedule. Thus, one ordinary horse was tribute system The tribute system was a China-cen- rewarded with two lined satin garments. Each member of tered way of looking at foreign relations that influenced the envoys, down to the servants, also received personal Chinese-nomadic relations for almost 2,000 years. In their gifts, graded according to rank, and the envoys were feted dealings with foreign peoples, Chinese officials tradition- at government expense throughout their stay. Finally, ally tried to maintain the idea that the emperor was the tribute missions under the OIRATS contained many mer- sole “Son of Heaven.” Thus, all foreign leaders were chants from the Central Asian oasis cities of Hami, Tur- required to approach the emperor as subjects (chen), not pan, and Samarqand. Mongol and Oirat embassies as equal sovereigns. While the emperor was the world’s sometimes numbered more than 2,000 men presenting only Son of Heaven, he was not to aspire to rule the dis- 40,000 head of horses and camels. The Ming responded tant peoples directly but instead to allow them, with their by attempting to limit the size and frequency of the strange and barbaric customs, to continue under their embassies or by reducing the unit price. However, if dis- accustomed rulers. It was expected, however, that the satisfied with the payments, the nomads would raid to “virtue” (de), or charisma, of the emperor and of the realm force better terms. he ruled would draw foreign chiefs or their envoys to the When the nomads were powerful, they could also Chinese court, where they would present gifts as tribute. force the Chinese into an alternative form of diplomatic The emperor would then shower the chiefs with gifts in relations, the heqin (peace and intermarriage) system. In return to show his benevolence. Distinguished court titles this system, based on the relations between China’s feudal and patents were additional signs of imperial favor. Nearer states in the Zhou period (1122–256 B.C.E.), the nomadic peoples would be more attracted and so could open such ruler received the right to address the emperor as a kins- tribute relations regularly, while more distant ones would man, not a subject. Regardless of whether the kin term show up on the border only occasionally. was a senior or junior one, it marked the equivalent of This ideal bore, however, only occasional relation to diplomatic equality. (The emperor’s real relatives all for- China’s real foreign policy. In practice, tribute relations mally addressed him as chen, subject.) To seal the with the nomads, such as between the Han (202 B.C.E. to alliance, the nomad ruler would receive a woman of the 220 C.E.) and the XIONGNU (Huns), the Tang (618–907) imperial family as wife. Heqin relations were always and the TÜRK EMPIRES and the MING DYNASTY (1368–1644) extremely controversial in China and never undertaken and the Mongols, were a method of trade, something the except under severe pressure. In the late imperial period, Chinese court well understood. “Tribute” items, such as from the 14th century on, the dynasties in China refused HORSES and skins, were exchanged on specified schedules any form of heqin system. for “gifts” from the court. The trade was made all the At certain periods the Chinese also opened horse more lucrative for the nomads in that the Chinese court markets for regular tributary powers, in which ordinary often paid room and board for the envoys from the time nomads could trade their horses at fixed prices. The of their entry into Chinese territory. This trade operated horses were bought by the Chinese army and paid for primarily to the benefit of the nomads who desired tex- according to fixed prices. Horse markets were reserved tiles (primarily silk), grains, iron kettles, and later, TEA. for close allies such as the THREE GUARDS and the HÖHHOT Since tribute was essentially a form of state-administered TÜMED after they made peace with the Ming. foreign trade, it was subject to constant political negotia- While in theory contrary to the tribute system, Chi- tion, with the threat of raids if the Chinese payments nese military action was, in fact, a necessary complement were not satisfactory. to it. All of China’s great dynasties, the Han (202 B.C.E. to Tsedenbal, Yumjaagiin 547 220 C.E.), the Tang (618–907), and the Ming leaping from foot to foot, all the while brandishing (1368–1644), undertook expeditions into the steppe to swords and other attributes. Near the end the WHITE OLD search for and destroy hostile nomad leaders. The Chi- MAN came out and performed comic antics, and then 32 nese dynasties always linked attacks on nomadic rulers “black-hat” lamas danced. At the conclusion, as all the with attempts to entice rival rulers into regular tribute figures were dancing, dough figures (baling) were relations. This policy of “using the barbarians to control destroyed to complete the exorcism of evils. barbarians,” backed by carefully chosen blows from Chi- There were also tsams dedicated to Mother Tara and nese forces, was pursued with varying effect by all the GESER. In southeastern Inner Mongolia’s Aohan banner, dynasties. The Han dynasty used this policy to break up cham developed into a kind of village procession of the Xiongnu, the Tang used it to break up the Türk “blessings givers” (khutugchin), including the White Old empires, and the JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234) used it against Man and Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy from the Chinese the MONGOL TRIBE in the days before CHINGGIS KHAN. The novel Journey to the West (see CHINESE FICTION). Tsam was victims of this policy often felt outraged by what they saw outlawed in Mongolia after 1937, but has again begun to as a perfidious and cowardly, but all too effective, policy. be performed on a small scale since 1990. See also BURMA; KOREA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; See also CHOIJUNG LAMA TEMPLE; DANZIN-RABJAI. SOUTH SEAS; VIETNAM. Further reading: Sechin Jagchid and Van Jay Symons, Peace, War, and Trade along the Great Wall Tsedenbal, Yumjaagiin (1916–1991) Modern Mongo- (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); Alastair lia’s longest-ruling leader, Tsedenbal, from 1952 to 1984, Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism; Strategic Culture and sought to make Mongolia in every way a loyal junior part- Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton, N.J.: Prince- ner of the Soviet Union. ton University Press, 1995); Henry Serruys, Sino-Mongol Born on September 17, 1916, to an unwed mother in Relations during the Ming, vol. 2: The Tribute System and Bayan Chandamani Uula banner (modern Dawst Sum, Diplomatic Missions (Brussels: Institute belge des hautes Uws), Tsedenbal (originally named Tserenpil) was a DÖR- études chinoises, 1967) and vol. 3: Trade Relations: The BÖD Mongol. In October 1929 Tsedenbal was selected Horse Fairs (1400–1600) (Brussels: Institute belge des with 21 other students for a special Mongolian rabfak hautes études chinoises, 1975). (preparatory school) in Irkutsk. In 1931 he joined the MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY YOUTH LEAGUE. After gradu- Tsaatan See DUKHA. ating from the rabfak, he studied at the Institute of Finance and Economics in Irkutsk, graduating in July 1938. His fellow students remembered him as a loner, Tsagaan Sar See WHITE MONTH. and in a note from 1943 he congratulated himself on his intolerance of social chitchat and carelessness in work. Tsakhar See CHAKHAR. Upon graduation the Mongolian students were invited to Moscow for sightseeing, where Tsedenbal was tsam This sacred dance (from Tibetan ’cham) was part singled out for notice by the Soviet Communist Party of the ceremony of the fierce (dogshid) deities in Mongo- Central Committee. In September 1938 he was returned lian monasteries. to Mongolia and was employed as an instructor in the Tsam (pronounced cham in Inner Mongolia) in its Finance Ministry’s attached technicum. Recommended current form was created by the Tibetan rNying-ma-pa to Mongolia’s ruler, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG, by the Soviet (Old Order) lama Chos-kyi dBang-phyug (1212–73). In intelligence officer and diplomatic representative Ivan the late 18th century it was introduced to ERDENI ZUU and Alekseevich Ivanov (1906–48), Tsedenbal became in 1811 to Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) in the chore- deputy finance minister in March 1939 and in Decem- ography of the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82), and there- ber joined Choibalsang and Ivanov in meeting with after it spread very rapidly. Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin in Moscow. There, Choibal- All the tsam figures wear large masks of papier- sang promised to arrest Mongolia’s sitting party secre- maché. The coral-inlaid masks of the deity Jamsrang tary, Basanjab (1904–40), and replace him with (Beg-tshe), made by the late-19th-century craftsmen Tsedenbal, who had just joined the party. Thus, at age Tabkhai-Boro and Puntsug-Osor for the Khüriye tsam, are 24 Tsedenbal became the general secretary of the MON- particularly impressive. Mongolian monasteries per- GOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY (MPRP) and the formed the tsam annually, preceded by an early morning nation’s number-two leader at the party’s Tenth Congress service for the deity Yamantaka. After several introduc- in March 1940. tory figures entered, including the comic azar (from San- From then on Tsedenbal formed part of Choibal- skrit acarya), or Indian pilgrim, 10 fierce deities (dogshid) sang’s inner circle, participating in several highly secret successively came out and danced. The solemn dances security cases. Even so, Tsedenbal shared none of consisted of slow bouncing or twirling on one foot or Choibalsang’s enthusiasm for pan-Mongolian unification, 548 Tsedenbal, Yumjaagiin and around 1950 he supported the proposition advanced agreements that created the TRANS-MONGOLIAN RAILWAY by several young officials that Mongolia would need to and Sino-Soviet-Mongolian alliance (see SINO-SOVIET join the Soviet Union if it were to achieve socialism. ALLIANCE). With Choibalsang out of the way, the Polit- In 1947 Tsedenbal married Anastasia Ivanovna Fila- buro formally approved joining the Soviet Union. Attend- tova at the Savoy Hotel in Moscow. Despite the match’s ing Stalin’s funeral, Tsedenbal presented the request to political implications, Tsedenbal was genuinely devoted the Soviet leadership, which rejected it and rebuked its to his wife, who assumed complete responsibility for originators. their household, leaving Tsedenbal free to concentrate Tsedenbal and Damba split over its response to on his political career. At the same time, he was some- Soviet ruler Nikita S. Khrushchev’s famous speech criti- times uncomfortable with her critical and domineering cizing Joseph Stalin in April 1956. At first, the Mongolian personality. Their two sons, Vladislav (Slavik) and Zorig, Politburo created a special commission headed by were registered as Soviet citizens. The family atmosphere BAZARYN SHIRENDEW to reexamine cases from the Choibal- and language were completely Russian, with vacations sang period. While Damba supported the commission, every summer in the Soviet Union. Anastasia, with her Tsedenbal repeatedly blocked its work. In 1958 Tsedenbal husband’s consent, kept the children away from Mongo- secured Damba’s dismissal, taking over his position as lian children lest they “catch infectious diseases.” first secretary of the MPRP. In 1961–62, as Khrushchev intensified the de-Stalinization drive, a “Rehabilitation FIRST AMONG EQUALS, 1952–1964 Commission” was appointed, but Tsedenbal here, too, After Choibalsang’s death in January 1952, Tsedenbal criticized its work. In 1963 the Politburo banned the film allied with the second secretary DASHIIN DAMBA Tümnii Neg (A million in one), which dealt with the (1908–89?) to defeat the bid for power by the hard-line purges. Due to Tsedenbal’s stubborn resistance to de-Stal- Ch. Sürenjaw, who was exiled to Moscow. Tsedenbal inization, a statue of Stalin remained in front of the Mon- become “Chairman of the Council of Ministers,” or pre- golian National Library until 1990. mier, on May 27, 1952, and gave up the first secretary- In 1962–63 Tsedenbal expelled several rivals and ship to Damba two years later. As premier Tsedenbal critics from the MPRP on charges of “nationalism.” He immediately visited Moscow and then Beijing, signing the used the 1962 CHINGGIS KHAN CONTROVERSY to dismiss Soviet ruler Leonid Brezhnev and Mongolia’s Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal signing the Soviet-Mongolian defense treaty of 1966 (From 50 Years of People’s Mongolia [1971]) Tserindorji 549 his erstwhile Politburo allies, first DARAMYN TÖMÖR-OCHIR In 1981, at the Eighteenth Party Congress, plaudits and then L. Tsend. At the same meeting three Central to “the best leader of party and state” filled the air. At the Committee members handling economic issues, Ts. same time, Tsedenbal began attacking not only intellectu- Lookhuuz, B. Nyambuu, and B. Surmaajaw, argued that als but his cronies. In December 1983 Tsedenbal linked S. people’s living standards were declining and criticized the Jalan-Aajaw to the old 1963 Lookhuuz group and exiled party’s “petit-bourgeois” attitude. They, too, were him. By 1984 one-third of the Central Committee and expelled from the party and exiled to rural areas. From almost half the ministry heads appointed in 1981 had 1966 on, when he received Leonid Brezhnev on the first been dismissed. After Brezhnev’s death in 1982 the new visit of a Soviet leader to Mongolia and presided unchal- Soviet leadership decided in November 1983 that Tseden- lenged over the MPRP’s Fifteenth Congress, Tsedenbal bal’s increasingly erratic behavior was becoming a liabil- was the undisputed leader of Mongolia. ity. On August 9, 1984, while Tsedenbal was vacationing TSEDENBAL’S REGIME AND HIS DECLINE in Moscow, the Kremlin doctor Chazov diagnosed Tsedenbal as suffering from overwork, and top Soviet In his comments on Tömör-Ochir, Tsedenbal had stated leaders summoned Batmönkh and Tsedenbal’s old crony that “new young forces must be drawn into leadership D. Molomjamts, telling them Tsedenbal could no longer work,” but his own policies accentuated the aging of the serve. On August 23 the Mongolian Politburo dismissed leadership. From 1963 on Tsedenbal and his cultural Tsedenbal from all positions. enforcer, “Horse-Headed” B. Lhamsüren, condemned area after area of new intellectual and social endeavor: RETIREMENT abstract art, new appreciation of Buddhist literature, After his dismissal Tsedenbal lived in lonely retirement in survey-based sociology, and so on. From 1966 to 1981 Moscow with his wife and sons. From 1988 increasing the Politburo remained remarkably constant in its com- public criticism of “Tsedenbalism” embittered his last position. Khalkhas accused Tsedenbal of preferring Dör- days, as his senility and Anastasia Ivanovna’s overprotec- böds for high office. In 1974 he imitated Brezhnev in tive rages increased. In March 1990, at the height of the giving the office of premier to an underling (in this case peaceful 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION, the MPRP Cen- JAMBYN BATMÖNKH) and taking for himself the office of tral Committee harshly criticized Tsedenbal’s legacy and head of state. expelled him from the party while exonerating his old From 1966 Tsedenbal’s conformist reverence for victims, such as Tömör-Ochir and Lookhuuz. Even more authority, boundless admiration of Soviet Russia, and determination to make Mongolia an “industrial-agricul- personally distressing to Tsedenbal, however, was the tural country” shaped the nation’s policies, even if the expulsion of Slavik, as a Soviet citizen, from the MPRP. industry involved was mostly semiprocessing of raw Tsedenbal died in Moscow on April 21, 1991, and was materials for the Soviet market. His great detestation of buried in Ulaanbaatar. In 1997, as nostalgia for the eco- Tömör-Ochir sprang from the latter’s irreverent criticism nomic security of the Communist era increased, Tseden- of the country’s accomplishments since 1921, as if he, bal’s titles and honors were restored. Tömör-Ochir, were Mongolia’s first real Marxist-Lenin- See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; SOVIET UNION AND MONGOLIA. ist. In 1962 Tsedenbal proposed the slogan that master- ing Russian, “the language of Lenin,” was “a component of ideological education.” In the late 1970s an attempt Tserendorj, Balingiin See TSERINDORJI. to conduct all higher education in Russian was only barely defeated. In a note written in 1963 Tsedenbal Tserindorji (Balingiin Tserendorj) (1868–1928) Mon- rejected Chinese suggestions that Mongolia, by being golia’s respected foreign minister and prime minister in the relegated to mining and light industry, was becoming a theocratic and revolutionary periods colony of the Soviet Union. “The development of the Tserindorji was born on May 25, 1868, to a Chinese father international socialist division of labor is a LAW,” he and a Mongolian mother; they were subjects of the GREAT fumed. SHABI in Setsen Khan banner (in modern Öndörkhaan, Around late 1973 Tsedenbal began to experience Khentii). After serving as a Chinese translator in the moments of memory loss that grew increasingly serious Manchu AMBAN’s office in Khüriye (modern ULAAN- from 1975 on. Spells of dizziness also alarmed him. His BAATAR), in 1911 he joined independent Mongolia’s For- wife, Anastasia Ivanovna, began a public career as chair- eign Ministry, rising to deputy foreign minister in 1913 woman of Mongolia’s Children’s Fund while criticizing and participating in Prime Minister Namnangsürüng’s Mongolian leaders behind the scenes. By 1982 Tseden- 1913–14 mission to St. Petersburg and the 1914–15 bal’s son Vladislav (Slavik) was drinking heavily, while Kyakhta Trilateral Conference (see KYAKHTA TRILATERAL Zorig accused his father of abdicating his fatherly role, of TREATY). In December 1915 he became foreign minister, not teaching his sons Mongolian, and pushing everything the first lay commoner to hold such high office. He was onto their domineering mother. widely regarded as the only able man in the government 550 Tsevang-Rabtan after 1915. Tserindorji collaborated with Chen Yi’s “soft” against his QUDA (marriage ally), the Khoshud Lhazang version of the REVOCATION OF AUTONOMY but was shunted Khan in Tibet, who had enthroned a new Sixth Dalai aside under Xu Shuzheng’s “hard” version. Lama. Responding to appeals from Lhasa’s three great In July 1921 the new revolutionary government monasteries to depose the pretender, he sent his brother appointed Tserindorji deputy foreign minister, and he Tseren-Dondug with 6,000 men to occupy Lhasa in helped negotiate the 1921 Friendship Agreement with December 1717; Lhazang died in battle. The ZÜNGHARS Russia. In 1922 he became foreign minister and Presid- made themselves hated by their attacks on non-dGe-lugs- ium member of the party Central Committee. In October pa (Yellow Hat) monasteries, attacks instigated by Tse- 1923, as part of GENERAL DANZIN’s conservative retrench- wang-Rabtan’s austere and intolerant chief monk, ment, he was named prime minister. Despite his criticism Lubzang-Puntsog. In 1719–20 the Qing expelled the of blind faith in Soviet advice, he remained indispensable Zünghars first from Tibet and then from Hami and Tur- to the revolutionary regime as prime minister until his pan. After the death of Kangxi, Qing pressure on the death on February 13, 1928. Zünghar temporarily lessened. Tsewang-Rabtan used this See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY, THIRD CONGRESS breathing space to launch a massive attack on the Kaza- OF; REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. khs, forcing them into their disastrous “Barefoot Retreat” in winter 1723–24. After his death his son GALDAN- TSEREN succeeded him. Tsevang-Rabtan See TSEWANG-RABTAN KHUNG-TAIJI. Further reading: Fang Chao-ying, “Tsewang Arap- tan.” In Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period (1644–1912), Tsevan-Ravtan See TSEWANG-RABTAN KHUNG-TAIJI. ed. by Arthur W. Hummel (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1943). Tsewang See ZHAMTSARANO, TSYBEN ZHAMTSARA- NOVICH. Tseween, Jamsrangiin See ZHAMTSARANO, TSYBEN ZHAMTSARANOVICH. Tsewang Araptan See TSEWANG-RABTAN KHUNG-TAIJI. Tsogtu Taiji (1581–1637) Poet, supporter of Ligdan Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji (Tsevang-Rabtan, Tsevan- Khan, and opponent of the Dalai Lama’s “Yellow Hat” order Ravtan, Tsewang Araptan) (b. 1663, r. 1694–1727) Ruler Tümengken Tsogtu, usually known as Tsogtu Taiji of the Zünghars whose daring intervention in Tibet brought (Prince Tsogtu), was a nephew of ABATAI KHAN Manchu rule there (1554–88). From 1601 to 1617 he built six fortified Tsewang-Rabtan at first served his uncle GALDAN monasteries; ruins of two, the “White Building” and the BOSHOGTU KHAN (1678–97) as the ZÜNGHARS’ comman- “Khar Bukh Ruins,” are found today in modern Dashin- der against the KAZAKHS. In 1688, after the suspicious chilen Sum (Bulgan province). Unlike the other KHALKHA death of his younger brother, relations worsened, and nobles, including his own family, Tsogtu Taiji ardently Tsewang-Rabtan seized the Zungharian homeland while supported the Yuan emperor LIGDAN KHAN (titled Galdan was invading KHALKHA. In 1694 the Dalai Lama’s Khutugtu, 1604–34) and opposed the dGe-lugs-pa (Yel- regent (sde-srid) Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho (r. low Hat) order. Already in 1621 he felt isolated, particu- 1679–1703) bestowed on Tsewang-Rabtan the title larly when his beloved paternal aunt was married to a khung-taiji, the next-highest title to khan among the prince of the “Ongni’ud” (here meaning Abaga, modern OIRATS. (He never received the title khan.) Like that of Abag), refugees in Khalkha from Ligdan’s rule. His ser- Galdan, Tsewang-Rabtan’s foreign policy was built on vants carved on a rockface a famous poem of longing for defense of the Dalai Lama’s office. From 1690, when he his aunt and a blessing for Ligdan in 1624 (in Del- controlled Zungharia, Tsewang-Rabtan allowed the gerkhaan Sum, Central province). Eventually, Tsogtu Taiji regent to dissuade him from joining the Qing assault on fled south with his subjects, following Ligdan to Galdan. In 1697–98 he married the daughter of the Kökenuur. After Ligdan’s death Tsogtu Taiji began attack- Torghud AYUUKI KHAN (r. 1669–1724). In 1699 Ayuuki’s ing dGe-lugs-pa monasteries. When Tsogtu sent 10,000 son Sanjib rebelled against his father and fled to Zung- men under his son Arslang against the Dalai Lama in haria with 15,000 households, strengthening Tsewang- Lhasa, Arslang switched sides and supported the Dalai Rabtan’s forces. Lama. The dGe-lugs-pa hierarch, the Fifth Dalai Lama At first Tsewang-Rabtan cooperated with both the (1617–82), summoned the Oirat GÜÜSHI KHAN TÖRÖ- Qing emperor Kangxi (1662–1722) and Russia, throwing BAIKU, whose 10,000 men in early 1637 crushed Tsogtu’s his largest forces against the Kazakhs in repeated raids 30,000 at Ulaan-Khoshuu; Tsogtu Taiji was killed. Mon- from 1698 on. In 1715, however, the Qing attacked in the golia’s first successful feature film, whose screenplay was Altai, and Tsewang-Rabtan sent 2,000 men to seize Hami written by BYAMBYN RINCHEN, was entitled Tsogtu Taiji in response. At the same time, Tsewang-Rabtan turned (1945). Tu language and people 551 Tula See TUUL RIVER. vowels are widespread, and -u diphthongs fairly rare. Postverbal negation in guaa (cf. Mongolian ügei/güi) is also widely used. A number of other idiosyncratic phono- Tu language and people (Monguor) The Tu nation- logical developments in Tu are not explainable by either ality are a farming people in northwest China numbering the Tibetan sound environment or greater archaism. 191,624 in 1990. Their language is a separate branch of The Tu language is divided into two quite different the Mongolic family, one with peculiar phonetic features dialects, Huzhu and Minhe. Natives of Huzhu, Ledu, and and many Tibetan and Chinese loanwords. Tianzhu counties speak Huzhu, while those of Minhe ORIGINS county speak Minhe. The Minhe dialect has no phonemic vowel length, has fewer initial consonants clusters, and The Tu as a people formed in the early MING DYNASTY simplifies syllable-final -l to -r and -m to -n or -ng. In (1368–1644). When the Ming dynasty drove the Mongol phonology and vocabulary, Minhe is thus closer to Chi- YUAN DYNASTY (1206/71–1368) out of China’s Gansu nese and Huzhu to Tibetan. province, 16 local commanders near Xining surrendered All the Tu of Datong county, about 20 percent of the in 1369–71 with their subjects and were made tusi (t’u- total nationality, now speak Chinese, and Chinese sources ssu), or “aboriginal officers.” Of these 16, the most impor- estimate only about 60 percent of the Tu as a whole speak tant were two Chinggisid princes and two commanders of the Tu language. A new Latin script was created for the the originally Turkic-speaking Lintao ÖNGGÜD. One other previously unwritten language and began to be used in a was Chinese and one Turkestani; the other 10 were called limited way in the early 1980s. “Tu.” While this word can mean simply “aborigines” in Chinese, it may have been used as an abbreviation for HISTORY Tuyuhun, a branch of the probably Mongolic XIANBI, who The people of the 16 Tu tusis, or “aboriginal officers,” settled in the area in the fourth century. In any case, dur- totaling 11,000 households in the early Ming, served pri- ing the Yuan the mixed, mostly Turco-Mongol, inhabitants marily as border wardens, protecting the frontier from around Xining had evidently begun using Mongolian on a Tibetan and Yellow Uighur (see YOGUR LANGUAGES AND wide scale and by the Ming dynasty came to call them- PEOPLES) nomads. From 1509 to 1723 independent Mon- selves “Mongols.” They distinguished themselves as gol princes from Inner Mongolia and KHALKHA and the “White Mongols” (chagaan Monggol) from the still inde- OIRATS occupied the Kökenuur area, forming the UPPER pendent “Black Mongols” (khara Monggol) of Mongolia. MONGOLS. The Tu tusis were repeatedly called up to resist The word Mongol is pronounced in the Minhe dialect as Mongol raids on Ming territory. The tusis surrendered en “Monguor,” forming the origin of a common European masse to the new QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) in 1645, and American designation for this nationality. which multiplied the number of tusis to 23, but raids LANGUAGE and rebellions during the turbulent dynastic transition continued. The Tu language forms the Gansu-Qinghai family within the MONGOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY together with the At the same time, the Tu began to form links with the Dongxiang, Bao’an, and (less certainly) Eastern Yogur Mongols and the Tibetans. The Tu were, at the time of languages. The vocabulary of Tu is mostly Mongolic in their surrender to the Ming, already Tibetan-rite Bud- origin but has numerous Tibetan and Chinese elements, dhists. A temple had been built at Qutan (in modern often for fairly basic vocabulary. Phonologically, Tu is the Ledu county), and Buddhist clerics were granted Ming most aberrant language of the Mongolic family. Under the titles. In 1604 the FOURTH DALAI LAMA, a TÜMED Mongol, influence of A-mdo Tibetan, the language has lost all encouraged the construction of the new dGon-lung Altaic features, losing vowel harmony and developing (Ergulong) Monastery (Chinese, Youning Temple, in through the loss of the first vowel many cases of word- modern Huzhu county). From this monastery came three initial consonant clusters and initial r-. Thus, Middle lineages of INCARNATE LAMAS: the JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU, the Mongolian arbai, “barley,” sayiqan, “beautiful,” and ire-, Tuguan Khutugtu, and Sum-pa Khutugtu. The Sum-pa “come” developed in Tu (Huzhu dialect) into shbaii, sgan, mKhan-po (abbot of the Sumpa lineage) Ishi-Baljur (Ye- and re-. shes dPal-’byor, 1704–87) was one of the great polymaths While Tu preserves some features of Middle Mongo- of Tibetan Buddhism. lian, it is not as conservative as Mogholi or Daur. Tu pre- Despite imperial patronage of the high lamas, many Tu serves the Middle Mongolian h- as f- (in the Huzhu lamas joined the Upper Mongol prince Lubsang-Danzin’s dialect) or sh- (as in foodə, “star” and shjauur, “root”; cf. great rebellion against the Qing in 1723–24, although the Middle Mongolian hodu[n] and huja’ur). However, regres- tusis remained loyal. The rebellion and the Qing’s savage sive assimilation of the -i- (vowel breaking) is relatively reprisals devastated the Tu. A subsequent influx of Han advanced (cf. Tu shira, “yellow,” makha, “meat,” and nudu, (ethnic Chinese) and Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslim) set- “eye” to Middle Mongolian shira, miqa, and nidü), long tlers transformed Xining into a farming area. 552 Tuluy TRADITIONAL SOCIETY, ECONOMY, cent, were both made joint Hui and Tu autonomous AND RELIGION counties. The tusi was a hereditary officer, equivalent in rank to a See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; BAO’AN LANGUAGE Chinese county magistrate. The tusi’s subjects served him AND PEOPLE; DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. with taxes and corvée but were exempt from any obliga- Further reading: Limusishlden and Kevin Stuart, ed., tions toward the Chinese counties established in their Huzhu Mongghul Folklore: Texts and Translations (Munich: territory. Each tusi took a Chinese surname, which was Lincom Europa, 1998); Louis J. Schram, Monguors of the also adopted by his followers. Thus, the tusi institution Kansu-Tibetan Frontier, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: American became a kind of exogamous clan, ritually unified by the Philosophical Society, 1954–61); Henry Schwarz, Minori- worship of the founding tusi. The real descendants of the ties of Northern China: A Survey (Bellingham: Western original tusi formed a hereditary nobility that was exempt Washington University Press, 1984), 107–117; Kevin from taxes. Slater, A Grammar of Mangghuer: A Mongolic Language of By the early 20th century the Tu were settled farm- China’s Qinghai-Gansu Sprachbund (London: Routledge ers, living in loosely clustered villages along the Huang- Curzon, 2002). shui and Datong River valleys growing barley, wheat, peas, rapeseed, colza, hemp, and potatoes. The Tu kept Tuluy See TOLUI. much livestock, however, and maintained their tradi- tion of breeding fine horses. Tu caravaneers also fre- Tumd See TÜMED. quently joined pilgrimages and caravans to Tibet. Emigration of Tu farmers to cultivate virgin lands on the Tibetan plateau broke up somewhat the close links Tümed (Tumd, Tümet, Tumote) A center of Mongol between the tusis and their subjects. Close interaction expansion in the 16th century under ALTAN KHAN, the with Tibetans and Chinese influenced culture and reli- Tümed Mongols were deprived of their aristocracy under gion. Religious beliefs focused on the Buddhist monas- the Qing dynasty. Completely sedentarized as farmers, teries but also on the household worship of heaven, many Tümeds became activists in the Chinese Commu- mostly Taoist tutelary deities, and “black” and “white” nist Party. With few exceptions, Tümeds today speak shamans (boo). Mongolian only as a second language for reasons of eth- nic pride. MODERN HISTORY Tümed today has two banners, a Left Banner (Zuoqi) With the overthrow of the Qing in 1912, the Tu feared under HÖHHOT municipality and a Right Banner (Youqi) the destruction of the tusi system that guaranteed their under BAOTOU municipality. Together they cover 4,996 autonomy. In 1916 a number of Tu clerics and tusis par- square kilometers (1,929 square miles) and have 647,000 ticipated in an unsuccessful Qing restoration movement. inhabitants, of whom only 37,800 are Mongols. A sub- Only later, however, did the threat of forced assimilation stantial number of Tümed Mongols also live in Höhhot’s become real. In 1929 the counties around Xining, previ- “Old Town” or Yuquan district and suburbs. Subsistence ously part of Gansu province, were transferred to Qing- crops include naked oats, wheat, and potatoes, while cash hai, and in 1931 the tusi system was finally abolished. crops include rape, sugar beet, linseed, and tobacco. Qinghai’s Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslims) warlord Ma From the 11th to 14th centuries the Tümed plain was Bufang (r. 1931–49) implemented universal conscription settled by the ÖNGGÜD tribe. After 1450 the Tümed (the and a land tax designed to force inefficient farmers, such 10,000s) formed one of the Mongols’ SIX TÜMENS. The as the Tu, off productive lands and after 1938 prohibited tribe achieved the height of its power as the appanage of Tu clothing and language in public. the Chinggisid Altan Khan (1508–82). After surrendering The People’s Republic of China reversed the policy of to the rising Manchu Qing dynasty (1636–1912), the assimilation, Nationality policy officials designated Tu as Tümed were put under Manchu officials as part of the the name of the nationality and Chinese scholars have EIGHT BANNERS system. In 1741 a special Salaachi (Salaqi) tended to stress the Tu’s Tuyuhun ancestry. The scattered prefecture was created to administer the already numer- distribution of the Tu has made territorial autonomy only ous Chinese settlers. By the mid-19th century many nominal. Huzhu was declared a Tu nationality autonomous Tümeds could not speak Mongolian, and CHINESE COLO- county in 1954, yet the county contained less than 35 NIZATION intensified after 1900. ULANFU, a Tümed peas- percent of the total Tu population, and Huzhu’s Tu were ant’s son, became the Chinese Communists’ chief Mongol only 14.52 percent of the county’s 156,024 people. Due to leader. The Communists occupied Tümed territory in a high birthrate, the Tu’s percentage in Huzhu had risen 1949, and in 1954 Tümed territory was included in Inner to 15.44 percent in 1982, yet Tu were still only 12 percent Mongolia. Tümeds remain influential in the Inner Mon- of administrative officials. In 1986 Minhe (1982 popula- golian Communist apparatus even today. tion 287,389), with about 23 percent of the Tu, and See also FARMING; INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS Datong (1982 population 336,327), with about 20 per- REGION; INNER MONGOLIANS; NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS. Türk Empires 553 Tümet See TÜMED. titles were not Turkish, however, indicating that the Ashina clan was of foreign origin. Chinese histories claim that the Ashina was of XIONGNU origin and fled persecu- Tumote See TÜMED. tion in North China in 439 before moving with 500 fami- lies northwest to the Rouran. Tokharian and Iranian Tumu Incident (T’u-mu) In the Tumu Incident of terms and titles among the Ashina confirm their foreign 1449, the Chinese emperor was captured by the Oirat origin and indicate they presumably resided first in the (West Mongol) ruler ESEN Taishi as the Chinese frontier Turpan oasis before moving north to the Altai. lines collapsed. In 546 the Ashina chiefs opened relations with the Responding in 1449 to reports of the Oirat ruler Yuwen regime (Western Wei-Northern Zhou, 535–81) Esen’s plans to invade China, the chief of the Chinese in northwest China. In 551, when the Ashina chief palace eunuchs, Wang Zhen, convinced the Zhengtong Bumin (d. 552/53) defeated a rebellion against the emperor (1436–49, reenthroned as Tianshun, 1457–64), Rouran, he requested the hand of the Rouran emperor’s to lead a punitive expedition against Esen. daughter. Rejected as a mere blacksmith, Bumin con- The emperor and Wang Zhen set out from Beijing on quered the Rouran, taking the title Illig Qaghan, or August 4 supposedly with 400,000 troops and reached “Great Khan of the Realm.” After Bumin’s death Bumin’s Datong on August 18. Unseasonable rains, restiveness in son Mughan (553–72) became Qaghan of the center, the Chinese ranks, and news of a crushing Mongol vic- and Bumin’s brother Ishtemi (552–75/76) became the tory convinced Wang Zhen to abandon the punitive expe- Yabghu Qaghan on the western frontier. Under their dition and return to Beijing. On August 30, after the leadership the Türks annihilated the Heftalite dynasty emperor set out from Xuanfu (modern Xuanhua) back to in the Central Asian oases by 556. Mughan’s brother the capital, Esen annihilated the Chinese rear guard at and successor, Taspar Qaghan (572–81), received a Yao’erling. On September 1 the Mongols destroyed the princess and annual gifts of 100,000 pieces of silk from remaining troops at Tumu, killing Wang Zhen and cap- the Yuwen regime in northwest China. From their earli- turing the emperor. est appearance in 546 the Türks were closely allied with Esen treated the emperor well, but his desire to use the Sogdians of Bukhara and Samarqand, an Iranian him to make the MING DYNASTY cooperate failed. Xuanfu people whose caravan trade spread from the cities of and Datong refused to open their gates, and Wang Zhen’s China to CRIMEA. This Türk-Sogdian symbiosis fore- ignominious death broke the power of the eunuchs, shadowed the later Mongol-Uighur symbiosis (see UIGHURS; ORTOQ). bringing the emperor’s brother and a war party to power. After Taspar’s reign the central Türk realm in Mon- After briefly returning north, Esen fruitlessly besieged golia was riven by succession wars. Nivar (reign title Beijing from October 27 to 31 with his captive in tow. Ishbara, 581–87) saved his throne from Tardu (fl. The standoff continued until Esen returned the now ex- 576–603), the western Yabghu Qaghan, only by submit- emperor without condition in September 1450. The Mon- ting to China, now under the Sui dynasty (581–617). In gols did, however, exploit the crisis to seize the ORDOS 594 Tardu made another attempt to reunify the central pastures south of the Huang (Yellow) River. and western qaghanates, but a revolt of allied western Further reading: Frederick W. Mote, “The T’u-mu tribes in 603 overthrew him. The rebellions at the end Incident of 1449,” in Chinese Ways in Warfare, ed. Frank of the Sui gave the Türks temporary dominance, but A. Kierman, Jr., and John K. Fairbank (Cambridge, Mass.: China’s reunification under the Tang (618–907) Harvard University Press, 1974): 243–272. reestablished Chinese sway. In 630 the Tang emperor captured the unpopular Xieli Qaghan (620–30, d. 634), Tung-hsiang See DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. ending the Türk rule in Mongolia. In the west the influ- ence of Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618/9–630) extended from India to the Caucasus, but a rebellion of the Qar- T’ung-liao See TONGLIAO MUNICIPALITY. luq tribe (627) and Tong’s murder led to the western Türks’ disintegration into their constituent clans, the Tungus See EWENKIS. On Oq “Ten Arrows.” In 659 these, too, submitted to Tang rule. Türk Empires (Tujue, T’u-chüeh) The first literate empire on the Mongolian plateau, the Türk Empires initi- CONCEPTS AND INSTITUTIONS OF RULE ated a period of both political and cultural expansion The center of the Türk political system was the “Heav- from 552 to 742. enly-commanded” qaghan (see KHAN), who owed his The two Türk Empires were founded by the Ashina sanctity to his Ashina lineage identity. Like earlier and clan, who served as blacksmiths in the ALTAI RANGE for later steppe rulers, the Ashina believed their clan ancestor the ROURAN Empire. Most of the Türk khans’ names and had been suckled by a wolf and had found refuge from 554 Türk Empires Ashina lineage qaghans extended their rule to the Cauca- sus and Crimea and deeply influenced early Russia. TÜRK CULTURE Although Türk grave sites are common, no significant set- tlements have been found. Türk graves were marked by distinctive STONE MEN (Russian, baba, Mongolian, khün chuluu), or statues representing the deceased, his family, and the men he killed in battle. These latter would serve him as pages in the next world, just as HORSES in the funer- ary sacrifices would serve as mounts. Türkish artwork is not abundant, and what does exist is both less stylized and less powerful than the Scythian and Xiongnu ANIMAL STYLE. Stone men and petroglyphs show that Türk dress was quite similar to that of the Sogdians: long jackets with broad, pointed lapels and prominent mustaches for men. Well-equipped riders had chain or scale armor for them- selves and their mounts and rode with stirrups. The Türks spoke a dialect of Old Turkish belonging to the Oghuz family, close to modern Uighur, Uzbek, Türkmen, and Turkish, somewhat more distant from the Qipchaq family of Kazakh and Tatar, and quite far from the Oghur family of Chuvash and Old Bulghar. Although many other tribes also spoke close or identical dialects, the Türks’ imperial prestige gave a single name to the whole family of dialects. The Türks were also responsible for first committing Turkish to writing. The earliest Türk inscription, the Bugat (Bugut, found at Ikh Tamir Sum, North Khangai Province) inscription of 589, was written in the Sogdian language and script, and the Türk court used the Sogdian language extensively. Even so, already under Taspar Qaghan (572–81) a Chinese monk trans- A “stone man” from the Türk era, Bayan-Ölgii province lated a Buddhist sutra into Old Türkish, and attempts to (From N. Tsultem, Mongolian Sculpture [1989]) write Old Türkish in Sogdian letters may go back to the fifth century. Later, the so-called Runic script developed from the Sogdian script specifically to write Old Turkish; enemies in a cave with his 10 brothers, of whom Ashina the earliest extant example is from the mid-seventh cen- was the wisest. The Bugat (Bugut) inscription (Ikhtamir tury (see RUNIC SCRIPT AND INSCRIPTIONS). Sum, North Khangai) shows a wolf suckling a child, undoubtedly the Ashina ancestor. THE SECOND TÜRK EMPIRE AND ITS FALL The Ötüken mountain forest on the upper Tamir By the 680s dissatisfaction with Tang rule seems to have River was the Türks’ sacred center, one they had inher- been widespread. Qutlugh, an Ashina clansman, turned his ited from the Xiongnu. On the Tamir’s banks they wor- small band into the nucleus of a revived Türk state based shiped heaven/God every fifth moon. In addition to in Ötüken and took the reign name Ilterish (682–91). First heaven, the Türks also worshiped Umay, an earth goddess his brother Bögö Chor (reign name Qapaghan, 691–716) (cf. Mongolian umai, womb) and the spirits of yir-sub, and then his sons Bilge Qaghan (716–34) and Kül Tegin, “earth-water.” The qaghan also annually returned to the who ruled as a duumvirate, rebuilt the Türk Empire, cam- ancestral cave with the lords to offer sacrifices (as did the paigning from the “Iron Gate” near Samarqand in the west earlier XIANBI). to Shandong in the east and from Tibet in the south to the Politically, the Türk khanate was bilateral, with the Siberian Bayirqu tribe in the north. After Bilge’s death by center at Ötüken and the western khanate at Suyab or poisoning in 734, the Türks were ruled again by minors Ordukent, near modern Tokmak. Far to the west, in the until a coalition of Basmil (in the Tianshan), Qarluqs (in Caspian steppe, the Türks also ruled over the Oghurs, Zungharia), and Uighurs (to the north) overthrew the speaking a rather different Turkish language ancestral to dynasty in 742. Independent rulers among the western On Old Bulghar and modern Chuvash. This far-western Oq lasted longer, although not of the Ashina dynasty. The branch eventually became the Khazar Khanate, whose last qaghans belonged to the Türgesh clan before the On Turkey 555 Oq and their land were overrun by the QARLUQS in 766. from 1246 to 1261, Ghiyas-ad-Din’s sons ‘Izz-ad-Din Kay- The second Türk Empire left as monuments the famous Kawus (1246–61) and Rukn-ad-Din Qilich-Arslan runic inscriptions of Toñuquq (fl. 681–716), a minister (1249–65) struggled incessantly for the throne. ‘Izz-ad-Din who served Ilterish, Qapaghan, and Bilge Qaghan, and of had received the throne in 1246, but his guardian foolishly Bilge Qaghan and Kül Tegin. sent Rukn-ad-Din to Mongolia as a hostage, hoping to dis- See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; BULGHARS; pose of him. Instead, GÜYÜG Khan (1246–49) ordered QIPCHAQS; RELIGION; TRIBUTE SYSTEM; TURKEY; UIGHUR Rukn-ad-Din enthroned in ‘Izz-ad-Din’s place. A darughachi EMPIRE. with 2,000 Mongol troops was sent to enforce this decision. Further reading: Michael R. Drompp, “Supernumer- ‘Izz-ad-Din proved almost impossible to subdue, even after ary Sovereigns: Superfluity and Mutability in the Elite Baiju again crushed the Seljük armies at Aksaray (October Power Structure of the Early Türks (Tu-jue),” in Rulers 1256). The plan of HÜLE’Ü (1256–65), founder of the Mon- from the Steppe: State Formation on the Eurasian Periphery, gol IL-KHANATE in the Middle East, to divide the kingdom ed. Gary Seaman and Daniel Marks (Los Angeles: Ethno- likewise foundered. graphics Press, 1991): 92–115; Peter Golden, An Introduc- In 1261 Rukn-ad-Din’s Persian tutor, Mu‘in-ad-Din, tion to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and known as the Pervâne, “aide-de-camp,” conspired with State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the local Mongol commander to drive ‘Izz-ad-Din into the Middle East (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1992); exile. In this second phase, from 1261 to 1277, the sul- Denis Sinor, “The Establishment and Dissolution of the tans were reduced to puppets of the Pervâne, who ruled Türk Empire,” in The Cambridge History of Early Inner as the Il-Khans’ loyal servant, thus retaining a certain Asia, ed. Denis Sinor (Cambridge: Cambridge University amount of autonomy. Press, 1990): 285–316. When the Sultan Baybars (1260–77) of MAMLUK EGYPT invaded Rum and temporarily occupied Kayseri in 1277, Hüle’ü’s son Abagha Khan (1265–82) suspected the Turkey (Rum, Seljüks) The Mongols first reduced to Pervâne of communication with the enemy and had him tribute and then annexed the Seljük Sultanate in central executed. In this third stage, Mongol princes were sta- Turkey. Turkish nomads poured into Anatolia after the tioned permanently in Rum, which became the right Seljük Turks crushed the Byzantine army at Mantzikert wing of the Il-Khanate and a key strategic area. Financial (Malazgirt) in 1071. In 1081 a scion of the Seljük dynasty, integration was also completed, as the tamgha (commer- Süleyman, founded the Rum Sultanate (from “Rome,” the cial tax) was imposed on Rum. Arab word for Byzantium) at Iconium or Konya in mod- By the time Geikhatu, the viceroy in Anatolia, ern Turkey. While the majority of Rum’s population was became khan (1291–95), the expansion of the southwest- still Greek and Armenian, the Seljük Turks made Islam ern, Karaman dynasty (based at Laranda) had replaced the state religion and Persian the administrative language. Egyptian invasion as the main danger, and princely Ironically, the sultans often found Greek, Armenian, and regents were discontinued. Rum came into the hands of Georgian lords more reliable allies than the virtually powerful commanders and was a frequent seat of revolt, ungovernable Turkmen nomads. By 1230 the Seljüks of often with the assistance of the Karaman Turkmen: Rum had reached the apex of their power. Having unified TA’ACHAR of the Baarin and Baltu of the JALAYIR in 1296, the Anatolian Turks and conquered the ports of Antalya Sülemish of the OIRATS in 1299, and Temürtash of the and Sinop, the Seljüks grew rich in the flourishing world Suldus from 1321 to 1327. Even nominal Seljükid rule of Mediterranean commerce. lapsed in 1307/08, leading to the fourth stage of direct When the Mongols under CHORMAQAN appeared in Mongol rule in the east and increasingly expansionist and western Iran, they initially accepted a Seljük offer of hostile Turkmen principalities in the west. friendship and a modest tribute. Under Ghiyas-ad-Din Despite the heavy tax demands, Anatolia’s economic Kay-Khusrau (1236–45/46), however, the Mongols began expansion continued under Mongol rule. When MUHAM- to pressure the sultan to go to Mongolia in person, give MAD ABU ‘ABDULLAH IBN BATTUTA visited Turkey in 1332, hostages, and accept a DARUGHACHI (overseer). Raids he found a prosperous Muslim land with a significant began in 1240, and Ghiyas-ad-Din gathered a motley Greek population. East of Aksaray the governor Artana, army, including Greek, Crusader, and Kurdish mercenar- an urbane Muslim Mongol conversant in Arabic, ruled ies, to meet them. In June 1243 BAIJU, Chormaqan’s suc- for the Il-Khans. In the southeast the Karaman dynasty, cessor, crushed the Seljük army at Köse Da˘gı, and still aligned with Egypt, was expanding, while in the west Ghiyas-ad-Din escaped to Ankara, while the Mongols independent Turkish emirs were slowly driving back the plundered or took tribute from the eastern cities. Ghiyas- Greeks. When the Il-Khanate broke up in 1335, Artana ad-Din’s vizier sent envoys to sue for peace, but the sul- founded his own dynasty; Anatolia remained disunited tan died before ratifying the agreement. until the rise of the Ottoman Empire. The subsequent Mongol domination of the Seljük Sul- See also GEORGIA; KÖSE DAG˘ ı, BATTLE OF; KURDISTAN; tanate can be divided into four phases. In the first phase, LESSER ARMENIA. 556 Tushi Tushi See JOCHI. Tuvans (Tyvans, Tuvinians, Tannu Uriyangkhai) Ori- ginally a mixed Samoyed, Turkish, and Mongolian people, Tutugh (Tutuha, T’u-t’u-ha) (1237–1297) Qipchaq com- the Tuvans were administered as part of Outer Mongolia mander who proved Qubilai Khan’s most effective comman- during the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) and came under der in Mongolia heavy Mongolian influence in their language, culture, and Tutugh’s father, a Qipchaq tribal leader, surrendered to religion. While Tuva was annexed by Russia in 1914, MÖNGKE KHAN in 1237, and with his 100 followers small numbers of Tuvan speakers, including the reindeer- served QUBILAI KHAN in the conquest of Dali and the herding DUKHA, remained in Mongolia. The Tofalar and Soyot in Russia’s Irkutsk and Buriat regions are also Tuvan campaigns against ARIQ-BÖKE. Enrolled in the imperial in origin. guard (KESHIG), the Qipchaqs supplied the khan’s table The Tuvan territory is geographically the northwest- with “black” KOUMISS (Turkish, qara-qumiz) and hence ern part of the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU, and is drained by the were called Qarachi (see KHARACHIN). In 1277–78 rebel upper Yenisey River. The central lowlands around the princes kidnaped Qubilai’s son Nomuqan, and Tutugh capital, Kyzyl, are classic steppe, while the uplands are led the QIPCHAQS as part of the army against them. occupied by larch pine mountain taiga and the northeast Tutugh’s small force proved so effective that Qubilai by a Siberian steppe of pine, spruce, and fir. The high transferred all enslaved Qipchaq households to his juris- ALTAI RANGE and the Tannu-Ola and Sayan Mountains are diction, and all their able-bodied men were made covered by alpine tundra. salaried guards. In 1286 the Qipchaqs became an inde- pendent imperial guard unit under the hereditary con- ORIGINS AND EARLY HISTORY trol of Tutugh’s family. As guard commander Tutugh The name Tuva, which is also found in dialect forms as received vast estates in the suburbs of DAIDU (modern Tuba, Toba, Tyva, Dyva, and Tofalar (with the plural -lar Beijing) for pasture and farms as well as new Mongol suffix), first appears in Chinese records as “Dubo” (then and Chinese recruits. In 1287–88 Tutugh’s Qipchaqs pronounced Duba/Tuba). They are described as isolated effectively mopped up NAYAN’S REBELLION, enrolling all bands living in grass tents, eating lily roots, fish, birds, and Qipchaqs captured among the enemy’s subjects. Tutugh’s animals and dressing in sable and deerskin. The rich had forces, now numbering 19,000, garrisoned Mongolia, horses, but herding was not widely practiced. Dead bodies hunting moose in Siberia and raiding the hostile QAIDU were given a “sky burial” in trees. They were ruled by the KHAN’s pastures in the ALTAI RANGE. In 1289 he rescued TÜRK EMPIRES and the UIGHUR EMPIRE (552–840), and the future emperor Temür from capture by Qaidu’s army. many Tuvans today trace their ancestry to the UIGHURS. In 1293 he occupied Kem-Kemchik (Tuva), an impor- In the 13th and 14th centuries, the “Tuba” reappear tant base for Qaidu. He died at the front, but his son as a forest clan in the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS. Chong’ur helped defeat Qaidu and in 1314 led the Yuan Other sources describe them as “Forest Uriyangkhai”: armies deep into Central Asia. Later in the dynasty the isolated bands of hunters and reindeer herders living in Qipchaq guards became a powerful political force; his birchbark tepees (see SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE). grandson EL-TEMÜR (d. 1334) became senior grand Again, nothing is known of their language. In the 16th councillor from 1328 to 1333. and 17th centuries, the KHOTOGHOID KHALKHA conquered the “Uriyangkhai” of the Yenisey River basin, which Tu’ula See TUUL RIVER. passed into the hands of the ZÜNGHARS in the 1660s. After the fall of the Zünghars to the Manchu QING DYNASTY in 1755, Tuva and northern KHÖWSGÖL PROVINCE Tuul River (Tula, Tu’ula) The largest tributary of the were organized into the Tannu Uriyangkhai AIMAG ORKHON RIVER and the main water source for Mongolia’s (province) comprising the Kemchik, Tannu (Oyun), capital, ULAANBAATAR, the Tuul is 819 kilometers (509 Salchak, Tozhu (Toja), and Khöwsgöl Nuur Uriyangkhai miles) long. It flows southwest from the KHENTII RANGE BANNERS as well as the territory of the DARKHAD in modern- past Ulaanbaatar before turning north to drain into the day Mongolia. The Uriyangkhai banner rulers (Manchu Orkhon. The Tuul’s total drainage area is 50,400 square uheri-da) were subject to the jiangjun (general in chief) in kilometers (19,460 square miles). The SECRET HISTORY OF ULIASTAI (see AMBA). Other Tuvans were attached as SUM THE MONGOLS mentions the “Black Forest” on the Tuul (a subbanner unit) to Khalkha Mongolian banners. All (Tu’ula in Middle Mongolian) as the favorite camping paid tribute in furs. Being outside the Qing dynasty’s grounds of ONG KHAN, ruler of the KEREYID Khanate and frontier pickets, Tannu Uriyangkhai was isolated from the early patron of CHINGGIS KHAN. Never a very deep river, main body of Khalkha Mongols. the Tuul has been seriously taxed by the growth of Under this Manchu-Mongolian condominium the Ulaanbaatar; the river’s water resources have lessened, Tuvans became Buddhist. In the 1920s Tuva had 5,000 and the lower Tuul’s water quality has been significantly lamas in 30 monasteries and 1,000 shamans. The western degraded. Tuvans (about 80 percent of the population) inhabited twelve-animal cycle 557 steppes and mountain pastures and lived in yurts as live- TUVANS IN MONGOLIA stock herders, while the eastern Tuvans, or Tozhu, inhab- After 1914 small Tuvan-speaking populations remained ited the taiga forest and lived in bark tepees as hunters in Mongolia and Xinjiang. Kök Monchak (Blue Button) and reindeer herders. The western Tuvans are mostly and Soyon Tuvan clans had been incorporated among the Turco-Mongolian in origin, with some Samoyed clans, mostly Mongolian ALTAI URIYANGKHAI banners under the while the Tozhu Tuvans are mostly Samoyed with a few Qing. In the division of the Khowd frontier in 1913 Ket, or Turco-Mongolian, clans. between Xinjiang and Outer Mongolia, many were left in By the 19th century both eastern and western Tuvans northern Xinjiang. Today 1,500–2,000 villagers, officially spoke Tuvan, a conservative Turkic language overlaid considered Mongols, still speak Tuvan in northern Xin- with Mongolian phonetic and lexical influence seen in jiang’s Akkaba (Habahe/Kaba county), Kanas, and Kom- loanwords such as saazïn, “paper,” from Mongolian Kanas (Burqin county) villages. The Tuvan speakers tsaas(an), and sal˙gin, “wind,” from Mongolian salkh(in). among Mongolia’s Altai Uriyangkhai live in KHOWD The banner administration was carried on entirely in PROVINCE’s Buyant and BAYAN-ÖLGII PROVINCE’s Tsengel Mongolian, as was apparently much of the religious life; Sum (totaling perhaps 2,100 persons). Since 1989 school- popular Buddhist prayers in Tuvan are still recited in ing in Tsengel has been conducted in Tuvan, with text- Mongolian, not Tibetan. books from the Republic of Tuva. In Buyant, however, SEPARATION FROM MONGOLIA Tuvan is not used in education. After 1911 the three banners of the Khöwsgöl With the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence, Uriyangkhai—Köwsgöl Nuur and South Shirkhid east of the Tozhu, Salchak, and Khöwsgöl banners formally peti- the lake and North Shirkhid west of the lake—remained tioned to be included in Mongolia. Only the head of in Mongolia. In 1931 they numbered 6,441 persons. CLAN Tannu banner appealed to czarist Russia for incorpora- NAMES demonstrate them to be mostly Tuvan in origin, tion. Russian settlers poured in, and in 1914 the area of and in the 1920s some still spoke Tuvan and lived in modern Tuva was incorporated into Russia de facto. The skin or birchbark tepees like the eastern Tuvans, Khöwsgöl banners, together with the Darkhad, remained although most had been Mongolized in speech and in Mongolia. lifestyle. Today Tuvan speakers live in Tsagaan-Üür Sum After pro-Soviet Russian settlers seized power in the and around Khankh and are called by the Mongols Russian Civil War, Tuva was declared a people’s republic Uighur-Uriyangkhai. They call themselves, however, in October 1921. The new nation had an area of 168,600 Dukha, thus allying them with the reindeer-herding square kilometers (65,100 square miles) and a population Dukha or Tsaatan, a separate group of Tuvans in western in 1926 of 58,117 Tuvans and about 12,000 Russian set- Khöwsgöl. The Arig-Uriyangkhai (along the Arig River) tlers. At first Mongolian continued to be used as the offi- are Mongolian speaking. Until recently all these Tuvan- cial language, and many Tuvan leaders desired union origin groups were merged with the Altai Uriyangkhai in with Mongolia. Mongolia recognized Tuvan indepen- Mongolian censuses as “Uriyangkhai.” dence only under pressure in 1926. In 1930–31 Tuva’s old See also FARMING; HUNTING AND FISHING. aristocratic and monastic classes were disenfranchised, Further reading: Talant Mawkhanuli, “The Jungar and a new Latin script for writing Tuvan was introduced. Tuvans: Language and Identity in the PRC,” Central Asian Collectivization failed, however. Pro-Mongolian politi- Survey 20 (2001): 497–517; Sevyan Vainshtein, trans. cians were repeatedly executed for “pan-Mongolism.” Michael Colenso, Nomads of South Siberia (Cambridge: Tuvans were conscripted into the Soviet Red Army Cambridge University Press, 1980). during WORLD WAR II, and in 1944 the Soviet Union annexed Tuva as an autonomous region in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR). A Cyrillic Tuvinians See TUVANS. script had been introduced for Tuvan in 1943, and Soviet- style collectivization was completed in 1954. In 1961 twelve-animal cycle Originating in ancient China, the Tuva was promoted to the status of Autonomous Soviet twelve-animal cycle was adopted by the early steppe Socialist Republic, still within the RSFSR. The percentage empires and following them, the Mongols. It is now used of ethnic Tuvans increased from 57 percent in 1959 to widely in Mongolia for astrological and traditional dating 60.5 percent in 1979, and full Russification was rare. purposes. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union the Republic The twelve-animal cycle originated with the system of Tuva became a constituent republic of the Russian Fed- of 10 heavenly stems and 12 earthly branches found in eration. Ethnic Tuvans in Tuva numbered 198,448, or 64 the early Chinese writings from the second millennium percent of the republic’s 308,557 people, in 1989. Border B.C.E The 10- and 12-year cycles, running concurrently, transit points have been opened with Mongolia, although produce a larger 60-year cycle used to number both days livestock theft and unauthorized pasturing are significant and years. The original names for these two cycles are of problems. obscure meaning. During the Han dynasty (202 B.C.E. to 558 “Two Customs” 220 C.E.), cosmological speculation linked the 10 earthly dhist religion (shashin) and monarchical rule (törö) estab- branches to the five phases (wood, fire, earth, metal, and lished a mutually harmonious relation between the two water) and their associated colors (blue, red, yellow, fundamental orders of society, celibate monks and mar- white, and black) and the 12 earthly branches to 12 ani- ried householders. The monarch served as an “almsgiver” mals (mouse, cow, tiger, hare, dragon, snake, horse, (öglige-yin ejen, from Tibetan yon-bdag) to the monks, sheep, monkey, chicken, dog, and pig). This produced who served as an “offering site” (takhil-un oron, from the twelve-animal cycle. These equivalences were, how- Tibetan mchod-gnas). The monarch also had the duty ever, never used for dating systems in China. to ensure the discipline of the monastic community Under the TÜRK EMPIRES (522–742) the nomads of (sangha), expelling the unfit. From the Tangut XIA DYN- Mongolia adopted as their dating system the twelve- ASTY (1038–1227) on, the monarch would ideally receive animal cycle but not the full 60-year cycle. This usage an initiation into one of the great Tantric Buddhist deities continued under the UIGHUR EMPIRE in Mongolia and following a preparatory course of study with fastings and after the UIGHURS resettled in modern Xinjiang. This meditations and would prostrate himself before his lama- usage was then taken up during the MONGOL EMPIRE and teacher. While shocking to defenders of imperial preroga- spread by the Mongols and their Uighur scribes into the tives, this Tantric pupil-teacher relation was the acme of farthest corners of the empire. It was used officially in the “almsgiver–offering-site” relation. (Although the trans- Iran, for example, until 1925. lation “two principles” has become common, the word The twelve-animal cycle creates serious confusion yosu in Mongolian is always “custom,” with its implica- when used to date isolated events—indeed, the date of tion of past tradition.) composition of the SECRET HISTORY OF THE MONGOLS, dated The advocates of this order saw the “Two Customs” only the year of the mouse (1228? 1240? 1252?, etc.), and “offering site–almsgiver” relations as a perennial tra- remains uncertain to this day for that reason. Uighur dition that linked both genealogical lineages of monarchs astronomers had long used the Chinese 10 heavenly stems, and initiation lineages of Tantric masters. Some historical written phonetically in their Uighur script, for astrological works argued implicitly and explicitly that the almsgivers purposes. In the mid-17th century the Mongolian historian had to be of Chinggisid lineage (for example, the JEWEL SAGHANG SECHEN adopted these 10 stems in Uighur writing TRANSLUCENT SUTRA of 1607) and others that the offering to produce a full 60-year cycle. Most authors, however, site had to be the incarnate Dalai Lama of Tibet (for adopted the Tibetan system, which used the five phases example, the Fifth Dalai Lama’s history of Tibet). Others combined with “male” and “female” to replicate the 10- used the concepts as free-floating images that could be stem cycle, or a later Mongolian system that used the five applied to any devout monarch and accomplished lama. colors (associated with the five phases) with or without a The term and concept of the “Two Customs” appeared female suffix to replace the 10-stem cycle. Thus, 1913, explicitly in Mongolia with the SECOND CONVERSION of the gui/chou year in Chinese, could be either güi ükher Mongols (roughly 1575 to 1655). The CHAGHAN TEÜKE (gui/cow) year, eme usun ükher (female water cow) year, or (White history) envisioned the “Two Customs” as a com- kharagchin ükher (black-female cow) year. The final refine- prehensive system of government, with dignitaries divided ment to this system of numbering the 60-year cycles was into monastic and lay ranks and the monastic ones of dis- taken by the Tibetans and a few Mongolian imitators, so tinctly higher rank. This utopian scheme was projected that dates could be fixed without ambiguity. back to the time of the Yuan emperor QUBILAI KHAN As throughout East Asia, the twelve-animal cycle is (1260–94) and the Sa-skya-pa Tibetan cleric ’PHAGS-PA used for astrological purposes, particularly to determine LAMA (1235–80) and their Yuan and Sa-skya successors. compatibility between marriage partners. The full cycle of Histories of this era, such as the Jewel Translucent Sutra 60 combinations is used by lama-astrologers for the days (1607) and the ERDENI-YIN TOBCHI (1662), explained how, as well as years and is held to determine the name, spiri- although lost in the fall of the Yuan in 1368, ALTAN KHAN tual affinities (i.e., which class of Buddhas they should (1508–82) and KHUTUGTAI SECHEN KHUNG-TAIJI (1540–86) worship), and other features of newborn children. revived the “Two Customs.” In reality, although Qubilai See also ASTROLOGY; CALENDARS AND DATING SYSTEMS; and ’Phags-pa had certainly established an “offering 17TH-CENTURY CHRONICLES; ZUD. site/–almsgiver” relationship, including a Tantric initiation, Further reading: Charles Melville, “The Chinese- Qubilai never granted the exclusive patronage of Bud- Uighur Animal Calendar in Persian Historiography of the dhism and the autonomy for the “offering site” implied in Mongol Period,” Iran 32 (1994): 83–98. the mature “Two Customs” concept. Even so, the Third Dalai Lama (1543–88) recognized Altan Khan as an incar- nation of Qubilai and himself as an incarnation of ’Phags- “Two Customs” (Khoyar Yosu) This concept, along pa, although Altan Khan was not the senior descendant with the allied concept of “offering site and almsgiver” of Qubilai Khan and the Dalai Lama was not a Sa-skya- (or priest and patron), linked the Buddhist religion to pa monk, but a member of the new dGe-lugs-pa (Yellow imperial rule in Inner Asia. The “Two Customs” of Bud- Hat) order. Tyvans 559 In the 17th century the concept of the “Two Cus- the second JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU, declared that he was toms” and “offering site and almsgiver” became an area of ’Phags-pa Lama and Qianlong was Qubilai. Writers such violent political contention. LIGDAN KHAN (1604–34), as as Damchoi-Jamsu Dharmatala in his Rosary of White Qubilai Khan’s senior descendant, implicitly rebuked the Lotuses (1889) called the Manchu emperors, as the guar- claims of Altan Khan and the Dalai Lama by patronizing antors of monastic discipline, the “backbone” of the dGe- the Sa-skya-pa order and installing in his capital an image lugs-pa teaching. In southwest Inner Mongolia the of Mahakala previously said to have been given to ’Phags- Mongols looked to the Qing monarchs as defenders of pa by Qubilai. In Tibet the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82) their Buddhist society against Muslim bandits and held that the Dalai Lamas were the rightful offering sites Catholic missionaries. for all the Inner Asian rulers and that almsgivers such as The modernizing and sinicizing NEW POLICIES Qubilai had always given administration of Tibet, as a reforms at the end of the Qing forfeited them this role, religious country, to their offering sites. The chief point and Mongolian independence in 1911 had as one of its of the “Two Customs” was thus to ensure Tibet’s auton- key aims the protection of the “Two Customs” of Bud- omy under the Dalai Lamas. Oirat rulers in Kökenuur dhist society and Chinggisid nobility. The EIGHTH JIBZUN- and Züngharia, such as TÖRÖ-BAIKHU GÜÜSHI KHAN and DAMBA KHUTUGTU (1870–1924) was enthroned as the GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN, cultivated the Dalai Lamas as a “dual ruler of religion and state.” Although the fall of the way to overcome their lack of Chinggisid ancestry. theocratic state in 1919 seriously damaged the prestige of The KHALKHA Mongolian Chinggisids focused their the old order, even in the 1921 REVOLUTION songs that devotion on the local incarnation lineage of the JIBZUN- spoke of simultaneously raising the red flag of revolution DAMBA KHUTUGTUS, whose first two incarnations were and the yellow flag of religion showed the influence of nobleborn Khalkhas. The Jibzundamba Khutugtu, as the “Two Customs” imagery. offering site for an ever-expanding Chinggisid nobility, See also DIDACTIC POETRY; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, thus became the symbol, spokesman, and leader of the FIRST; JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, SECOND. Khalkha Mongols. Further reading: Damchø Gyatsho Dharmatâla, The Manchus’ QING DYNASTY (1636–1912), having trans. Piotr Klafkowski, Rosary of White Lotuses (Wies- defeated Ligdan Khan in 1634, at first emphasized their baden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987); Samuel M. Grupper, heaven-destined capture of the Mahakala image and the “Manchu Patronage and Tibetan Buddhism during the “precious jade seal,” objects that embodied the holiness First Half of the Ch’ing Dynasty,” Journal of the Tibet Soci- of the Sa-skya religion and Chinggisid state, respectively. ety 4 (1984): 47–75. With the Shunzhi emperor’s meeting with the Fifth Dalai Lama in 1652, however, the Qing emperors explicitly stepped into Altan Khan’s shoes as supreme “almsgiver” “Two Principles” See “TWO CUSTOMS.” for the dGe-lugs-pa. Giving initiation to the Qianlong emperor in 1745, Rolbidorji (Tibetan, Rol-pa’i rDo-rje), Tyvans See TUVANS. U Ubsa Nurr See LAKE UWS. Qilligh Boyla’s son Bayan-Chor (Moyanchuo, reign title Bilge-Kül Qaghan, 747–59) drove his former Basmil and Qarluq allies west, securing the Besh-Baligh- Ubur Khangai See SOUTH KHANGAI PROVINCE. Gaochang (modern Turpan) oases. He also began the Uighurs’ alliance with China’s Tang dynasty by crushing Ugedey Khan See ÖGEDEI KHAN. the An Lushan Rebellion (755–62) that threatened to overthrow the dynasty. As Bayan-Chor’s son Bögü (reign title Tengri Qaghan, 759–79) stamped out An Lushan’s Uighur Empire (Uyghur, Uygur, Uigur) The Uighur last adherents in Luoyang, he was converted by a colony Empire, which ruled Mongolia from 744 to 840, con- of Sogdian Manicheans. Accompanied by a Manichean verted to Manicheism and built numerous cities and set- priest, Ruixi, Bögü returned to Ordu-Baligh and declared tlements in Mongolia. Manicheism the state religion. In 779 Bögü’s cousin Tun Bagha Tarqan, alarmed at the Sogdian dominance of ORIGINS AND RISE Uighur policy, assassinated Bögü and seized the throne The UIGHURS first appear as a tribe in the Toquz Oghuz, (reign name Alp-Qutlugh Bilge Qaghan, 779–89). The or “Nine Oghuz,” confederation, linked by Chinese histo- Tang alliance was renewed, but the Tibetan Empire deliv- ries to the earlier “High-Carts” (Gaoju) and the vast ered several humiliating defeats to Tun-Bagha’s sons. “Tiele” (Töles?) confederation. These peoples were south Siberian and apparently Turkish speaking. During the INSTITUTIONS AND CULTURE sixth century, the Uighurs ruled the eight other Toquz The Uighurs appear at first to have inherited most of the Oghuz tribes and were themselves divided into 10 clans, institutions of rule found in the Türk Empires. Unlike the of which the Yaghlaqar was the ruling one. By 552 at least Türks, however, who followed lateral succession, the one body of Uighurs was in the Transbaikal area, while Uighurs preferred primogeniture. The qaghans (see another occupied the Altai-Tuvan region. KHAN) chose reign titles that show the influence of the The Toquz Oghuz formed an important but turbulent Türk concepts of qut, “heaven-bestowed good fortune,” subject population for the two TÜRK EMPIRES (552–630, and bilge, “wisdom,” as the necessary attributes of good 682–742). In 742, in cooperation with the Basmil near rule. A new feature of the later reign titles was the refer- the Tianshan Mountains, and the QARLUQS in Zungharia, ence to Ay Tengri, “Moon God,” and Kün Tengri, “Sun the Uighurs overthrew the second Türk Empire. Three God,” which may reflect the Manichean reverence for the years later the Uighurs drove out the Basmil and elevated sun and moon. Qulligh Boyla as the Qutlugh Bilge Kül Qaghan (744–47), Like the Türks before them, the Uighurs ruled in a establishing their capital, ORDU-BALIGH, in the ORKHON- virtual symbiosis with the Sogdian merchants of Bukhara RIVER-TAMIR region that had been the Türk Empire’s and Samarqand. Their attitude toward the Chinese, how- sacred center. ever, was very different from the Türk rulers’ usually hos- 560 Uighur-Mongolian script 561 tile stance. Facing a much weaker China, the Uighur After 832 several qaghans were killed by their servi- rulers treated the Tang as a protectorate. In return for tors. In 839 a massive snowfall devastated the Uighur fighting rebels and Tibetans, the Uighurs expected vast herds, and in 840 a disaffected Uighur general led a force sums of silk, as much as 230,000 bolts in a single year, of 100,000 Yenisey Kyrgyz from Khakassia to sack Ordu- and imperial princesses. Although the Uighurs also Baligh and slay the last qaghan. The Uighur ruling class traded horses and presented “tribute goods” at the same fled to the Chinese border but were hunted down and cap- time, the Tang found Uighur assistance very expensive, tured by the Kyrgyz. Others found refuge among the while Uighur troops were often as destructive as the KITANS in eastern Inner Mongolia, in the Uighur protec- rebels they were fighting. torate of Besh-Baligh and Gaochang (Turpan), and in the Uighur culture changed dramatically with Bayan- Gansu corridor under the Tibetans. In the diaspora Chor’s forced conversion of his people to Manicheism. Uighurs continued and expanded their involvement in car- Manichean doctrines required strict vegetarianism of the avan trade and moneylending while eventually abandoning elect priests, including the renunciation of KOUMISS. Manicheism for Buddhism. The Uighurs of Uighuristan Bögü exhorted his people to “let [the country] with bar- (Besh-Baligh and Turpan) later “tutored” the Mongols, just barous customs and smoking blood change into one as the Sogdians had tutored them. Those of the Gansu cor- where people can eat vegetables; and let the state where ridor became the nucleus of the Yogurs, a partly Mongol men kill be transformed into a kingdom where good partly Turkic people. The Uighar clan of Tuva and modern works are encouraged.” By 821 the Arab visitor Tamim UWS PROVINCE of northwestern Mongolia appears to be a bin Bahr at the capital, Ordu-Baligh, found the city’s remnant of the original Uighurs of the plateau. population primarily Manichean. Manicheism also See also RELIGION; RUNIC SCRIPT AND INSCRIPTIONS; adapted to Uighur life; Manichean hymns, for example, TRIBUTE SYSTEM; TUVANS; UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT; incorporated the Türk-Uighur reverence for Ötüken. YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES. Unlike the Türks, the Uighurs were avid city Further reading: Peter Golden, An Introduction to the builders. The first two qaghans built Bay-Baligh on the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-For- SELENGE RIVER (in Khutag-Öndör Sum, Bulgan) and the mation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Mid- capital, Ordu-Baligh, with Sogdian and Chinese labor. dle East (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1992); Colin The conquest of Besh-Baligh (near modern Qitai) and Mackerras, “The Uighurs,” in The Cambridge History of Gaochang also amplified the importance of farming for Early Inner Asia, ed. Denis Sinor (Cambridge: Cambridge the Uighur state; cotton soon came to be one of the University Press, 1990), 317–342. tribute products presented to China. An Uighur expa- triate community in China dwelt in several cities served Uighur-Mongolian script (old script, vertical script, by Manichean temples. The Uighurs are particularly mongolian script, written Mongolian) Ultimately stem- mentioned as moneylenders. At first these “Uighurs” ming from the Aramaic script via Sogdian and Uighur, were probably in large part the qaghans’ Sogdian sub- the Uighur-Mongolian alphabet was the medium of jects, but ethnic Uighurs later played a major mercan- almost all Mongolia’s written and literary heritage until tile role. the 20th century. Although replaced in Mongolia proper While their own spoken dialect may have differed by the Cyrillic script in 1950, it is still used for daily pur- somewhat, the Uighurs adopted the written form of Old poses in Inner Mongolia and for scholarly and academic Turkish used in the Türk empires. Uighur inscriptions uses throughout the Mongolian world. found in Mongolia show the primary use of the Türks’ Runic script alongside a cursive adaption of Sogdian for EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCRIPT Uighur, which after the fall of the empire became the The official use of the Aramaic script, close to the Hebrew Uighurs’ main script. script, in the ancient Persian Empire (549–323 B.C.E.) brought it to the Sogdian city-states of Central Asia, FALL OF THE UIGHUR EMPIRE which adopted it for the Iranian language. In the sixth to In 795, when Tun Bagha’s second son died without an ninth centuries the Sogdians became merchant partners heir, the commander in chief Qutlugh of the Ediz tribe of both the TÜRK EMPIRES and the UIGHUR EMPIRE. As a seized the throne as Alp-Qutlugh Bilge Qaghan result, the UIGHURS adopted the Sogdian script in a modi- (795–805). Alp-Qutlugh took the Yaghlaqar surname but fied form. dispatched the true Yaghlaqar princes to China as As a Semitic-type script, Aramaic and Sogdian were hostages. It is not clear if the later Uighur qaghans were traditionally written like Hebrew in separate letters in his descendants, but at some point the Yaghlaqar dynasty rows from right to left arranged from top to bottom. appears to have been restored. Under Alp-Qutlugh’s suc- Under the Uighurs the script was eventually turned ver- cessors the Tang grew increasingly resistant to Uighur tically so that it read in top-down columns arranged demands, although the reappearance of the Tibet threat from left to right. The script also slowly developed into a made them more cooperative in the 820s. cursive script, in which all the letters in a word were 562 Uighur-Mongolian script connected. This involved the simplification of forms and The accurate rendition of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chi- the further creation of initial, medial, and final forms of nese words was virtually impossible in the original most of the letters. Vowels, originally mostly omitted, Uighur script. In 1587 the great Buddhist translator came to be more regularly written. Dots were introduced Ayushi Güüshi (fl. 1578–1609) created a complete set of to distinguish n from a/e, gh from q, and sh from s, new galig (transcription) letters to render all the different although they were often not used consistently. Even so, letters of Sanskrit and Tibetan. In the 17th century a the script as adopted for Uighur contained many ambi- complete set of Chinese transcription letters was devised guities that made it hard to use. by the Manchus. Classical Mongolian, as enshrined in official adminis- ADOPTION BY THE MONGOLS trative documents of the 18th and 19th centuries, was By the beginning of the 13th century Uighur scribes were thus far more readable than the preclassical Mongolian of already being employed on the MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. the MONGOL EMPIRE. Given the constraints of Mongolian When CHINGGIS KHAN’s remote and completely illiterate syllable structure and vowel harmony, only the ambigui- MONGOL TRIBE conquered the more civilized NAIMAN ties of t/d, o/u, ö/ü, word-initial y/j, and sometimes a/e Khanate in 1204, he took over the Uighur script and remained, and they posed little problem for a fluent made the Uighur scribe TATAR-TONG’A a tutor for his chil- reader. Even so, orthography had not changed since the dren. Later an Uighur merchant, CHINQAI, became the 13th century, and language change had made many of the khan’s chief scribe. Throughout the subsequent MONGOL spellings and forms, particularly in the case endings, EMPIRE Uighurs dominated the scribal class. obsolete. While colloquial forms and dialectal variations The adaption of the Uighur script to Mongolian become frequent from the 18th century on, Mongolian increased the already considerable number of ambiguities scribes, who usually worked by dictation, developed an in the script. Uighur scribes writing in Mongolian con- artificially archaic scribal pronunciation. formed to a number of spelling rules appropriate for The Uighur-Mongolian script was originally written Uighur but not for Mongolian: only t- was written in the with a calamus cut diagonally and dipped in ink. The offi- word-initial position and only -d- in the medial or final cial administration under the Qing dynasty (1636–1912) position. Uighur had no j, but instead of creating a new used the Chinese brush, a practice maintained in inde- character y- was used in word-initial positions and -ch- pendent Mongolia until 1929. Texts were printed with used medially. This preserved a number of identical block prints (from a carved wooden block), not with spellings for which Uighur had y- for Mongolian j- (for movable type. The usual training in literacy emphasized example, Uighur yarliq and Mongolian jarliq, decree), but penmanship, and regular stints as scribe in the local again at the price of ambiguity. administration were required of all literate persons. To Early Uighur-Mongolian was thus a very imperfect avoid this service, even many distinguished authors pre- script, leaving many words open to multiple readings. ferred not to become too able at writing and instead dic- An extra i was used to separate ö and ü from o and u and tated to scribes. The existence of different letter forms diphthongs were now usually distinguished if necessary depending on the preceding or following letter meant by ii. The script’s serious faults may be why QUBILAI that the Uighur-Mongolian script was taught to students KHAN in 1269 commissioned ’PHAGS-PA LAMA to create not so much as an alphabet but as a syllabary. Different the SQUARE SCRIPT based on Tibetan. However, despite areas used different orders of the letters in teaching, mak- imperial promotion, the square script never replaced the ing alphabetized referencing inconvenient. Uighur-Mongolian script except for official purposes. After the expulsion of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY from MODERN DEVELOPMENTS China in 1368, the Uighur-Mongolian script survived The introduction of movable-type printing presses for among the Mongols, but the square script did not. Mongolian, first created in Russia for Christian mission- ary needs in the early 19th century, and typewriters in the DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCRIPT 1920s highlighted some of the challenges in adopting a With the cultural revival of the 17th century a number of vertical, cursive script to modern writing technology. The reformers set out to correct the imperfections of the first proposals for replacing the Uighur-Mongolian script Uighur script. Comprehensive reforms resulted in the came among the Buriat Mongols of southern Siberia after creation of a new script for the rising Manchu people of 1905, where many did not use the script and the speech Manchuria and the CLEAR SCRIPT used among the OIRATS was particularly divergent from the classical language (see (West Mongols), yet even without such radical reforms, BURIAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPTS). the Uighur-Mongolian script was greatly improved. In the The effective impetus behind dropping the Uighur- middle of words, two different styles of writing ch/j were Mongolian script was, however, political. The Buriat fixed as separate letters for the two consonants, although Latin script was introduced in 1931 during the Commu- initial y- and j- remained generally undistinguished. Dia- nist International’s hard-left policies, and experiments critical dots came to be used more consistently. were made in Mongolia proper at the same time with Uighurs 563 Latinization, new orthography, and teaching the script DYNASTY (1038–1227) in northwest China eventually purely as an alphabet. With the moderate NEW TURN POL- conquered the Ganzhou Uighurs, who dwindled to ICY (1932–34) in Mongolia, the grammarian and lexicog- became ancestors of the small Yogur nationality in con- rapher Shagja (S. Shagj, 1886–1938) denounced these temporary China. Those of Uighuristan, however, main- changes as distorting the script’s fundamental nature, tained their autonomy for centuries, ruling from Hami while he made the script more usable by standardizing (Qamil or Kumul) west to Aksu. Their capital was Qara- orthography and the order of the alphabet and creating Qocho (Chinese, Gaochang) in Xinjiang’s fertile Turpan dictionaries and other reference works. Political demands oasis. The indigenous inhabitants of Uighuristan had eventually forced a decision to Cyrillicize in 1941, been Hinayana Buddhists, and the Uighurs’ ruling Yagh- although the Uighur-Mongolian script in a semiclassical laqar dynasty converted from Manicheism to Buddhism orthography was not actually phased out until 1950. by at least 1000. Chinese cultural influence was of long In Inner Mongolia the Japanese-educated KHARACHIN standing in the area, and Mahayana Buddhist texts, Temgetü (1887–1939) set the standard for movable-type translated from Chinese, influenced the Uighur Bud- printing with his 1923 typography. Following eastern dhists deeply. By 1200 the Uighurs were mostly Buddhist Inner Mongolian handwriting style, he adopted a number but also had a significant Christian community of useful Manchu features, such as an initial y distinct (Manicheism was almost extinct). Christian-Buddhist from j and a distinction of f and p in foreign words. After relations were traditionally harmonious, while the Mus- WORLD WAR II these changes were incorporated into a lim Turkestanis to the west were seen as both military new postclassical Mongolian, which systematically mod- threats and trade rivals. The Uighurs had long had trade ernized the orthography for suffixes. Standardization of connections with the Sogdians of Transoxiana and had the alphabet facilitated the use of alphabetic referencing adopted their alphabet from them, although they wrote it in dictionaries and reference works. This postclassical vertically, not horizontally. script is still the standard script for Mongolian in Inner The Uighurs dominated North China’s trade with Mongolia; a brief attempt in Inner Mongolia to switch to Central Asia. Relations with the KITANS, a Mongolic peo- the Cyrillic in 1955–58 was canceled due to political con- ple in Inner Mongolia who founded the Liao dynasty siderations. (907–1125), were particularly cordial. In 1130, after the From 1989 the Uighur-Mongolian script underwent a Jurchen people of Manchuria crushed the Kitans’ Liao renaissance in Mongolia proper. For a while plans were dynasty, the Uighurs became junior allies of the QARA- made to switch back to the “old script,” but popular KHITAI Empire founded by a Kitan adventurer in Central resistance proved too great to overcome in a democracy. Asia. Uighur trade in North China and Mongolia contin- The Uighur-Mongolian script, however, is now a required ued. Uighurs served as scribes and even imperial tutors topic in Mongolia’s secondary schools. for the Qara-Khitai and the NAIMAN Khanate in western See also MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. Mongolia and traded with the KEREYID Khanate in central Further reading: György Kara, “Mongolian Script,” Mongolia. in The World’s Writing Systems, ed. Peter Daniels and William Bright (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), UIGHURS AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE 545–548; Igor de Rachewiltz, “Some Remarks on Written By the time CHINGGIS KHAN united the Mongols in 1206, Mongolian,” in Meng-ku wen hua guo chi hsüeh shu yen he had conquered both the Kereyid and the Naiman, and t’ao hui lun wen chi, ed. Chün-i Chang (Taipei: Mongolian several Uighurs were already in his service, including and Tibetan Affair Commission, 1993), 123–136. TATAR-TONG’A and CHINQAI. By this time the Qara-Khitai overlordship had become onerous, and in 1209 the iduq- Uighurs (Uyghurs, Uygurs, Uigurs) During the rise qut (or idi-qut, Holy Majesty, the Uighur royal title) of the Mongols the Uighurs were Turkic-speaking people Barchuq Art Tegin and the Uighur lords killed the Qara- who lived in the oases of modern Xinjiang and served as Khitai representative and surrendered to the Mongols. In the foremost teachers of literacy and administration for 1211 Barchuq visited Chinggis Khan in Mongolia and the Mongol Empire builders. The Uighurs first lived in received high favor as the first sedentary ruler to submit northern Mongolia, where they formed an empire in the to the Mongols. A Mongol princess was bestowed on the eighth and ninth centuries (see UIGHUR EMPIRE). After iduq-qut, the first of many intermarriages with the Mon- 840 the Uighurs fled the plateau due to economic hard- gol imperial clan. The Uighurs sent 10,000 troops to ship and invasion. assist the Mongols on their campaigns against KHORAZM (1219–23) and the Tangut Xia dynasty (1226–27). Under SETTLEMENT IN TURPAN the Mongols the capital was moved north to Besh-Baligh The Uighurs who fled the Mongolian plateau settled in (near modern Qitai). two areas, Ganzhou in the Gansu corridor of northwest Uighurs won fame, however, not as soldiers but as China and the oases of what came to be called Uighuri- clerks. Influenced by Tatar-Tong’a, Chinggis Khan stan in modern eastern Xinjiang. The Tangut XIA adopted the Uighur script as the official Mongol alphabet. 564 Uighurs By the time of his son ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), both the to the works of the Chinese philosopher. Nevertheless, khan and the princely establishments throughout the despite the frequent adoption of Chinese names and the empire were employing Uighur scribes. Ambitious men eager assimilation of Chinese literary culture, these same all over Uighuristan found that employment under the Uighur clans preserved their language and a distinct Mongols was a ticket to wealth and fame. Uighur domi- social network of intermarrying Uighur families. nance of the scribal guild was so complete that numerous Buddhist Uighurs came strongly under the influence phonological peculiarities of the Uighur script were of the Tibetan Buddhism patronized by the Mongol court. directly imported into the new Mongolian alphabet. Both Mongol and Uighur Buddhists eagerly read Uighur Under Ögedei’s son GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48) Uighur offi- translations of Tibetan-language hagiographies and com- cials increased their dominance, sidelining the North mentaries. Even CHOSGI-ODSIR, one of the great transla- Chinese and Muslims. The Uighurs, both Christian and tors of Tibetan works into Mongolian, seems to have been Buddhist, came to see Muslim officials as their chief rivals Uighur in origin. In the western khanates—the GOLDEN for influence. After Güyüg died and his cousin MÖNGKE HORDE, the CHAGHATAY KHANATE, and the IL-KHANATE— khan was elected (1251–59), a Buddhist Uighur scribe Uighur baqshis (teachers or masters) propagated Bud- named Bala inveigled the iduq-qut Salindi into an anti- dhism and were frequent rivals of Islamic clerics. Möngke and anti-Islamic plot. The plot was discovered, and Salindi, Bala, and their confederates were publicly UIGHURS AND THE CHAGHATAYIDS executed. Even so, the royal family remained high in the Sometime between 1295 and 1305 Uighuristan drifted favor of the Mongols, although the predominance of into the orbit of the Mongol Chaghatay Khanate. Yuan- Uighur scribes declined somewhat. Chaghatayid tensions prompted a renewed effort at Yuan control in 1316, but by 1338–39 Besh-Baligh and Qara- UIGHURS AND THE YUAN Qocho were back again in the Chaghatay orbit. Turpan With the breakup of the MONGOL EMPIRE, Uighuristan remained a semiautonomous vassal state, first of the became a battle zone between the YUAN DYNASTY of QUBI- Chaghatay Khanate and by 1420 or so of MOGHULISTAN LAI KHAN (1260–1294), centered in North China, and his (the eastern Chaghatay successor state). It was not, how- enemies. During the brief conflict between Qubilai Khan ever, fully integrated into Moghulistan until the reign of and his brother ARIQ-BÖKE from 1260–64, the iduq-qut Sultan Mansur (1504–43). stayed neutral. When QAIDU KHAN, a grandson of Ögedei, The Uighurs in Hami, however, came under a differ- allied with the CHAGHATAY KHANATE to oppose Qubilai, ent dynasty. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, Gunashiri the reigning iduq-qut, Qochqar, and the Uighurs strongly (or Unashiri), a Buddhist Chaghatayid prince who had supported Qubilai. Qaidu and his allies were based north- followed the Yuan emperors back into Mongolia, estab- west of Uighuristan, and around 1270 the iduq-qut moved lished himself in Hami by 1390. Submitting to China’s his court from Besh-Baligh back to the more sheltered site MING DYNASTY in 1404, his dynasty maintained relations of Qara-Qocho in the Turpan basin. In 1283, when with the Ming and the OIRATS (West Mongols) until being Qochqar died, his son was still young, and Qubilai overthrown in 1463. From 1467 the Ming repeatedly removed his seat from Qocho to Yongchang in northwest reinstalled relatives of the old dynasty, but Hami was China, while Yuan commanders established garrisons and finally conquered by Sultan Mansur of Moghulistan in military farms in Uighuristan. Civil administration was 1513. Buddhists in Uighuristan maintained contact with reorganized on the Chinese pattern with a “Pacification the Ming, the Oirats, the Yellow Uighurs of Gansu Commission for Besh-Baligh, Qara-Qocho, and Vicin- (ancestors of the Yogurs), and Tibet until the final con- ity.” In 1286 the Yuan lost Besh-Baligh, and constant version to Islam. The last Buddhists fled to China around raids by Qaidu’s forces prompted steady migration of 1441 from Turpan and around 1473 from Hami. those Uighur families with means away from Uighuris- After Hami submitted to the Oirats in the 1430s, tan and into China, a migration which the Yuan govern- the Uighurs also became active in southwest Inner ment attempted to counter with state-sponsored relief Mongolia. A large body of Uighurs settled by the Huang and assistance. (Yellow) River bend, and the Uighur chiefs Beg-Arslan In China the Uighur community flourished, serving (d. 1479), Ismayil (d. 1486), and Iburai (d. 1533) in every corner of the empire. LIAN XIXIAN, for example, became major leaders of the western Mongols. The son of a Uighur official in Yanjing (modern Beijing), and reunification of Mongolia under BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN the general ARIQ-QAYA, son of a poor farmer, both KHAN (1480?–1517?) put an end to these contacts, but achieved high position in Qubilai’s administration. the Uighurjin clan name is still found today in the Among officeholders in the Yuan, Uighurs were outnum- ORDOS area of Inner Mongolia. bered only by the Mongols themselves and the North From Islamization until 1923 the term Uighur was Chinese. Many found no difficulty assimilating Chinese used only locally for the Muslim Turkic-speaking peoples ideas and mastering the Confucian classics. Qubilai Khan of Hami and Turpan. In 1923 it was chosen as a general nicknamed Lian Xixian “Lian Mencius” for his devotion designation for Xinjiang’s Tarim Basin oasis dwellers. Ulaanbaatar 565 See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; BUDDHISM IN THE is situated near the border of the khangai (mountainous MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; forest-steppe) and steppe zones. Average annual precipi- JARLIQ; UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT; YOGUR LANGUAGES tation is 258.5 millimeters (10.18 inches), and average AND PEOPLE. temperatures range from –22°C (–8°F) in January to 17° Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, “The Yüan (63°F) in July. Ulaanbaatar is the coldest national capital Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan in the 13th Century,” in the world. in China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Ulaanbaatar lies in an east-west valley at the western Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries, ed. Morris Rossabi edge of the KHENTII RANGE at the confluence of the Selbe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 243–280. River with the TUUL RIVER. The valley is bounded to the south by wooded Bogd Uul (Holy Mountain), which Ujimqin See ÜJÜMÜCHIN. reaches 2,256 meters (7,402 feet) above sea level. Killing or cutting trees was forbidden anywhere around the camp of the Jibzundamba Khutugtu, and these prohibitions Üjümüchin (Ujimqin, Üzemchin, Wuzhumuqin) were strictly applied on Bogd Uul. Bogd Uul is currently a One of the banners (districts) of Inner Mongolia’s Shiliin nature preserve inhabited by elk that until recently some- Gol, the Üjümüchin are known for the beautiful embroi- times wandered the city’s streets and parks. dered hems on their traditional Mongolian robes (deel). The builtup area of Ulaanbaatar stretches along the In 1945 a body of Üjümüchins emigrated to (Outer) Tuul’s northern bank, expanding upstream and down- Mongolia. stream and north into the valleys of the Tuul’s tributary In 1949 the Üjümüchin and neighboring Khuuchid streams. Newer builtup districts are also expanding banners were merged. In 1956 this combined territory around the Buyant-Ukhaa airport south of the river. New was again divided into two Üjümüchin banners. In 1990 districts are mostly made of YURT-courtyards (ger the two Üjümüchin BANNERS had a combined population khashaa). In 1992 43 percent of the city’s residents lived of 127,700, of which 83,700 were Mongols. In Mongolia in such residences. The city’s symbol, revived after the the Üjümüchin yastan (subethnic group) numbered 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION, is the legendary Garuda 2,100 in 1989 and were settled in Eastern Province’s bird holding a snake in its claws and beak. Sergelen Sum. Üjümüchin was an OTOG (camp district) of the ADMINISTRATION, POPULATION, AND ECONOMY CHAKHAR tümen in the 16th century. Like the nobility of The population of Ulaanbaatar is 786,500 (2000 figure). SHILIIN GOL’s Khuuchid and Sönid banners, the princes of The population is, like Mongolia itself, more than 75 per- Üjümüchin were junior descendants of the Chinggisid cent KHALKHA Mongolian. Immigrant groups, such as Bodi Alag Khan (1519–47), grandson of BATU-MÖNGKE INNER MONGOLIANS, Chinese, and Russians, form about 8 DAYAN KHAN. After fleeing LIGDAN KHAN’s rule in 1627, the percent of the population, while BURIATS and DÖRBÖDS nobles of Üjümüchin surrendered to the new Manchu each form about 5 percent. QING DYNASTY in 1637, and two of them were selected as Ulaanbaatar’s administration has undergone a number jasags (rulers; see ZASAG) of Üjümüchin Right and Left of changes. The city’s administrative area, including nearby Banners. steppe and coal mines, was expanded in 1957–59 from 188 Üjümüchin remained isolated despite incorporation square kilometers to 1,686 (73 to 651 square miles), and into the Republic of China after 1915 and Japanese occu- then to 2,058 square kilometers (795 square miles). In pation after 1937. After the Soviet-Mongolian invasion of 1965 the city’s administration was reorganized from 10 1945 that ended WORLD WAR II, Üjümüchin Left Banner’s wards (khoroo) into four districts (raion; changed to düüreg young jasag, Minjurdorji, led 1,785 Üjümüchins to in 1992), each with numbered wards (khoroolol). The migrate to Mongolia. number of districts later expanded with the city to nine. In See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES; GOMBOJAB, DUKE; 1992 the city administrative names were changed from INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; INNER MONGO- those expressing communism and Soviet-Mongolian LIANS; MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. friendship to mostly traditional topographical and histori- cal names. The number of districts was expanded to 12, Ulaanbaatar (Ulan-Bator, Urga) Beginning in the and the city grew to 4,700 square kilometers (1,815 square 17th century as a monastery town and the seat of the miles). Of these districts, six—Sükhebaatur, Chingeltei- great INCARNATE LAMA, the JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, Uul, Bayangol, Songino-Khairkhan, Bayanzürkh, and Ulaanbaatar since 1911 has been the political, economic, Khan-Uul—cover the builtup area and have the over- cultural, and social center of Mongolia. whelming majority of the population. With the opening of the Industrial Combine in 1934 LOCATION AND ENVIRONMENT to process animal products and its attendant thermal Ulaanbaatar’s physical environment is close to average for power station, Ulaanbaatar began developing as an indus- Mongolia. At 1,300 meters (4,265 feet) above sea level, it trial center. By 1969 62.9 percent of the city’s population 566 Ulaanbaatar were workers. In 1985 Ulaanbaatar produced 46.8 percent KHÜRIYE of Mongolia’s industrial output, with light industry (38.0 Although Ulaanbaatar’s founding is conventionally dated percent of total output), power (18.5 percent), and food to 1639, this refers only to the enthronement of Zan- processing (18.5 percent) the main sectors. After the with- abazar, the FIRST JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU. In 1654 the drawal of Soviet aid in 1991, the city was hit hard by Bogda (Holy One) began a monastery, Nom-un Yekhe depression, shortages, and increases in poverty. It has, Khüriye (Great Monastery of the Dharma, officially called however, weathered the transition relatively successfully, Rebu- or Baraibung-Gejai-Gandan-Shaddubling), in the expanding its share of Mongolia’s total industrial sales KHENTII RANGE, which after many migrations became the from 38 percent (1992) to 47 percent (2000), while unem- core of Ulaanbaatar. Not until 1700 did the Bogda live ployment, already below the national average at 3.9 per- there frequently, and not until 1741 was it his permanent cent in 1992, dropped to Mongolia’s lowest, at 2.8 percent seat. Despite having a wooden main hall, or Tsogchin, the in 2000. The privatized service economy has added monastery was still nomadic, moving through the west- numerous jobs, and since 1997 Ulaanbaatar has been in ern Khentii Range and eastern KHANGAI RANGE 14 times the midst of a renewed construction boom after an almost from 1719 to 1747. These moves, funded by the Bogda’s 10-year hiatus. Not surprisingly, Ulaanbaatar’s share of personal subjects, the GREAT SHABI, became increasingly Mongolia’s growing population expanded very rapidly after burdensome. From 1747 to 1779 the monastery moved 1990, from 25.9 percent in 1990 to 32.7 percent in 2000. four times before being fixed at its present place, with a The satellite city of Nalaikh (11,300 people in 2002) population of 2,000 lamas. As a city developed around developed around Mongolia’s first coal mine (opened in the monastery, Russian traders called it Urga, from Mon- 1915), with many KAZAKH workers brought in from the golian örgöö, “the palace-tent,” but the Mongols called it west. After the mines closed in 1992, unemployment Da Khüriye, “Great Monastery,” (Chinese, Kulun). locally reached 68 percent, but a new Chinese-financed After 1698 the monastery became a trading center oil refinery is expected to bring growth. where Russian and Chinese merchants exchanged goods. Sükhebaatur Square, Ulaanbaatar, 1989. In the background, from left to right, are the Government Palace, the tomb of Choibalsang and Sükhebaatur, the statue of Sükhebaatur, and the State Printing Press. (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) Ulaanbaatar 567 By the 1750s Russian and QING DYNASTY authorities in a horseshoe-shaped ring open to the south. The lamas shifted international trade to the KYAKHTA border towns, were divided into aimags (parishes), 28 for East Khüriye and the Chinese traders in Da Khüriye branched out to and four for Gandan-Tegchinling, with each aimag occu- trade among the Mongols. A Chinatown, called Maimach- pying its own place in the great horseshoe-shaped ring ing, was formed 5 kilometers (3 miles) east of the temple and having its own meeting hall (dugang), a large yurt by Chinese merchants and moneylenders operating attached to a wooden building that held the Buddha among the Mongols. In 1758 a Khalkha Mongolian aris- images. The narrow streets were fronted by the high tocrat was appointed by the Qing court in Beijing as an walls of the yurt-courtyards, with poles to tether HORSES. AMBAN (imperial resident) to supervise the secular affairs Maimaching, with wider but winding streets, was cen- of the Bogda’s subjects. In 1761 another Manchu amban tered on the shops and houses of the Chinese merchants was appointed for the same purpose. In 1786 these and moneylenders, often walled with mud brick. Around ambans were made supervisors of Khalkha Mongolia’s Maimaching’s central commercial district were the yurt- two eastern provinces, thus making Da Khüriye a major courtyards of Mongols who worked mostly as teamsters administrative center. A zarguchi (judge; see JARGHUCHI) and caravaneers. Mongols were also active in the lumber was appointed to administer Maimaching, and he orga- and carpentry trades. nized a watch of Chinese policemen over all the markets A peculiarity of Khüriye’s population was its sex in the city, paid for by contributions from Chinese and imbalance. The lamas were all men (nuns, or chibagantsa, (later) Russian merchants. were mostly old women and not organized into institu- In 1809 new temples were begun for Nom-un Yekhe tions), and the Chinese merchants never brought their Khüriye’s tsanid (higher Buddhist studies) faculty a few families to Mongolia. As a result, prostitution flourished, kilometers west of the monastery’s main buildings. This and sexually transmitted diseases were rampant. Most of was the beginning of GANDAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY, the prostitutes were Mongols, some entering the trade called West (Baruun) Khüriye. In 1836, irritated by the voluntarily and others sold by their fathers. Lay Mongols encroaching Chinese shops, the Bogda moved the entire immigrated to Khüriye in response to rural troubles. monastery to West Khüriye. In 1855 the Nom-un Yekhe Already in 1830–35 the Bogda’s administration recorded Khüriye Monastery and the Bogda’s court moved back to more than 3,000 lay Mongol subjects in the city, of whom the old site, now called East (Züün) Khüriye. some 180 were on relief. Hardships in the countryside in From this time on Da Khüriye was divided into three 1865–75 brought beggars swarming into the city, to areas: East Khüriye, centered on Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye which the Bogda’s treasury, the ERDENI SHANGDZODBA, Monastery and the Bogda’s private Dechingalba Temple responded with a work relief program until conditions (Yellow Palace; see PALACES OF THE BOGDA KHAN); GAN- improved. Lay Mongol migrants to Khüriye maintained DAN-TEGCHINLING MONASTERY to the west; and Maimach- their home banner registration. Despite the absence of ing to the east. After the Bogda moved back to East any sanitation system, the climate and the packs of rov- Khüriye, Chinese and Russian merchants began settling ing dogs kept the town relatively clean. again around East Khüriye, just outside the open space left for the annual Maitreya procession to circumambu- FROM KHÜRIYE TO ULAANBAATAR late the monastery. East Damnuurchin, on the eastern The 1911 RESTORATION of Mongolian independence side of East Khüriye, thus replaced Maimaching as the graced Khüriye with several new monuments, including city’s major market district. South of East Khüriye and the Migjid Janraisig Temple at Gandan-Tegchinling, again outside the circumambulation route were the com- which towered over the city. The city’s lay Mongol popu- pound of the ambans, townhouses for visiting Mongol lation expanded greatly, particularly south of East aristocrats, and the meat market. Between Maimaching Khüriye, where two new districts, the Southeast Ward and East Khüriye was the Russian consulate, established (Züün Emüne Khoriya) and the Southwest Ward (Baruun in 1860. North, in the upper Selbe valley, was Dambadar- Emüne Khoriya), grew up around the old aristocratic jiya Hermitage with 500 lamas. Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye town houses. had around 13,800 lamas from 1889 to 1910. Gandan- Telegraph lines had reached Khüriye soon after the Tegchinling had more than 2,000 lamas in 1868, and Russian consulate was opened. Increasingly scarce argal Maimaching had about 1,800 inhabitants in 1876. Total (dried cattle dung) and lumber were gradually replaced population was estimated at 15,000–20,000 by 1900, as fuel by coal from the Nalaikh mine, opened in 1915. although most of the populace was transient. This mine, along with an electrical generator, a timber East Khüriye and Gandan-Tegchinling followed the mill, a brick factory, and a printing shop, were funded by traditional nomadic Mongolian monastery organization. Russian and other investors. In 1919 the Chinese reoccu- Around a central palace for the Bogda, a great assembly pation of Mongolia brought a radio station to the hills hall (tsogchin dugang), monastic administrative offices, northeast of the city. A number of Russian-style houses and some specialized temples (tantric, medical, etc.) were built in Mongolia in the first two decades of the were distributed among the yurt-courtyards of the lamas 20th century. 568 Ulaanbaatar A central bus system was established in the early 1960s in Ulaanbaatar, in front of the two-story cooperative building, which in 1961 became the State Department Store and now is the Fine Arts Museum. (From XX Zuun Mongolchuud: 2000) After the 1921 REVOLUTION and the death of the last south of the deceased Bogda’s palace and housed sessions Bogda in 1924, the city was designated in the 1924 CON- of the new legislature. During The LEFTIST PERIOD in STITUTION the capital of the Mongolian People’s Republic 1929, more new constructions appeared in the heart of and renamed Ulaanbaatar Khot, “City of the Red Hero (or East Khüriye with the State Printing Press (1929) and Heroes)”—exactly who was meant by the hero(es) was Government Building (1930, the modern National Teach- not specified. After the Bogda’s death his palaces along ers Training University). In 1934 Mongolia’s first Indus- the Tuul were confiscated by the state, but the revolution- trial Combine, a light industrial plant processing felt, aries otherwise made little mark on the city’s public shoes, leather, and skins, was opened southwest of the spaces before 1937, placing the new party and govern- city beyond the Selbe with 1,183 workers. ment offices in the Southeast Ward, away from the great The great break in Ulaanbaatar’s history came, how- square in front of the Bogda’s Yellow Palace. In April 1925 ever, only with the annihilation of the monasteries and regulations for registering lay Mongols as residents of the dispersal of the Chinese community. The new Ulaanbaatar were created for the first time. By 1927 the regime’s campaign against Buddhism entered its final city had 13,030 registered residents, although a 1925 esti- stage in 1936, and in late 1939 Gandan-Tegchinling and mate put lay Mongols at 14,750, lamas at 20,000, Chi- Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye were closed and the surviving nese residents at 23,919, and other foreigners at 2,417, lamas laicized (see BUDDHISM, CAMPAIGN AGAINST; Gandan making a total of more than 61,000. was later revived with 100 lamas). Suspect for their for- After 1925 more multistory European-style buildings eign ties, the Chinese who survived the GREAT PURGE began to appear, of which the Central Theater (built avoided suspicion by assimilating. In 1944 Ulaanbaatar’s 1927, later burned), designed in the form of a yurt by the population was only 35,456, barely half that of two Hungarian Joseph Gelet, was the most distinctive. Popu- decades earlier, and only 53 percent male. Having larly called the “Green Dome Theater,” it was placed just destroyed what it considered alien elements, the new Ulaanchab 569 regime could now build a secular, modern, and Mongo- try’s total population. While the transition from a state- lian metropolis on its ruins. owned economy after 1990 caused a temporary break in this growth, Ulaanbaatar’s superior infrastructure and THE NEW ULAANBAATAR cosmopolitan society have made it as welcoming to the The new Ulaanbaatar began with the conquest of the market economy as it had been to the socialist economy. public space. In 1937–39 a new Sükhebaatur Square was See also BODÔ; BUYANNEMEKHÜ; DAMBADORJI. created south of Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye, and the city Further reading: Robert A. Rupen, “The City of Urga streets and squares were named. Construction was in the Manchu Period.” In Studia Altaica, ed. Julius von delayed by WORLD WAR II, but from 1945 to 1950, with Farkas and Omeljan Pritsak (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras- the aid of 12,318 Japanese prisoners of war and funds sowitz, 1957), 157–169; N. Tsultem, Mongolian Architec- available with the coming of peace, a monumental city ture (Ulaanbaatar: State Publishing House, 1988). center was created on and around Sükhebaatur Square, including the Government Palace (built on the site of the Ulaanchab (Ulaantsav, Ulanqab, Wulanchabu) Ulaan- “Green Dome Theater”), the Opera and Ballet Theater, a chab was one of Inner Mongolia’s traditional six leagues cinema (now the stock exchange), the Foreign Ministry, under the Qing dynasty and mostly occupied the GOBI Mongolian National University, the National Public DESERT north of the Yin Shan Mountains. The original Library, and other buildings. The designs of this period Ulaanchab BANNERS were Dörben Kheükhed (Siziwang), emphasized neoclassical facades. Symbolic of the new Darkhan, Muuminggan (now Darhan Muminggan Lian- regime were the statues of the leaders GENERAL SÜKHE- heqi), and the three Urad banners. All six are in the Gobi BAATUR, MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG, and Stalin and the tomb Desert except for Urad Front banner (Urad Qianqi), near of Sükhebaatur and Choibalsang, designed by the Mon- the Huang (Yellow) River. The five Gobi banners occupy golian architect B. Chimid in imitation of Lenin’s tomb. 90,983 square kilometers (35,129 square miles), with a The 1950s completed the foundation of a modern total population of 483,600, of which only 65,000, or 13 city as the population reached 118,387 in 1956. In 1953 percent, are Mongols (1990 figures). Ethnic Chinese dwell Soviet architects drew up Ulaanbataar’s first general city in densely populated farming villages along the banners’ plan. Following a 1955 agreement with China, Chinese southern border, in small administrative centers, and some guest workers, eventually numbering 13,150 entered Mongolia (see SINO-SOVIET ALLIANCE). They paved the as pastoralists among the Mongols. Most of the 11,000 main street grid of central Ulaanbaatar and built several Mongols of Urad Front banner (Urad Qianqi) live on the large reinforced concrete bridges. Chinese workers also unplowed slopes of Muna Uula Mountain surrounded by built the first of the housing projects that transformed densely populated Chinese lowland farming villages. The central Ulaanbaatar’s living space. This first “50,000” of overwhelming majority of the Mongols in Ulaanchab’s tra- the 1950s and the Soviet-built “40,000” of the early ditional six banners speak Mongolian. The five Gobi ban- 1960s, so-called from the square meters of living space ners together have 3,383,000 head of livestock, of which planned, were low four-story buildings that echoed the 92–95 percent are SHEEP and GOATS (1990 figures). The neoclassical style. (Apartment blocks had first been built mining town of Bayan Oboo, in the middle of Darkhan- for the workers in the Industrial Combine and its power Muuminggan territory, has about 22,700 people but is plant in 1940–45). At the same time, a central water and administratively attached to BAOTOU municipality. plumbing system was first built in 1954–57, and a central After 1958 Ulaanchab’s original territory was divided. heating system in 1959. In 1966 a central garbage dis- The three eastern banners were merged with Pingdiquan posal system was set up. region around Jining, and the western Urad banners, Further development of Ulaanbaatar was mostly a renamed Bayannuur (Bayannur), merged with the Hetao result of expansion of industry and population. The SINO- region (see ORDOS) around Linhe. Both Pingdiquan and SOVIET SPLIT sent most of the Chinese guest workers Hetao are farming areas south of the Yin Shan. Ulaanchab home, preventing the reemergence of a new Chinatown. league as thus reconstituted covers 84,700 square kilome- A milestone in Ulaanbaatar’s demographic transformation ters (32,700 square miles) and in 1990 had a population was the change from a 52.7 percent male majority in of 3,171,294, of which Mongols were 84,344, or less than 1957 to a 50.1 percent female majority in 1969. The 3 percent. BAYANNUUR LEAGUE is likewise only 4 percent number of persons living in yurt-courtyards declined Mongol. from 65 percent in 1960 to 60 percent in 1970. In the The original Ulaanchab steppe was the homeland of 1970s and 1980s housing projects west of Gandan and the ÖNGGÜD in the 12th to 14th centuries. From about near the old Russian consulate took on an increasingly 1500 on Urad (meaning craftsmen) and Muu-Minggan gargantuan and impersonal character, while the percent- (meaning the bad 1,000) appeared as OTOGs (camp dis- age of those living in yurts dropped to 31.6 percent in tricts) of the ORDOS and TÜMED Mongols, respectively. In 1984. The city’s total population grew from 267,400 in 1638, to forestall KHALKHA Mongolian raids from the 1969 to 584,400 in 1989, almost 27 percent of the coun- north, the Qing dispatched to the area Mongol noblemen 570 Ulaankhüü from the HULUN BUIR area with their subjects, some of After Japan’s surrender Yun Ze was assigned to neu- whom were also named Muu-Minggan. These noblemen tralize the pan-Mongolist nationalist movements in Inner were descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN’s brother Qasar and Mongolia. In October 1945, after his first successes, he were related to the KHORCHIN nobles. They formed the organized the Federation of Inner Mongolian Autonomy ancestors of the Dörben Kheükhed, Muuminggan, and Movements (FIMAM) as a front organization. From this Urad rulers. In 1653 a Khalkha nobleman defected to the time he bore the name Wulanfu in Chinese, which could Qing with 1,000 households; they were resettled under be either Chinese for Russian Ulianov (Lenin’s original his rule as Darkhan banner. surname) or for Mongolian Ulaanhüü (red son). In April See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION; 1946 he pressured the East Mongolian autonomous gov- INNER MONGOLIANS; MERGEN GEGEEN, THIRD, LUBSANG- ernment, the most powerful in Inner Mongolia, to accept DAMBI-JALSAN. Chinese Communist leadership. Ulanfu led campaigns to attack landlords, exterminate anticommunist guerrillas, Ulaankhüü See ULANFU. and support with cavalry and materiel the Communists’ front against the Nationalists. From 1947 to 1966 Ulanfu achieved unprecedented Ulaantsav See ULAANCHAB. concentration of power as the chairman of the INNER MON- GOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION, secretary of its party commit- Ulaan-Üde See ULAN-UDE. tee, and commander and political commissar of its military region. After 1949 he also served in Beijing on top-level committees supervising defense, nationality policy, and Ulan-Bator See ULAANBAATAR. North China party affairs. He became president of Beijing’s Nationalities Institute (the new name of his old alma Ulanfu (Ulanhu, Wulanfu, Ulaankhüü; Yun Ze, Yün mater) and in 1957 of the new Inner Mongolia University. Tse) (1906–1988) Long-time Communist activist, Ulanfu While loyal to the Chinese Communist Party and became the Chinese Communists’ “man in Inner Mongolia” opposed to secession, Ulanfu also actively promoted use until being toppled during the Cultural Revolution. of the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE and delayed rural class Born on December 23, 1906, into a declining Tümed struggle in the sensitive SHILIIN GOL and HULUN BUIR Mongol farming family in Tabucun village, Yun Ze, as he leagues. Both Chinese and East Mongols accused him of was originally named, attended primary school in nearby favoring his own TÜMED Mongols, especially after the Guisui (modern HÖHHOT) in 1919 and entered the Mon- HÖHHOT area was brought into Inner Mongolia in 1954. golian and Tibetan School in Beijing in 1923. Yun Ze had In May 1966 Ulanfu’s colleagues in the North China participated in demonstrations in Guisui, and in Beijing Bureau attacked his supposed policy of “class reconcilia- he joined the Socialist Youth League and in September tion” and accused him of making Inner Mongolia an “inde- 1925 the Chinese Communist Party. Unlike many of his pendent kingdom.” Ulanfu was exiled but covertly friends, he did not join any pan-Mongolist organization. protected from the worst torments inflicted on other exiled The next month he entered the Sun Yat-sen University in Mongols. In 1979, with Deng Xiaoping’s rise and the repu- Moscow. Yun Ze spoke Chinese and fluent Russian but diation of the Cultural Revolution, Ulanfu became a promi- only broken Mongolian. nent official in Beijing, serving from 1983 as China’s vice In June 1929 the Communist International (Com- president. Meanwhile, his son Buhe (Bökhe) became chair- intern) sent him back to Inner Mongolia together with man of Inner Mongolia from 1982 to 1992, and many other members of the Inner Mongolian People’s Revolutionary family members held high positions. Ulanfu’s persecution Party to organize underground party cells. From 1933 his in the Cultural Revolution increased his identification with assignment changed to coordinating anti-Japanese sympa- the Mongols and his credibility as an advocate of national- thizers in various military organizations, such as PRINCE ity autonomy. After his death on December 9, 1988, a mau- DEMCHUGDONGRUB’s military forces and the Tümed local soleum and memorial were dedicated to him outside militia. From May 1937 he served in ORDOS under the Höhhot in 1992, but his family was eased out of power. alias Yun Shiyu as a political instructor in a Mongol unit See also INNER MONGOLIANS; “NEW INNER MONGOLIAN in the anti-Japanese warlord Fu Zuoyi’s army. PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY” CASE. In 1938 he reported to Mao Zedong’s Communist Further reading: Uradyn E. Bulag, Mongols at China’s Party center in Yan’an for the first time and in March Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity (Lanham, 1940 was transferred to Yan’an. Until 1945 he served as a Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002). teacher and committee member in the party center’s fledgling nationality apparatus while undergoing reeduca- tion during the Maoist Rectification Campaign. In April Ulanhad See CHIFENG MUNICIPALITY. 1945 he was elected a candidate member of the party’s Central Committee. Ulanhot See KHINGGAN LEAGUE. Ulan-Ude 571 Ulanhu See ULANFU. 28,000 in 1926, had risen to 352,530 in the 1989 census; the estimate for 2000 was 370,400. Ulan-Ude thus con- Ulanqab See ULAANCHAB. tains 34 percent of the Buriat Republic’s total population and 55 percent of the republic’s urban dwellers. Ulan-Ude Ulan-Ude (Ulaan-Üde, Verkhneudinsk, Verchneudinsk) straddles both the Trans-Siberian Railway and the railway Ulan-Ude is the capital and only large city in Russia’s and automotive lines into Mongolia (see TRANS-MONGO- BURIAT REPUBLIC in southern Siberia. The city was LIAN RAILWAY). River transport, of historical importance, founded at the confluence of the Uda River (Buriat, Üde) is no longer used. and SELENGE RIVER in an area of forest and steppe about In the postwar period Ulan-Ude’s economy was 490 meters (1,608 feet) above sea level. Average daily developed as a major industrial center, with more than 30 temperatures range from –25.4°C (–14°F) in January to percent of industrial output consisting of heavy indus- 19.4°C (67°F) in July, but temperatures as low as –51°C tries, another 30 percent of light industrial products, and (–60°F) and as high as 38°C (100°F) have been recorded. 20 percent of processed foods. Construction and lumber- Annual precipitation is around 246 millimeters (9.69 woodworking industries together totaled 5 percent of inches). The city was originally named Verkhneudinsk, industrial output. Ulan-Ude also has three coal-fired ther- or “Upper Uda” (Deede Üde in Buriat); the current name mal-electric power stations. of Ulan-Ude, “Red Uda” (Buriat, Ulaan-Üde), was As the capital of the Buriat Republic, Ulan-Ude is a adopted in 1934. major educational, cultural, and scientific center. By 1970 Ulan-Ude had four institutes, or colleges of higher POPULATION AND ECONOMY education—technical, pedagogical, agricultural, and Ulan-Ude’s three urban districts cover 170 square kilome- cultural—as well as the Buriat branch of the Siberian ters (66 square miles). The city’s population, which was division of the Russian Academy of Sciences (founded Buriat Radio and Television Building near the Central Square of the Soviets, Ulan-Ude (Courtesy Tristra Newyear) 572 Uliastai 1966). Institutions of performing arts include theaters Further reading: Balzhan Zhimbiev, History of the of Buriat and Russian drama, puppet theaters, dance Urbanization of a Siberian City (Cambridge: White Horse theaters, and a folk song and dance theater, all with Press, 2000). attached troupes. In 1995 the Buryat State Teachers Training Institute and the Ulan-Ude Branch of Novosi- Uliastai (Uliyasutai, Uliastay, Javhlant) The city of birsk State University were combined to form the Buriat Uliastai, situated in west-central Mongolia, was the State University. administrative center of Outer Mongolia under the QING In 1926 Ulan-Ude was an almost purely Russian town. DYNASTY (1636–1912). The capital of ZAWKHAN PROVINCE, Since then BURIATS have immigrated on a large scale. In it is located in the western KHANGAI RANGE at the conflu- 1989 they formed 21.1 percent of the population. ence of the Chigistei and Bogd Rivers. Winter tempera- tures are frequently bitterly cold, reaching –45°C (–49°F). HISTORY Current population is 24,300 (2000 figure). Ulan-Ude began in 1666 as the Cossack fort of Udinsk. Uliastai was founded in 1733 as the residence of the Straddling the Russo-Chinese trade route through jiangjun (general in chief), the chief Qing administrator KYAKHTA, the fort grew rapidly into a town, and in 1783 in Mongolia. Under him were stationed two AMBANs (one Verkhneudinsk became a district (uezd) administrative from the EIGHT BANNERS system and one a KHALKHA Mon- center. In 1741 the Odigitrievskii Cathedral was begun, gol aristocrat), clerks, and garrisons of both Chinese and in 1803 the Commercial Rows were rebuilt in stone. Green Standard and Khalkha Mongol banner troops. In In the second half of the 19th century Verkhneudinsk 1765 the city was rewalled with wooden palisades filled acquired a comprehensive women’s school, a duma and with brick, and in 1787 it was given a temple to the Chi- town council, a public library, two leather factories, and a nese god of war, Guandi (identified in Mongolia with vodka distillery. Until 1905, however, the town was still a GESER). Burned in 1869 by Turkestani rebels, the town place of exile. was soon rebuilt. In 1908 a Russian consulate was In 1899 the city streets were illuminated with opened. In 1910 the town had about 200 Chinese and kerosene lamps, and in August the first train arrived at 1,000 Mongol residents. Outside the walls in the trading Verkhneudinsk on the Trans-Siberian Railway. By 1916 town were about 80 Chinese shops and five or six Rus- the city had almost 16,000 residents, of which 1,000 sian ones. worked on the railroad and 282 in the 16 to 18 other On January 12, 1912, the Qing authorities surren- industrial enterprises. The town had 28 schools of vari- dered to the new independent Mongolian government ous sorts, two doctors, three dentists, five pharmacies, (see 1911 RESTORATION). Uliastai remained a strategic and two cinemas. center for control of western Khalkha through the turbu- The Bolsheviks seized power in Verkhneudinsk on lent years leading up to the 1921 REVOLUTION. In 1931 January 23, 1918, but the city fell to the Japanese the city was made the capital of Zawkhan province and intervention on August 20, 1918, before being retaken renamed Jawkhlant (Javhlant); the old name was restored by the Red Army on March 2, 1920. From April to by 1959. By 1979 the population reached 15,400 and the November 1920 Verkhneudinsk was the capital of the city had acquired a diesel-powered electric generator and newly established Far Eastern Republic, a Communist- a few local factories. controlled buffer state between Soviet Russia and Japan. After the buffer state’s capital was moved to Üliger-ün dalai See SUTRA OF THE WISE AND FOOLISH. Chita, Verkhneudinsk became in January 1922 the seat of its Buriat-Mongolian Autonomous Region. With the absorption of the republic into Soviet Russia, Uliyasutai See ULIASTAI. Verkhneudinsk became the center of the new Buriat- Mongolian (later Buriat) Autonomous Soviet Socialist Undur Gegeen See JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST. Republic on May 30, 1923. By 1939 Ulan-Ude had a population of 125,000 and Ungern-Sternberg, Baron Roman Fëdorovich von several large industrial plants: a locomotive and railroad (1886–1921) White Russian commander who won Mongo- car repair plant, a glass plant, and a meatpacking com- lian independence from the Chinese but lost support by his bine. Many of these factories were developed with the senseless cruelty import of laborers from European Russia, forming purely A Baltic German aristocrat, Baron Roman Fëdorovich von Russian districts in the city. During WORLD WAR II an air- Ungern-Sternberg had his first experience in Mongolia in craft factory was evacuated with its workers from 1910 as a member of the Russian consular guard in Moscow to Ulan-Ude. After World War II Ulan-Ude’s Khüriye (see ULAANBAATAR). Serving in World War I on population reached 175,000 in 1959 and thereafter grew the Turkish front, he was commissioned an officer. After very rapidly as shipbuilding, machine tools, and con- the 1917 revolution the half-Buriat Cossack Grigorii M. struction materials industries were constructed. Semënov (1890–1945) assigned the baron to train Inner Upper Mongols 573 Mongolian bandit troops and organize a multinational again in 1956 and 1957 with the veto of China and/or “Asiatic Cavalry Division”—Cossacks, BURIATS, INNER the United States. MONGOLIANS, Tibetans, Chinese, Japanese—to fight the In 1961 the Soviet Union linked the admission of Bolsheviks. Mauritania with that of Mongolia. Since Mauritania was On October 2, 1920, as the Bolsheviks advanced east, part of a conservative African bloc being wooed by the the baron escaped and crossed over the Mongolian border United States, the United States abstained from voting, with 900 men. His aim, shared by the EIGHTH JIBZUNDAMBA and China, under strong U.S. pressure, cast no vote, KHUTUGTU, Mongolia’s theocratic ruler, was to build a new allowing both Mongolia and Mauritania to be recom- anticommunist base by freeing Mongolia from Chinese mended for admission by the Security Council on Octo- rule. After an unsuccessful siege from October 26 to ber 25 and approved by the General Assembly two days November 7, his soldiers, now numbering 3,000, again later. The actual Mongolian mission to the United attacked Khüriye from January 24 to February 4, 1921, Nations was opened in 1962, and membership in a num- this time successfully. On February 8 the baron issued an ber of international organizations—UNESCO, World order for the city’s 40 Jews and 80 alleged Russian and Health Organization, United Nations Development Orga- Mongolian Bolsheviks to be killed, often with great cruelty. nization, the International Labor Organization—followed On February 21 the Jibzundamba Khutugtu was enthroned by 1968. and a new administration proclaimed. After waiting vainly Following Mongolia’s admission it was until around for Mongolian reinforcements, the baron set out in late 1990 a reliable supporter of the Soviet Union, speaking May to halt the Red Army advancing south. Defeated, he for the Soviet bloc particularly on issues of peace and dis- retreated west. On August 22 he was betrayed by his Mon- armament. Since 1990, with the breakup of the Soviet golian soldiers and handed over to the Soviet authorities, bloc, Mongolia as a small nation has advocated strength- who executed him on November 15. ening the international treaty regime and sought UN See also DAURIIA STATION MOVEMENT. assistance in securing implementation of its rights as a landlocked nation to free access to the sea and interna- tional recognition of its 1992 declaration as a nuclear-free Unggirad See QONGGIRAD. zone. The Mongolian ACADEMY OF SCIENCES has become the major participant in the UNESCO-organized Interna- tional Institute for the Study of Nomadic Civilizations, United Nations Having first applied for membership founded in 1998. in the United Nations (UN) in 1946, Mongolia was See also FOREIGN RELATIONS. admitted in 1961, which was a milestone in the country’s Further reading: Sister Mary Aline Henderson, international recognition. After joining WORLD WAR II by “United Nations Admission of the Mongolian People’s declaring war on Japan on August 10 and receiving Republic” (Ph.D. diss., Fordham University, 1971). recognition from the Republic of China as an indepen- dent state on January 6, 1946, the MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC applied by telegram on June 24 for membership Upper Mongols The Upper Mongols (Deedü Mong- in the United Nations. On August 30 the Soviet delegate gol) of Kökenuur played a major role in Sino-Mongol- recommended admission, the Chinese delegate offered Tibetan politics of the 17th and 18th centuries, but after qualified support, but the British and American delegates loss of independence they became a small and largely vetoed Mongolia’s admission due to doubts about its real Tibetanized population. desire or ability for full independence. A year later, when the Soviet Union again presented the Mongolian request, SETTLEMENT the Sino-Mongolian border clash at Baytik Shan (Baitag Mongols on the Gansu-Kökenuur (modern Qinghai) Bogd) led China to join Britain and the United States in frontier under the YUAN DYNASTY (1206/71–1368) sub- rejecting Mongolia’s application. mitted to the Ming (1368–1644) after 1368. They became In 1955 an admission package of 18 nations, the predecessors of the Yogur and Tu (Monguor) nation- including Mongolia, was vetoed by China (that is, the alities. The modern “Upper Mongols” stem from the Nationalist government on Taiwan) alone, while Britain Mongols and OIRATS who invaded Kökenuur in the 16th supported admission and the United States abstained. and 17th centuries. The first invasions began in 1509 The Soviet Union dropped Mongolia and Japan from the with refugees from BATU-MÖNGKE DAYAN KHAN’s unifica- package, and the other 16 won admission, breaking a tion of the Mongols. From 1559 to 1586 princes of the long-standing logjam in UN admissions and increasing ORDOS and TÜMED Mongols invaded Kökenuur, subjugat- the number of Asian and African members. After this ing the local Tibetan nomads and vastly increasing their disappointing vote Mongolia protested the rejection of followings. its application on September 13, 1956, its first direct In 1632 LIGDAN KHAN and TSOGTU TAIJI took refuge in communication with the United Nations since 1946. Kökenuur from the rising QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). Still, Mongolia’s individual applications were rejected While the Ordos and Tümed Mongols supported the Dalai 574 Upper Mongols Lama’s “Yellow Hat” (dGe-lugs-pa) order, the newcomers Khung-Taiji, Dashi-Baatur’s son Lubsang-Danzin (d. leagued with its Tibetan opponents. The Fifth Dalai Lama 1755) rebelled in June 1723 with the support of Tsaghan (1617–82) appealed to the Oirats in Zungharia (Junggar Nom-un Khan (King of the White Dharma) who was the Basin). TÖRÖ-BAIKHU GÜÜSHI KHAN, with a vanguard of throne holder of sKu-’bum Monastery and a powerful 10,000 men, defeated all the Dalai Lama’s enemies from temporal lord as well. By April 1724 the Qing army had 1637 to 1642 and was enthroned by the Dalai Lama as crushed Lubsang-Danzin’s last forces, and in June it KHAN of Tibet (1642–55). Having conquered Tibet, Güüshi cowed the lamas and Tibetan nomads. Lubsang-Danzin Khan divided the Tibetans of Kökenuur among his sons fled to the Zünghars, where the Qing captured and exe- and brothers of the Khoshud tribe as well as among allied cuted him in 1755. Torghud and Khoid noblemen. The king of Tibet himself Following the recommendations of the Qing general nomadized in ’Dam-gzhung (modern Damxung) near Nian Gengyao, the Kökenuur Mongols were divided into Lhasa, where Mongols had lived at least since 1558. 29 BANNERS (appanages): 21 Khoshud, two Choros (i.e., Güüshi Khan’s son Dayan Ochir (1655–69) and grandson Zünghar), four Torghud, one Khoid, and one Khalkha, Gönchug Dalai Khan (1669–98) succeeded him as khan at each under direct supervision of the Manchu AMBAN ’Dam-gzhung. Meanwhile, the Kökenuur nobility, orga- (imperial controller general) in Xining. The Upper Mon- nized into right and left wings, was under the senior gols’ Tibetan subjects were organized into independent prince, who held as regent for the khan the title Dalai tribes also directly subject to the Qing amban. The Mon- Khung-Taiji. In 1685 the Dalai Khung-Taiji promulgated a gols of ’Dam-gzhung were put under the Lhasa authorities. law code for the Kökenuur confederation. The separation of the Tibetan tribes from the Mon- golian banners greatly weakened the Upper Mongols, INNER ASIAN POLITICS leading from 1775 on to increasingly bold Tibetan In 1652–53 representatives of Güüshi Khan accompanied attacks on Mongol princes and their subjects. From 1766 the Fifth Dalai Lama to his meeting with the Qing dynasty’s on small groups of Upper Mongols moved north into Shunzhi emperor (1644–62). The Qing dynasty opened Gansu to escape Tibetan attacks, establishing the popula- border markets for the Kökenuur Mongols in 1658. Rela- tion of modern Subei county. Finally, in 1821 the Tibetan tions with the Zunghars soured as GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN tribes south of the Huang (Yellow) River, themselves (1678–97) overthrew Güüshi Khan’s brother Ochirtu Tset- attacked by the feared mGo-log nomads to the south, sen Khan in Zungharia and the Kökenuur princes wel- made a mass migration north, sweeping away the Mon- comed dissident ZÜNGHARS. With Galdan Khan’s defeat by gol banners between the Huang (Yellow) River and the Manchus in 1697, the Kökenuur nobility, led by Güüshi Kökenuur (Qinghai) Lake. Not until 1859 were elemen- Khan’s youngest son, the Dalai Khung-Taiji Dashi-Baatur tary law and order restored as the amban in Xining rec- (d. 1714), submitted to Kangxi in a personal audience at ognized the fait accompli. Mongol banner nobility in Xi’an, receiving rich titles and gifts. Tibetan areas were allotted payments from Tibetan Göngchug Dalai Khan’s son and successor, Lhazang tribes, but Mongol communities remained only in the far Khan (Lha-bzang, 1698–1717), remained independent, southeast in modern Henan county and in the northwest however, and the Panchen and Dalai Lamas remained around modern Dulaan and Ulaan, with a scattering extremely influential in the Kökenuur Mongols’ religious north of Kökenuur Lake. In 1897 Hui (Chinese-speaking and secular affairs. When the deceased Fifth Dalai Lama’s Muslim) rebels fled west through Qinghai, plundering regent (sde-srid) Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho (r. 1679–1703) and killing Mongols. tried to expel the Khoshud from Tibet, Lhazang Khan Although mostly of Oirat origin, the Upper Mongols seized Lhasa and killed Sangs-rgyas mGya-mtsho in 1705 (Deedü Monggol), or Mongols of Kökenuur, used the before deposing the Sixth Dalai Lama (1683–1706) and UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. Tibetan influence was heavy. imposing a new candidate as the true Sixth Dalai Lama. The Upper Mongols adopted Tibetan dress and jewelry, The Dalai Lama’s deposition eventually generated serious although they kept Mongolian yurts. Both the scattered opposition, and in 1717 the Zünghar ruler TSEWANG-RAB- Mongols north of Kökenuur Lake and the concentrated TAN killed Lhazang and deposed his Dalai Lama. In 1720 Mongol population of the four banners in modern Henan a Qing army with the princes and INCARNATE LAMAS of county were entirely Tibetan speaking by the 20th cen- Kökenuur and Mongolia escorted the recognized Seventh tury, using Mongolian only for official purposes. Only the Dalai Lama (1708–57) from sKu-’bum Monastery (Kum- eight banners in the northwest retained Mongolian as a bum or Ta’ersi) in Kökenuur to Lhasa as the Zünghar gar- spoken language. The Mongols there generally occupied rison fled without a fight. the lower valleys and were less extensively nomadic than were their Tibetan neighbors. LUBSANG-DANZIN’S REBELLION AND AFTERMATH MODERN HISTORY Stung by the Qing’s cancellation of the line of the khans With the late Qing’s reformist NEW POLICIES (1901 on), of Tibet and interference with his authority as Dalai the Xining amban founded a Chinese-language, modern- Upper Mongols ALASHAN Aksay KAC Subei MAC (southern portion) X I N J I A N G Sunan YAC Lenghu ____ Mangnai _____ G A N S U Dachaidan _ _____ Delingha Tianjun (Delekei) Datong HTAC Utu Mören Ulaan Huzhu TAC ¨ Kokenuur Xining Golmuud _____ (Qinghai) Dulaan Lake Minhe HTAC Lanzhou H A I X I M T A P Xiangride Henan MAC Q I N G H A I mG O TA N G G U L A -L O G T I B E T Dulaan County seat ALASHAN Sub-provincial level units Mangnai Provincial capital _ _ _ _ _ Independent township MTAP Mongol and Tibetan Border of provinces or Autonomous Prefecture autonomous regions TAC Tu Auntonomous Prefecture Border of autonomous prefecture S I C H U A N HTAC Hui and Tu Autonomous County Border of county or YAC Yogur Autonomous County independent township 0 80 miles KAC Kazakh Autonomous County 0 80 km 576 Urdus style Qinghai Mongolian Half-Day School in 1910 for the Urdus See ORDOS. children of the nobility. In 1912 the 24 remaining Kökenuur banners declared their support for the 1911 Urga See ULAANBAATAR. RESTORATION of Mongolian independence in Outer Mon- golia. Nevertheless, they soon were compelled to submit to the Hui warlords of the Ma family, who brought Urianhai See ALTAI URIYANGKHAI; DUKHA; TUVANS. Kökenuur, now named Qinghai, into the Republic of China (1911–49). In 1930 the Guomingdang Party’s Uriyangkhai See ALTAI URIYANGKHAI; DUKHA; TUVANS. national government funded a Qinghai Mongolian- Tibetan Cultural Advancement Society and established a Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Area (Ust’-Ordyn- Chinese-style county administration in Dulaan (north- skiy) Homeland of the semipastoral, semiagricultural west Qinghai). Colonization bureaus to settle impover- western BURIATS, Ust’-Orda was part of Russia’s Buriat ished peasants from eastern Qinghai in the northwest Republic until 1937, when it was made an autonomous were set up in 1945. area in Irkutsk Region. The victorious Chinese Communists established two autonomous units for the Mongols in Haixi (northwest GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY Qinghai) in 1951 and in Henan county in southeast Ust’-Orda covers 22,100 square kilometers (8,530 square Qinghai in 1954. The new government easily secured miles) in the central Siberian plateau, north of Irkutsk. control over Haixi, working through Xining-educated Both the Angara River (here flooded by the Bratsk Dam) elites and immigrant Inner Mongolian cadres, but the and the Trans-Siberian Railway run through the area’s Tibetanized Henan Mongols, including many temple sub- western part. The total population of 135,870 in 1989 jects (lha-sde) of Blabrang (Xiahe) Monastery, remained included 49,298 Buriats (36 percent). Ust’-Orda’s terri- isolated, and resistance was not suppressed until 1953. tory is a mostly rolling plain about 450 to 800 meters Collectivization in 1956–58 sparked another serious (1,480–2,630 feet) above sea level, sloping from uplands insurrection in Henan. With liberalization after 1979 in the north and east down to the Angara. Average daily Haixi’s Upper Mongols revived their cultural ties with temperatures range from –22° to –25°C (–8° to –13°F) in Inner Mongolia, often seeking higher education in HÖH- January to 14° to 18°C (57° to 64°F) in July, while precip- HOT. The Henan Upper Mongols also began programs to itation averages 270–330 millimeters (10.6–13 inches), diminishing from west to east. Vegetation is primarily fes- revive the MONGOLIAN LANGUAGE. Several of China’s most cue steppe with thickets of sagebrush in the dry areas, distinguished Tibetan-language authors are Henan Mon- couch grass steppe near the Angara, and forest steppe of gols: the fiction author Tsering-Dongrub (Tshe-ring Don- larch, pine, and birch in the higher areas. Archaeology grub, b. 1961), the pioneer in avant-garde free verse indicates, however, that this steppe was created by Jangbu (lJang-bu; real name rDo-rje Tshe-ring, b. 1963), human activity in the last 300 to 400 years. and the poetess Dejid-Dulma (bDe-skyid sGrol-ma, b, Ust’-Orda is one of Russia’s most rural areas, supply- 1967). Of Qinghai’s 50,400 Mongols in 1982, 37 percent ing one-third of Irkutsk Region’s total agricultural output. lived in Haixi and 41 percent in Henan. Only 18.1 percent of the population was urban in 1989, See also HAIXI MONGOL AND TIBETAN AUTONOMOUS yet an unusually high number of persons, 29 percent, are PREFECTURE; HENAN MONGOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY; employed in health, education, and culture. In 1998 46 KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT; TIBETAN CULTURE IN percent of the working population was employed in farm- MONGOLIA; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; YOGUR LANGUAGES ing, herding, and forestry, while industry employed only AND PEOPLES. 8 percent. Coal and gypsum are the only products mined, Further reading: Uyunbilig Borjigidai, “The and lumber the only important industry. Ust’-Ordynskiy, Hoshuud Polity in Khökhnuur (Kokonor),” Inner Asia 4 the capital, has 12,866 residents. (2002): 181–196; Yangdon Dhondup, “Writers at the Compared to Buriatia and Aga, where Soviet plans Cross-Roads: The Mongolian-Tibetan Authors Tsering emphasized raising sheep for wool, Ust’-Orda has been Dondup and Jangbu,” Inner Asia 4 (2002): 225–240; developed more as a dairy center. In 1975 the area’s herd Naoto Kato, “The Accession to the Throne of Yung-cheng included 230,000 cattle and 302,000 sheep, but by 1991 and the Lobdzang Danjin’s Rebellion,” in Proceedings of these numbers had fallen to 170,600 and 157,300, the 35th Permanent International Altaistics Conference, ed. respectively. Sown acreage reached 570,000 hectares Chieh-hsien Ch’en (Taipei: Center for Chinese Studies (1,408,470 acres) in 1975 but declined to 483,100 Materials, 1993), 189–192; Naoto Kato, “The 1723 Rebel- (1,193,740 acres) in 1991. Wheat, oats, barley, and pota- lion of Lobjang Danjin,” in Proceedings of the Fifth East toes have replaced the traditional winter rye. From 1990 Asian Altaistic Conference, ed. Ch’en Chieh-hsien (Taipei: to 1998 the economy entered a serious crisis, with sown National Taiwan University, 1981), 182–191; Ho-chin acreage dropping 10 percent, the cattle herd 43 percent, Yang, trans., Annals of Kokonur (Bloomington: Indiana and pigs 27 percent, and milk production reached only University, 1969). 65 percent and grain only 81 percent of 1990 levels. Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Area 577 PREMODERN HISTORY people, of whom 65,100, or 65 percent, were Buriat. When In 1628 Cossacks began raiding western Buriat territory, the Cisbaikal Buriat region was merged with the Trans- building forts and collecting yasak (fur tribute, from baikal in May 1923, western Buriat officials such as MIKHEI Mongolian JASAQ). The Buriat clans along the Angara and NIKOLAEVICH ERBANOV dominated the party hierarchy of Lena sporadically resisted Cossack depredations until the new Buriat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist their final uprising was crushed in 1696. Once Russian Republic (ASSR). conquest was secure, peasants slowly trickled into areas From 1923 to 1937 the three Ust’-Orda aimags were along the Angara and upper Lena. The western Buriats, administratively unified with the rest of Buriatia. Theo- now restricted to a territory around today’s Ust’-Orda and retically, the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT was the official extending north and east to Ol’khon and Verkholensk, language along with Russian, and a Bookhon high school were under Cossack voevoda (military governors) until was praised for its high level of Mongolian instruction. the creation of the Irkutsk guberniia (province) in 1708. Nevertheless, Ust’-Orda offices were explicitly exempted From the late 18th century to about 1850 the west- from the 1924 exhortation to replace Russian with ern Buriat population grew rapidly, from about 50,000 in Buriat, and most Ust’-Orda Buriat schools still used 1783 to 99,000 in 1839. Compared to the Transbaikal Buriat teachers to teach from Russian-language text- Buriats, they were more agricultural, less nomadic, less books with Buriat explanations. literate (and only in Russian), and generally shamanist or After 1929 antireligious campaigns struck Buddhism, nominally Christian, as opposed to Buddhist. In 1822 the shamanism, and Russian Orthodoxy. Russian Orthodoxy Buriats were divided into 14 autonomous “steppe disappeared among the Buriats, but while all the datsangs dumas”; those of Balagan and Alair (Russian, Alar) west (monasteries) were closed, some identification of Bud- of the Angara and of Ida and Kuda east of the Angara dhism with Buriat identity remained. Shamanism, how- covered modern Ust’-Orda. After 1840 a steady trickle of ever, remained the western Buriats’ underground faith. Buriats became Russified through intermarriage or Chris- tian conversion. Called Karyms, they founded many vil- THE UST’-ORDA AUTONOMOUS AREA lages, including Ust’-Ordynskiy. On September 26, 1937, Moscow transferred Alair, Bookhon, and the Kuda area of the Ekhired-Bulagad BURIAT REVIVAL AND AUTONOMY aimags from the Buriat-Mongolian Republic to the In the late 19th century Russian policy turned toward Irkutsk Region, creating the Ust’-Orda Buriat-Mongolian forced Russification, transferring 53 percent of communal National Area (okrug). (The Ol’khon area of Ekhired- Buriat land in Irkutsk province to Russian immigrants Bulagad was made a simple district of Irkutsk.) In 1977 and abolishing the steppe dumas in 1901. Meanwhile, the the term national area, designating the lowest level of eth- completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway to Irkutsk in nic autonomy in the Soviet system, was changed to 1898 facilitated immigration. During the 1905 revolution autonomous area without any real change of status. western Buriat spokesmen protested forced Christianiza- The separation of Ust’-Orda from the BURIAT REPUBLIC tion and Russian colonization but did not support pan- ended any chance of developing Buriat there as a widely Mongolist or pan-Buddhist programs. used written language. While a new Cyrillic script was The revolution against of the czar in March 1917 officially introduced into all Buriat lands in 1939, Ust’- (February in the Old Style) allowed the spread of Bud- Orda had no Buriat periodical until 1954. By 1959 Rus- dhism. After 1917 six new datsangs (monasteries) were sian immigration had reduced the Buriat percentage of built in five years, and baptized Buriat Christians began Ust’-Orda’s 113,200 people to only 37.4 percent. Official turning to Buddhism or back to SHAMANISM in droves. figures show 90 percent of the Buriats claiming Buriat as Language policy was less clear. The all-Buriat National their native language, but surveys indicate those Buriats Committee advocated the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT, but actually fluent in Buriat at hardly a third. Like other Rus- the western Buriats generally wrote Buriat, if at all, in the sian rural areas, Ust’-Orda’s population has been in Cyrillic script. decline; it peaked in 1970 at 146,412 people, of which In winter 1919–20, Bolsheviks regained firm control 33.0 percent were Buriat. After 1960 many ambitious of Ust’-Orda. On January 9, 1922, a Mongol-Buriat Ust’-Orda Buriats followed their landsman ANDREI URUP- Autonomous Region was created, led by the few Ust’-Orda KHEEVICH MODOGOIEV, then head of the ASSR, in building Buriats in Bolshevik ranks. This new autonomous region careers in Buriatia. As a result, the Buriat population grew contained five mostly noncontiguous AIMAGs (provinces): by only 2,000 persons between 1970 and 1989, while the 1) Alair (including Balagan territory), 2) Bookhon (Rus- non-Buriat population declined from 99,100 to 86,600. sian, Bokhan, equivalent to the Ida steppe duma), 3) During the pan-Buriat cultural revival since 1985, Ekhired-Bulagad (old Kuda and Ol’khon steppe dumas), 4) the Buriats of Ust’-Orda have revived shamanism, the Tünkhen, and 5) Selenge south of Lake Baikal. Three of GESER epic, and clan sacrifices. In 1993 Ust’-Orda was these—the Alair, Bookhon, and Ekhired-Bulagad areas— made an equal member within Russia’s new federal sys- occupied present-day Ust’-Orda and together had 106,800 tem, but genuine autonomy has proven impossible with 578 Ust’-Ordynskiy three-fourths of the budget dependent on federal subsi- Uws province (Uvs, Ubsa Nuur) Created in 1931, dies. In the 1996 election a young ethnic Russian state Uws province lies in northwestern Mongolia. Under the farm director, Valerii Gennad’evich Maleev (b. 1964), QING DYNASTY its territory was mostly occupied by the defeated the area’s incumbent Buriat chairman, Aleksei BANNERS (appanages) of the DÖRBÖD nobility, supervised Nikolaevich Batagaev, by promising to negotiate closer by the Khowd AMBAN (imperial resident). These Dörböd relations with relatively wealthy Irkutsk. Ust’-Orda’s banners also included as subjects the BAYAD and KHO- financial difficulties resulted in Irkutsk taking over its TONG. In the THEOCRATIC PERIOD the Dörböd banners pension fund in March 2003, a step believed to be the formed three provinces, but after 1923 all of western harbinger of eventual annexation. Mongolia was unified into Chandamani Uula province Further reading: T. M. Mikhailov and V. P. Orsoev, with its capital at Ulaangom in Dörböd territory. In 1931 Land of Geser (Irkutsk: Izdatelstvo Suiat, 1995). the Dörböd territory was again separated and combined with neighboring KHALKHA Mongolian districts to make Ust’-Ordynskiy See UST’-ORDA BURIAT AUTONOMOUS Uws province. The Kazakh-inhabited far western districts AREA. were given to the new Bayan-Ölgii province in 1940. Uws province’s 69,600 square kilometers (26,870 square miles) are almost wholly within the arid GREAT Utrar Incident See OTRAR INCIDENT. LAKES BASIN and contain two of Mongolia’s largest lakes, Uws and Khyargas. Northern Uws has Mongolia’s coldest Uvs See UWS PROVINCE. average winters, and temperatures at Ulaangom have reached –50.0°C (–58.0°F). The province’s population, Uws, Lake (Uvs, Ubsa Nuur) Lake Uws is Mongolia’s 46,800 in 1956, was 86,800 in 2000; ethnically, it is 40.4 largest lake, with a surface area of 3,350 square kilometers percent Dörböd, 34.5 percent Bayad, 16.3 percent (1,293 square miles). It lies in the northern part of the Khalkha, and 6.0 percent Khotong. The Khalkhas of Uws GREAT LAKES BASIN. Uws has no outlet and is weakly saline are of the Eljigin and Sartuul subethnic groups. Uws (approximately one-third as salty as the ocean). Roughly province has 1,579,300 head of livestock, mostly SHEEP round in form (84 kilometers long and 79 kilometers wide, (858,600 head) and GOATS (521,900 head). The provin- or 52 by 49 miles), the lake has a maximum depth of 20 cial capital of Ulaangom was settled as a Qing dynasty meters (66 feet) and its total water volume is 40 cubic garrison and military farm in 1718 and then abandoned; kilometers (9.6 cubic miles). Many waterfowl birds nest on a major monastery town was built there in 1870. Its pre- Lake Uws, including rare and endangered species such as sent population is 26,300 (2000 figure), mostly Dörböds the Eurasian spoonbill, black stork, swan goose, bar- and Bayads. headed goose, and white-tailed eagle. In 1994 the entire See also BATMÖNKH, JAMBYN; THEOCRATIC PERIOD; lake and its shore were made a strictly protected area. TSEDENBAL, YUMJAAGIIN. See also ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FAUNA; MON- GOLIAN PLATEAU; UWS PROVINCE. Üzemchin See ÜJÜMÜCHIN. Verchneudinsk See ULAN-UDE. V Qubilai demanded full submission to Mongol rule. The remoteness of communications through Yunnan, how- Verkhneudinsk See ULAN-UDE. ever, delayed armed conflict. By winter 1278–79, with the conquest of South China, Qubilai ordered Mongol Yuan troops stationed vertical script See UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. along Vietnam’s borders. Vietnam’s new ruler, Trân Nhat Huyên (posthumous title, Trân Nhân Tông, r. 1278–93, Vietnam While Vietnam was a Mongol tributary from d. 1308), resisted renewed Mongol demands for personal 1258, Qubilai Khan’s effort to integrate Vietnam into the attendance at court but dispatched his uncle Trân Di Ái Yuan Empire resulted in a great defeat. as hostage. In 1281 Qubilai tried to enthrone Di Ái as In 1225 Trân Thu –Dô (d. 1264) placed his nephew prince of Annam in place of Thánh Tông, but the plan Trân Nhât Qu´ynh (posthumous title, Trân Thai Tông, r. failed miserably. 1225–58, d. 1277) on the throne, ending the L´y dynasty In summer 1284 Qubilai appointed his son Toghan (1009–1225) and beginning the Trân (1225–1400). The to conquer Cham-pa, south of Vietnam. That December Trân strictly separated civil and military functions and the Yuan general Sodu (d. 1284), defeated in Cham-pa, furthered the bureaucratization of administration with an proposed the occupation of Vietnam as the key to pacify- examination system based on Confucian, Buddhist, and ing all Southeast Asia, and Toghan was ordered to imple- Taoist (Daoist) classics. ment this plan. While Nhân Tông considered surrender, When the Vietnamese imprisoned Mongol envoys Prince Hu’ng –Dao (1213–1300) rallied his troops, who all sent from YUNNAN to find a route to attack the Song, the tattooed their arms with “Death to the Mongols.” After Mongol general Uriyangqadai (1199–1271) and his son defeating Prince Hu’ng –Dao’s army, Toghan, with Sodu AJU invaded in December 1257 with 3,000 Mongols and and Li Heng and naval forces under ‘Umar Ba’atur, reoc- 10,000 Yunnanese Yi tribesmen. After the Mongols routed cupied Th˘ang Long in June 1285, while the Vietnamese the Vietnamese and massacred the inhabitants of the cap- court fled. As the Yuan troops advanced down the Hong ital, Th˘anh Long (modern Hanoi), Thai Tôong abdicated (Red) River, however, Prince Quang Khai counterat- in March 1258 in favor of his son Quang Bính (posthu- tacked at Chu’o’ng Du’o’ng, forcing Toghan to evacuate mous title, Trân Thánh Tông, r. 1258–78, d. 1291). Vietnam, while Prince Hu’ng –Dao’s armies annihilated the Thánh Tông paid tribute to Uriyangqadai, who had isolated vanguard at Tây Ket (near modern Hu’ng Yên), quickly evacuated Vietnam to escape malaria. killing Sodu and Li Heng. The next March Qubilai enfe- After QUBILAI KHAN’s election as khan in 1260, Thánh offed Nhân Tông’s younger brother Trân Ích T˘ac, who Tông, enfeoffed as prince of Annam, sent tribute every had defected to the Yuan, as prince of Annam, but hard- three years and received a DARUGHACHI (overseer). By ship in the Yuan’s Hunan supply base aborted Qubilai’s 1266, however, a standoff developed, as Thánh Tông planned invasion. Finally, in 1287 Toghan invaded with sought to return to a loose tributary relationship while 70,000 regular troops, 21,000 tribal auxiliaries from 579 580 Vietnam Yunnan and Hainan, a 1,000-man vanguard under dance at the Yuan court, and invasion plans continued. Abachi, and 500 ships under ‘Umar and Fan Ji. Toghan Qubilai’s successor, Emperor Temür (1294–1307), finally reoccupied Th^anh Long, but the Vietnamese captured the recognized the futility of these plans and released all Mongol supply fleet and defeated the navy at Bach- –Da˘ ng detained envoys, settling for Vietnam’s traditional loose River (near modern Haiphong), forcing Toghan to evacu- tributary relationship, which continued to the end of the ate in March 1288. Abachi and Fan Ji died in the bloody Yuan. Prince Hu’ng D - ao’s command of the resistance retreat, and ‘Umar was captured. Qubilai angrily banished became legendary in Vietnamese history. Toghan to Yangzhou for life. See also EAST ASIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; While Nhân Tông was willing to pay tribute to the TRIBUTE SYSTEM. Yuan, relations again foundered on the question of atten- weddings Traditional Mongolian weddings were extraordinarily rich in poetry and symbolism. Each Mon- W ginity of the bride was valued but guarded mainly by early marriage at age 14 or so, while in ORDOS where vir- golian area had its own traditions, although the basic ginity was not important, brides married at age 16 or 17. lines were similar. The complex Mongolian marriage Frequently, in pastoral families the groom was several described below was the ideal form, observed by the years younger than the bride, although in noble families nobility and the middle and upper classes, but often not and in eastern Inner Mongolia the groom was usually by the poor. In some cases sons-in-law moved in with the older. wife’s parents, while many couples did not have a formal To the degree that genealogical information was marriage at all. In Inner Mongolia hard-pressed families maintained, marriage with patrilineal relations was for- might marry their daughters to poor Chinese day-labor- bidden. Marriage with close maternal relatives, however, ers working for them, while in respectable families a girl was encouraged, as the families involved were already involved in a premarital liaison might be married to a familiar. In the upper classes cross-banner (county) and Chinese peddler (see FAMILY; KINSHIP SYSTEM). even cross-AIMAG (province) marriage was preferred. If a Little is known about weddings in medieval Mongo- first wife died leaving children, the husband often mar- lia, although the general similarity in wedding cere- ried her sister, since she would take care of the orphaned monies among the Mongol groups suggests today’s children better than a stranger. Once a marriage had been traditional ceremony is quite ancient. tentatively agreed on, a lama was sought to determine astrological compatibility (see ASTROLOGY). If the families ARRANGING A MARRIAGE were not set on the marriage, this could break the mar- Traditional Mongol marriages were arranged by the par- riage, but if they were determined, this incompatibility ents, often as much as a few years before the children could be rectified by reading the proper sutras. were actually old enough to marry. Sometimes two preg- nant women agreed to marry their children before they THE ENGAGEMENT were born, an engagement called an “egg betrothal” The actual wedding was traditionally prepared in three (öndegen süi). visits, each accompanied by KHADAG scarves and other Spouse selection was based primarily on the health ceremonial gifts. First, after the groom’s mother inquired and diligence of the bride, who as wife would carry the about the prospective bride, a go-between (usually a burden of physical labor in the household. Beauty was of mutual friend) was sent to propose marriage. If the go- importance for the wealthy. For the groom social status between reported a favorable answer, astrological and dependability were the main attributes sought. Vir- inquiries were made, and then the go-between, accompa- ginity of the bride was important among the Inner Mon- nied by the groom’s father and a facile speaker, visited the golian CHAKHAR and KHORCHIN Mongols and was guarded bride’s family, also represented by a speaker, where they by a severe stigma on girls with a “reputation,” since negotiated the gifts to be given. The gifts having been set- brides did not marry before 18. Among the KALMYKS vir- tled, the groom’s side placed an offering before the bride’s 581 582 weddings Wedding in Üjümüchin, Right Banner, Inner Mongolia, autumn 1987. The bride is having her hair done in the married woman’s style before entering her in-laws’ yurt with the groom. (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) side, and the couple was then considered engaged. Later, THE WEDDING the gifts were delivered at a third visit with the groom The wedding clothes of the bride and groom were new, himself present. bright, and festive versions of the Mongols’ ordinary Among the KHALKHA and the BURIATS the groom’s clothes. Red or green were favored colors for the bride, family paid to the bride’s family a bridewealth (süi) in but there was no distinct color code. The only required livestock, while the bride’s family provided the trousseau element was the married woman’s jewelry for the bride, (zasal, or fixings, including jewelry, clothing, and house- which when put on marked her as a married woman. hold goods) and a dowry (inj; Buriat, enzhe, from Middle On the wedding day the groom and his party rode to Mongolian INJE) of livestock or servants for the nobility. the bride’s home. There the groom and his party were Among the Chakhar and Khorchin the groom’s family feasted, and the bride might perform prostrations before provided the girl’s jewelry (jasal chimeg), while the bride’s the household Buddhas. The groom’s party then led off side supplied the clothing and household goods and a the bride and her party, followed by the trousseau and dowry (enj), but there was no bridewealth. In Ordos the dowry. After arriving outside the groom’s home, the groom’s side paid a bridewealth; the trousseau was bride’s hair was redone in a married style, and the jewelry divided as in Chakhar and Khorchin and a dowry given. was put on. In Ordos, the bride passed between two puri- Once the engagement was made, the fiancée had to fying fires (see FIRE CULT). The bride then entered the avoid her betrothed. Engagements usually lasted a year or house and performed prostrations with her new husband more. In the weeks before the wedding, the bride paid before the family fire, the Buddha of the groom’s family, farewell visits to her family and friends. Among the Buri- and the groom’s parents, while a senior man of the ats these visits were often raucous, with much drinking groom’s family delivered a yörööl, or benediction (see and dancing. In Chakhar and Khorchin, where standards YÖRÖÖL and MAGTAAL). Then followed a vast wedding for girls were much stricter, such visiting did not occur. feast with abundant drunkenness. western Europe and the Mongol Empire 583 Throughout the wedding the bride’s and groom’s dle East in the south. Hungarian friars among the sides were represented by fluent speakers who engaged in Bashkirs (Bashkort) in the Urals heard news of the Mon- repeated verbal jousting. The language of the wedding gol invasion from 1237, but the scale of the subsequent poetry was largely traditional but often used skillfully by Mongol campaign under BATU (d. 1255) against Central the bride’s speaker at her home to challenge the groom, a Europe from 1241 to 1242 exceeded all expectations. challenge that the groom’s side speaker had to meet. The Meanwhile, the Mongol conquest of GEORGIA and the sur- bride was often miserable at leaving home, and in her render of LESSER ARMENIA brought the Mongols to the songs before her departure she lamented (if bridewealth attention of those Franks (the Middle Eastern term for all was paid) that she had been sold off by her father. By western Europeans) active in the eastern Mediterranean: contrast, the wedding day poetry from the groom’s side, Crusaders, papal representatives, and Italian merchants. contained frequent references to the customs of nature, Europeans showed their view of these invasions by the marriage of CHINGGIS KHAN and BÖRTE ÜJIN, and the changing Tatar, the common Middle Eastern name for the necessity of reproduction as justification of the practice Mongols, to Tartar, that is, people from Tartarus, or Hell. of weddings, exogamy, and daughters leaving home. In 1245 Pope Innocent IV (1243–54) sent the Fran- After the wedding night the bride was taken to visit ciscan friar JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI as envoy to the Mon- the groom’s relatives in her wedding dress. Sometimes the gols. From Batu’s camp on the Volga John traveled to the bride’s parents visited the groom after a few days, but in QURILTAI (assembly) that elected GÜYÜG Khan (1246–48). all cases the bride and groom visited the bride’s family. His mission was successful only in giving an alarming After the first child visits occurred regularly. picture of the success and confidence of the Mongols. Dominican friars were sent to BAIJU in the Caucasus, but MODERN WEDDINGS this mission was even less successful. In 1248 eastern The main alternative to the traditional wedding today is Christians, posing as envoys from Eljigidei, Baiju’s suc- one in a “cultural palace” or in the larger cities a specially cessor, to the French king St. Louis IX (r. 1226–70), first built “wedding palace.” In such weddings, the bride promoted the idea of a Christian alliance against the wears a white wedding dress and the groom a tuxedo, Muslims to recover Jerusalem. The Mongols later denied and the signing of the civil marriage registration replaces they had ever authorized those messengers. As this exam- the prostrations that create the traditional wedding. How- ple shows, throughout the Mongol-Frankish relationship ever, many, if not most, Mongolian weddings today in eastern Christian translators and envoys, particularly Mongol lands follow roughly the traditional fashion. The Armenians, were the most eager promoters of a Mongol- main difference is in the engagement stage, with arranged Frankish alliance against Islam. Nevertheless, Louis’s marriages replaced by love matches, the abolition of con- purely evangelistic missions to the regent OGHUL-QAIMISH tractual marriage payments (banned in Mongolia’s 1940 (d. 1251) and MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59), the latter CONSTITUTION), and the simplification and shortening of through the Franciscan friar WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK, both the engagement. However, wedding gifts (often lavish) proved failures. from the bride’s and groom’s relatives fulfill the old role of These early failures blocked cooperation for decades. the trousseau and dowry, and parents still exercise a As HÜLE’Ü (r. 1256–65), Möngke Khan’s brother, invaded strong role, sometimes amounting to a veto, on their chil- Syria, his tributary, King Het’um I (1230–69) of Lesser dren’s marriage choices. Marriage within the patrilineage Armenia, persuaded the Crusader Bohemond of Antioch, or outside the ethnic group (usually with Russians and his son-in-law, to participate, but the Crusaders at Acre Chinese) sometimes occurs in urban areas but is not (Akko) were hostile to the Mongols from the start. Even common. the reconquest of Syria by the great sultan Baybars Further reading: Pao Kuo-yi [Ünensechen], “Mar- (1260–77) of MAMLUK EGYPT and his destruction of Anti- riage Customs of a Khorchin Village,” Central Asiatic och (1268) did not change the Franks’ anti-Mongol atti- Journal 9 (1964): 29–59; Henry Serruys, “Four Manuals tude. Hüle’ü’s Mongol IL-KHANATE in the Middle East for Marriage Ceremonies among the Mongols, Parts I and dropped the previous demand that the Franks submit, II,” Zentralasiatische Studien 8 (1974): 247–331, and 9 but his letter to France (1263) and Abagha Khan’s (1975): 275–360. (1265–81) repeated envoys to England and Rome a decade later received no reply. western Europe and the Mongol Empire Despite Europe responded only as the Mamluk were prepar- numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance ing the final assault on the Crusaders’ last outposts, against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders Tripoli (taken 1289) and Acre (taken 1291). Arghun never achieved the often-proposed Mongol alliance Khan (1284–91) in 1288 dispatched to Europe Rabban against Islam. western Europe first learned of the Mon- Sawma, an ÖNGGÜD Christian monk born in North gols during the reign of ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), when China, with a proposal to join forces and take Jerusalem. the Mongols pursued simultaneous western campaigns From then until 1307 letters frequently passed back and against eastern Europe in the north and against the Mid- forth but never resulted in any joint military action. The 584 Western Mongols Islamic conversion of the Il-Khans in 1295 did not influ- month. On new year’s day itself the Mongols visited one ence Mongol eagerness for an alliance, but the 1323 another wearing pure white clothes. On this day the khan peace treaty between the Il-Khans and Egypt ended all held a QURILTAI (assembly). On the third day there was an diplomatic interchange between the Il-Khanate and West- assembly and a ceremony around the carts that held the ern Europe. ONGGHON and the standards. Despite scholarly specula- Despite the failure of diplomatic relations, Italian tion to the contrary, Chinese and Persian court annals of trade with the western Mongol realms flourished, espe- the MONGOL EMPIRE, both based directly on Mongolian cially after 1300. The route from Ayas to Tabriz became sources, make it clear that the Mongols during the empire the main path for exchange of Middle Eastern cotton, observed the late January–early February new year only. silk, and gold cloths for European silver and woolens. It In recent centuries people begin preparing for the also served as an emporium for Indian and Chinese White Month perhaps a month before, making new goods, although routes through the Red Sea to Egypt clothes, collecting foods and gifts, and cleaning the home offered stiff competition. Likewise, Italian colonies in and hearth. On the 23rd or 24th of the last month the CRIMEA exported East Asian goods and GOLDEN HORDE offering to the fire is performed. On the bitüün, or last slaves, furs, and falcons all over the Mediterranean. “Tar- day of the last month, lamps are lit and prayers made to tar” slaves became a common sight in the town houses the household Buddhas. The bitüün meal consists of a and country estates of Italy’s noble families. The Venetian whole sheep, of which part has first been offered to the family of MARCO POLO was only one of many merchants Buddha, BUUZ (steamed dumplings), bänsh (dumplings in who traveled these new trade routes. Catholic missionary soup), fried bread, milks, and cheeses. On this day mem- activity proved more fruitful when yoked to trade than to bers of one camp visit one another and play games with diplomacy; Soltaniyeh (near Zanjan) in 1308, DAIDU astragali (sheep ankle bones, or shagai) until late at night. (modern Beijing) in 1307, and Saray (on the lower Volga) Visits outside the camp are not made, however. During in Toqto’a’s reign (1291–1312) all received bishoprics. the evening three grains of rice and a grain of millet are The BLACK DEATH and the continentwide crisis from 1345 placed on the threshold as food for the mount of the on ended this flourishing European interaction with Asia. fierce female protector-deity Lhamo, as she returns from See also CENTRAL EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS; CHRIS- suppressing hostile spirits. TIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN The first day of the White Month begins early in the THE MONGOL EMPIRE. morning with the worship of heaven. Having built the Further reading: Iris Origo, “The Domestic Enemy: previous day a temporary OBOO (heap) of dirt or snow The Eastern Slaves in Tuscany in the Fourteenth and Fif- southeast of the door, lamps are lit and incense sticks teenth Centuries,” Speculum 30 (1955): 321–366. Igor de burned on the oboo as the men of the house bow down Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (London: before heaven and perform aspersions (satsal) of TEA and Faber and Faber, 1971). DAIRY PRODUCTS. After eating breakfast the men of the family ride out in an auspicious direction and return by Western Mongols See OIRATS. another auspicious direction; the direction is astrologi- cally determined each year. (In the cities this often becomes a simple circumambulation of the residence.) White Horde See BLUE HORDE. With their return juniors begin presenting khadags (cere- monial scarves), bow down before the elders, and White Month (Tsagaan Sar) The White Month, or exchange sniffs from snuff bottles. Elders may speak a lunar new year, has been one of the two main Mongolian number of common blessings on the young. holidays since the time of the Mongol Empire. It is Animals also participate in the White Month festivi- marked by religious rituals, new clothes, abundant food, ties. On the bitüün all animals are brought early into the and visiting of family and friends. camp and watered; only horse herds may be allowed to The White Month is determined by Mongolia’s tradi- pasture overnight. On the first of the White Month rams tional lunar-solar calendar. This calendar has been used and billygoats are brought to the oboo, censed with by the Mongols since at least the 12th century. Although incense, anointed with milk, and fed soft cheeses. the date varies according to the year, it generally falls Despite the seemingly festive nature of the day, it is around late January or early February. The name White traditionally one of considerable tension. Indeed, it is Month—chagha’an sara in Middle Mongolian, tsagaan sar because this month and day are considered most inauspi- in modern Mongolian—derives from the auspicious char- cious that so many “white” (auspicious) things need to acter of the color white among the Mongols. The Buriat be done. Omens for the coming year are sought in all Mongolian name, sagaalgan, means “whitening.” actions, and rambunctiousness, arguments, drunkenness During the world empire of the 13th and 14th cen- (despite the required presentations of liquor), working turies, the Mongols always nomadized on the eve of the (particularly on anything left unfinished), and sleeping White Month to the place where they would spend that outside one’s own home all presage a bad year. White Month 585 Traditionally, Mongols did not celebrate individual karmic effects were magnified on this day. On the 19th to birthdays. Instead, each White Month was taken to be the 21st days in prerevolutionary times, the banner offices, person’s birthday. Those years with the animal under closed on bitüün, were reopened with a grand ceremony which one was born (see 12-ANIMAL CYCLE) were cele- of worshiping the seal (tamaga), and a meeting of the brated with gifts. high officials assigned tax quotas for the coming year. It In the monasteries the White Month is marked with was believed that Indra (Khormusta), king of the gods, service to the fierce protectors of Buddhism beginning assigned fates on the same day to influence which com- from the 28th of the last year’s 12th moon. On the morn- moners made offerings. ing of the New Year a lingka, or figure of a naked man serv- The KALMYKS during the 18th century moved their ing as the embodiment of all evil, is stabbed and cut up. A new year from the White Month to the purely Buddhist flamelike sor, or dough figure shaped as a flamelike pyra- Lamp Festival (Zul) celebrating the Nirvana (passing mid to attack all enemies of the faith, is then burned in a away) of Tsong-kha-pa (1372–1419), the great Tibetan bonfire outside the temple. On the 15th a TSAM dance or a lama. This took place on the 25th of the 10th lunar procession for Maitreya (the future Buddha) was held. month, which was traditionally followed by the Jilin ezn Traditionally, the special observances of the White (Lord of the Year, Mongolian, Jiliin ezen) celebration for Month extended throughout the month. On the second the WHITE OLD MAN. Even so, the Kalmyks also still cele- day work was symbolically begun again, and families and brated the White Month (Tsaghan Sar) with new clothes, friends paid visits. On the odd-numbered days leading up housecleaning, family greetings, and visiting. While meat to the 13th, visiting was prohibited, however. The 10th was eaten, the centerpiece of the holiday meal was plates day was for performing merit and avoiding sin, as all of fried bread, or boortsg (Mongolian, boortsog), many White Month spread at a pipe-fitter’s house in Ulaanbaatar. In the center is a plate of fried dough and dairy products. To the left is a bowl of candy and to the right a partial shüüs, or boiled mutton. The food is being offered to the pipe-fitter’s deceased parents, whose photograph is above the carpet on the wall. (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) 586 White Old Man made in imitation meat form, which were presented to White Old Man The White Old Man (Middle Mongo- the household Buddhas on the eve. A large flat round lian, chagha’an ebügen, modern, tsagaan öwgön) is one of boortsg, called either tselwg or khawtkha (flat, Mongolian, the most widespread and beloved Mongol deities and anal- khawtgai), is a part of all such offerings. A sprinkling of ogous to other aged gods of prosperity and blessing found tea outside the YURT was the main family religious cere- throughout Tibet and East Asia. He is sometimes called mony on the first day of the White Month. The XINJIANG Tserendug in Mongolia, from Tibetan Tshe-ring-drug. MONGOLS, largely descendants of the Kalmyks, have The White Old Man is usually pictured as a bald and reverted to the general Mongolian calendar. bearded white-haired old man leaning on a dragon- Since the White Month had obvious similarities to the headed staff. He is dressed in white, the most auspicious Chinese lunar new year, China’s ethnic Mongols, like all color among the Mongols. Prayer texts speak of him as Chinese citizens, always received days off, even under the chief of the masters of the land and of the waters in the Communist government, although vacations were limited 24 directions. He resides on Fruitful (jimislig) Mountain in the Maoist period. The holiday’s religious elements and rides a deer. The White Old Man counts peoples’ sins were rigidly suppressed until 1979. In the Soviet bloc, and governs the lengths of their lives, unleashing poxes, however, the White Month was treated as an inherently brigands, and slander against evildoers. Against these Buddhist and antisocialist holiday, ironically following evils the White Old Man is to be worshiped twice a czarist scholarship, which exaggerated the Buddhist ori- month on the second and 16th days of the month with gins of the festival. These attacks began in the late 1920s aspersions (satsal) of liquor and offerings of butter and among the Mongolian peoples in the Soviet Union, the silk scraps to the household fire. BURIATS and Kalmyks. Despite a period of prohibition, by In Mongolian Buddhist apocrypha the White Old the 1960s observance of the holiday was still widespread Man is described as a hermit who met Shakyamuni Bud- among the Buddhist Buriats although officially ignored. In dha or the female bodhisattva Green Tara. He then January 1990 Sagaalgan (the Buriat name) was officially received the prediction that he would be reborn as a Bud- declared a local holiday. Since then the Russian president regularly issues congratulations to the Buddhist clergy on that day. Perhaps due to the Soviet regime’s aggressive identification of the holiday with Buddhism, the shaman- ist Buriats of Ust’-Orda, Ol’khon, and the SELENGE RIVER delta show little interest in the festival today. In Mongolia attacks on the holiday were more cir- cumspect. The attacks began in 1930 and the year 1932 saw an intense campaign against the holiday, but the campaign relented during the NEW TURN POLICY, from 1933 to 1936. During WORLD WAR II (1941–45) a decree of the legislature explicitly authorized the herders to cele- brate the holiday again. In 1952, however, the ruler, MAR- SHAL CHOIBALSANG, died on bitüün, and the White Month that year and the next were replaced by official mourn- ing. On January 26, 1954, the government officially decreed that the White Month would be a working day, beginning a new campaign against its observance. By 1960, however, the government again compromised and designated the first day of the lunar year the “Collective Herders’ Day.” Only in 1988 was the White Month again marked as a national holiday. Observance of the day has changed significantly for urban Mongols, although the traditional foods, new clothes, and greetings continue, and many observe wor- ship ceremonies. Since members of the extended family usually do not live together and the time for celebration has often been shortened, the first day of the White Month, traditionally an “at home” day, has become one of widespread visiting of family, friends, and respected acquaintances. White Old Man. Thangka (mineral paints on cotton) from the See also CALENDAR AND DATING SYSTEMS; FIRE CULT; Buriat Historical Museum (From Buddiiskaia zhivopis Buriatii FOOD AND DRINK; TENGGERI. [1995]) World War II 587 dha who would protect all living beings. The THIRD MER- refers to his journey, however, and its importance was not GEN GEGEEN (1717–66) composed an incense offering recognized until the late 19th century. prayer text for the White Old Man. See also CHRISTIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; See also TSAM. GOLDEN HORDE; WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MONGOLS. Further reading: Peter Jackson, with David Morgan, The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the White Tatars See ÖNGGÜD. Court of Great Khan Möngke, 1253–1255 (London: Hak- luyt Society, 1990). William of Rubruck (fl. 1253–1256) Missionary from France who visited the Mongols and wrote a valuable Winter Palace See PALACES OF THE BOGDA KHAN. description of the Mongols’ customs and religious life Born at Rubruck (French, Rubrouck, near Cassel) in French Flanders, William of Rubruck as a young Francis- World War II Before World War II was officially can friar accompanied France’s King Louis IX (St. Louis, declared Mongolia served as the theater for large Soviet- r. 1226–70) on his 1248 crusade against Egypt. While Japanese border clashes. When Nazi Germany invaded staying in Acre (modern ‘Akko), St. Louis was told that the Soviet Union in 1941, Mongolia made considerable Sartaq, the Mongol prince ruling CRIMEA, was a Christian. sacrifices to deliver economic aid to the Soviet Red Army. Despite the failure of an earlier diplomatic mission to the Mongolia’s later participation in the Soviet attack on Mongols, Louis sent William with elaborate vestments, Japan advanced its diplomatic recognition. Total Mongo- vessels, and books, including a gold-illuminated Psalter lian casualties in border clashes and battles against Japan from his wife Queen Marguerite, to instruct Sartaq and from 1935 to 1945 were officially numbered at 2,039. convert the Mongols. William reached the Black Sea in On June 22, 1941, Mongolia’s ruler, MARSHAL May 1253 and, landing at Sudak (Soldaia), proceeded to CHOIBALSANG, responded to the German invasion by a Sartaq’s ORDO (palace-tent). Unfortunately, merchants had declaration of full support for the Soviet Union, although already spread the rumor that he came as an envoy of Mongolia did not formally declare war. Aside from the Louis offering submission. Constantly confused with an largely symbolic mobilization of citizens’ gifts, in Febru- envoy, William was forwarded by Sartaq to his father, ary 1942 the Mongolian government gave 2.5 million BATU, who in turn sent him to MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) tögrögs, 300 kilograms (661 pounds) of gold, and US in Mongolia, where he arrived on December 27. In July $100,000 to the Soviet Union to equip a tank column, 1254 William was sent back with a letter from Möngke to “Revolutionary Mongolia,” and the next year gave St. Louis. William returned via Batu’s court, the Cauca- another 2 million tögrögs to equip a fighter squadron, sus, and TURKEY, reaching the Levantine Crusader fort of “Mongolian Arat” (i.e., commoners or herders). Tripoli on August 15, 1255. King Louis had already The most costly forms of aid were the supply of live- returned to France, and William wrote out a long account stock as food for the Soviet economy, mounts for the Red of his journey in Latin as a letter to Louis. Army, and livestock to rebuild devastated areas. Mongo- William of Rubruck’s account of his journey is the lians donated 32,500 HORSES to the Soviet Union, and the best ethnographic description of medieval Mongol life, state sold 722,000 CATTLE, 428,000 horses, and 4,931,000 exceeding any other account in detail, accuracy, and range SHEEP and GOATS. The low state-set procurement prices of interests. Unlike JOHN OF PLANO CARPINI, he discounted caused widespread popular discontent. Mongolia’s total tales of monsters and other fantastic creatures often told herd of 26.2 million in 1940 declined to about 24 million of the East. While he eventually saw the Mongol khans as in 1944, before a massive winter ZUD (winter disaster) in an alarming threat to Europe and regretted St. Louis’s idea 1944–45 killed 8 million head, leaving only 20.0 million of evangelization, many aspects of Mongol life and crafts- head in summer 1945. manship impressed him. His account of Assyrian (Nesto- With Mongolia’s dependent economy, the Soviet rian) and Armenian clergy at the courts of Sartaq and Union’s war effort also led to shortages of consumer goods Möngke is the best description of Christian activities such as TEA, tobacco, flour, and grain; rationing was in among the medieval Mongols. He resented how these cler- effect until 1950. From 1942 to 1944 Mongolia’s exports gymen spread misleading stories about the Mongols’ to the Soviet Union exceeded its imports by an average of eagerness to convert and believed that the Mongols had 76 percent. To supply the lack of imported grain, culti- come to see Christianity as a kind of race or ethnic group. vated acreage jumped from 27,000 hectares (66,720 acres) Thus, while the Mongol khatuns (ladies) often had a sim- in 1941 to 74,000 hectares (182,854 acres) in 1943, and ple faith in the cross, the Mongol khans saw accepting small factories were built to mill flour and manufacture Christianity as renouncing their Mongol ancestry. scythes and plows. Again, droughts destroyed almost the After returning to Paris William of Rubruck met the whole harvest, however, in 1944–45. philosopher Roger Bacon, who described William’s expe- During World War II Mongolia’s armed forces riences in his Opus Majus. No other medieval writer expanded from about 18,000 in 1939 to 43,000 in 1945, 588 wrestling not including 11,000 border guards, with many scarce professionals drafted into the army. With the conclusion of the European war, Mongolia joined the Soviet attack on Japanese forces in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia on August 9, 1945. Regular Mongolian troops participated in Colonel General I. A. Pliev’s Mechanized Cavalry Group assaulting Japanese forces in central Inner Mongolia. This assault continued until August 23, reaching Zhangjiakou (Kalgan), Chengde, and Batu-Khaalga (Bailingmiao). A total of 2,000 Interior Ministry paramilitary units combed central Inner Mongolia and HULUN BUIR and assisted in arresting Japanese agents and KHALKHA refugees who had fled in the 1930s. Choibalsang also encouraged a grass- roots pan-Mongolist movement, particularly in Inner Mongolia’s SHILIIN GOL, CHAKHAR, and Hulun Buir regions. The war’s main significance for Mongolia was diplo- matic. According to the Anglo-American-Soviet accord at Yalta (February 1945), China would have to respect the “status quo” in Outer Mongolia. In negotiations leading up to the Sino-Soviet Friendship Treaty of August 14, Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin forced China’s ruler, Chiang Kai-shek, to accept Mongolia’s full independence within its current frontiers. As a result, pan-Mongolist agitation in Inner Mongolia was called off on August 30, and after a plebiscite China recognized Mongolian independence in February 1946. Mongolia had also formally declared war on Japan on August 10, a fact it believed entitled it to membership in the UNITED NATIONS. The first request, in June 1946, was, however, denied, and Mongolia would not be admitted until 1961. Champion wrestlers at the Great State Naadam (Photo from See also ARMED FORCES OF MONGOLIA; DEMCHUNG- Sotsialist Mongol [1988]) DONGRUB; PRINCE; KHALKHYN GOL, BATTLE OF; JAPAN AND THE MODERN MONGOLS; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; PLEBISCITE ON INDEPENDENCE. Wrestlers’ clothing varies but includes a tight-fitting zodog (Inner Mongolian, jodog), or cut-away shirt, which wrestling The most popular sport in Mongolia since gives a standard grip for the wrestlers. Inner Mongolian the 12th century, Mongolian wrestling is based on dis- wrestlers wear a short-sleeved jodog of brass-studded tinctive rules. leather, belted over the lower belly but cut away to leave Stories of champion wrestlers (Middle Mongolian, the upper belly, chest, and shoulders bare. Baggy pan- böke, modern, bökh), including CHINGGIS KHAN’s half- taloons (shuudag), mostly white and covered with tradi- brother Belgütei, show that wrestling was popular tional appliqué patterns and designs, are tucked into throughout the empire period. Mongolian khans took traditional upturned leather Mongolian boots, also deco- pride in the strength of their wrestlers and set them fight- rated with appliqué. Inner Mongolian wrestlers fre- ing against those from subjugated countries. QAIDU quently wear ropes of twisted KHADAG scarves around KHAN’s daughter Qutulun (d. 1306) became famous as a their necks. Wrestlers in independent Mongolia wear an wrestler. Little, however, is known of the clothing or style even shorter cloth zodog with sleeves, which is tied in of Mongolian wrestling then. front with a rope. Rather than pantaloons, they wear All rounds in modern Mongolian wrestling begin in a cloth briefs, also called shuudag and made of the same standing position. Whoever lets any part of his trunk, material as the zodog. Upturned Mongolian boots com- knees, or elbow touch the ground loses. The palms may plete the costume. KHALKHA Mongolian wrestlers enter touch the ground legally, allowing a wrestler on his hands the field with a conical hat to which is tied a khadag (cer- and feet to stay in the match. Mongolian wrestling always emonial scarf) that they give to the care of their coach takes place in the open on grassy ground, and the during the actual bout. Buriat and Kalmyk wrestlers in wrestlers do not need to stay within a defined ring. The Russia today compete in boxer shorts and athletic shoes. feet can be used to trip the opponent, but kicking and Wrestling matches occur during NAADAM, or games punching are not allowed. held in conjunction with summertime religious cere- Wuzhumuqin 589 monies or national holidays. The wrestlers first perform a Wrestling is the only one of the “three manly sports” clockwise circumambulation of the field and traditionally from which women are, in fact, generally excluded. make a libation of mare’s milk to the gods. Before each Indeed, legends in Khalkha speak of the current skimpy match the wrestler’s coach chants a magtaal, or praise for zodog and shuudag being adopted deliberately to exclude the wrestler (see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL). The wrestler then women. (This perhaps recalls the example of Qaidu’s gives the coach his hat and performs a dance called “the daughter Qutulun.) In Inner Mongolia women wrestlers, flapping of the Garuda” (the mythic Indian king of birds) wearing T-shirts under their jodogs, have been included around the banner standard or national flag before touch- in recent years. ing the ground with his hands. During the bout the com- petitors’ coaches stand next to them shouting advice in a written Mongolian See UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. ritualized language and sometimes slapping the wrestlers’ buttocks or thighs if the contest seems slow. After one Wuhai Carved out of Ordos and Alashan territory, wins the loser passes under the winner’s arm and is Wuhai city is the chief coal mining center of southwest- slapped on the buttocks, and the winner performs the ern Inner Mongolia. Wuhai city was originally two towns, Garuda dance again. The winner then takes from his Wuda on the western side of the Huang (Yellow) River coach a handful of crumbly Mongolian cheeses, which he and Haibowan on the eastern side. In 1976 they were tosses in offering to the local deities and/or the spectators. merged as Wuhai. With an area of 2,350 square kilome- Young wrestlers eagerly vie to catch and eat these cheeses. ters (907 square miles), the total population is 314,148, Mongolian wrestlers compete in single-elimination of whom 8,554 are Mongol. tournaments. Champions are matched with weak con- Coal mining began in Wuda in 1864, supplying Chi- tenders in the early rounds so that the final rounds pit nese settlers in the Hetao area with fuel. By 1949 annual major champions against each other. Traditionally, there output was around 30,000 metric tons (33,069 short was no time limit on the rounds, but in the 1960s time tons). Haibowan was colonized by Chinese farmers limits were introduced, only to be eliminated again in around 1900. In 1958 large-scale prospecting and invest- 1996, when a final bout lasted four hours. During the ment in the now-nationalized coal mining industry National Holiday Naadam (Ulsynikh Bayar Naadam) in began. By 1990 proven reserves totaled 4.2 billion metric Mongolia’s capital, 512 wrestlers compete. Winners receive tons (4.6 billion short tons). In 1988 the city’s total prizes supplied by the organizer of the occasion. The titles industrial output was 468,140,000 yuan, of which about of champions include, in ascending order, falcon (nachin), 55 percent was coal. elephant (zaan), lion (arslan), and titan (awarga), which See also INNER MONGOLIA AUTONOMOUS REGION. can be given at the provincial or national levels. The ulsyn awarga (titan of the state) is thus the current national champion in Mongolia. Wrestlers are Mongolia’s most pop- Wulanchabu See ULAANCHAB. ular sports heroes, and their posters adorn shops, yurts, and rooms throughout Mongolia. In Inner Mongolia Wulanfu See ULANFU. wrestling has less media presence, yet it is still the most popular and widely practiced sport. Wuzhumuqin See ÜJÜMÜCHIN. X Xanadu See SHANGDU. of Chinese administration. He also, however, commis- sioned a script for the Mi-nyag/Tangut language, which was still used into the 14th century. Buddhism was the Xia dynasty (Tangut, Xixia, Hsi-Hsia) The Xia state religion, and the Xia ruler had a religious and mystic dynasty ruled Northwest China from 1038 to 1227, until reputation in Inner Asia exemplified by his Mongolian its final destruction by CHINGGIS KHAN in five campaigns. title of Burqan, or “Buddha,” Khan. Earlier the Buddhism It is often called the Western Xia or Xixia to distinguish it was primarily Chinese rite, but from the middle of the from the legendary Xia dynasty of China’s remote past. 12th century on Tibetan Buddhism became dominant as The dynasty was founded by chiefs of the Mi-nyag peo- Xia rulers invited Tibetan clerics to hold the office of ple, who originated in the Chinese western borderlands state preceptor (Chinese, guoshi). between Sichuan, Gansu, and Tibet. Called Dangxiang by The Xia dynasty’s military success and a marriage the Chinese and Tangut by the Turks and Mongols, the alliance with the KITANS’ Liao dynasty (907–1125), based Mi-nyag spoke a language in the Tibeto-Burman family, in Inner Mongolia, eventually forced the Song dynasty to most closely related to that of the Yi (Lolo) nationality in recognize Xia independence. After the Jurchen people modern Sichuan and Yunnan and more distantly to destroyed the Kitan Liao and founded the JIN DYNASTY Burmese and Tibetan. (1115–1234), driving the Song out of North China, the Xia recognized Jurchen suzerainty in return for de facto RISE OF THE DYNASTY independence. The Gansu corridor had traditionally been Under the Tang dynasty (618–907) a body of Mi-nyag an avenue of the famed “Silk Road,” and the Xia tried to tribesmen settled the ORDOS plateau in southeastern draw this trade, dominated by Uighurs and by Muslim Inner Mongolia. As a mark of honor their chieftains of Turkestanis, into its orbit, while the Kitans, Song, and Jin the Weiming family bore the Tang imperial surname, Li. tried to bypass the empire. To the north the Xia rulers With the fall of the Tang dynasty the Weiming, or Li, intermarried with the allied royal family of the KEREYID family expanded its influence in Northwest China. Khanate in central Mongolia. Besides the local Chinese population, the Gansu corridor was occupied by nomadic Uighur and Shatuo (ÖNGGÜD) MONGOL CONQUEST Turks. Tibetan occupied the mountainous southwest When Chinggis Khan united the Mongolian plateau by around modern Xining. While the SONG DYNASTY defeating the Kereyid and NAIMAN khanates in 1203–04, (960–1279) reunited most of North and South China, Li Ilqa-Senggüm, son of the Kereyid ONG KHAN, sought (Weiming) Yuanhao conquered the Ganzhou (modern refuge in the Xia. After his adherents took to plundering Zhangye) UIGHURS in 1029, pushed the Tibetans south, the locals, however, he was expelled. Perhaps in and declared himself emperor of the Xia dynasty in 1038. response to the initial offer of refuge, Chinggis Khan in The Mi-nyag, or Tangut, people had long been in the 1205 launched the first of his five campaigns against the Chinese orbit, and Li Yuanhao followed many institutions Xia, plundering border settlements. In 1207 he sacked 590 Xianbi 591 Wulahai, the main garrison along the Huang (Yellow) TANGUTS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE River in the northeast (near modern Wuyuan). In 1209 Even before the fall of the Xia, a number of Mi-nyag, or Chinggis undertook a larger campaign to secure the Tangut, men had come into Mongol service. These were submission of the Xia. He again attacked Wulahai and not Xia subjects, but Tanguts from the Jiu or Jüyin tribal followed the course of the Huang (Yellow) River up to auxiliaries enrolled by the Jin in Inner Mongolia. The the capital, Zhongxing (MARCO POLO’s Egrigaia). He Tangut Jiu rebelled early against the Jin and formed an attempted to flood the capital by diverting the river, but important part of the Mongol armies in North China. The instead only flooded his own camp, thus ending the Tangut ethnic group survived the Mongol conquest, and siege. Even so, the new and insecure Xia emperor, Li the Tangut language was one of those used in the famous (Weiming) Anquan (r. 1206–11), agreed to present a inscription at Juyongguan Pass in the 1340s. At first few daughter to Chinggis Khan together with a large tribute Tanguts from the Xia region achieved high position. in which countless herds of CAMELS held pride of place. Under the class system of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY after Chinggis Khan always required tributary powers to send 1260, however, ethnic Tanguts were classified as SEMUREN hostages and to contribute troops to his campaigns, but (various sorts) and not as North Chinese, giving them an the Xia resisted these demands. The Mongols left a gar- advantage in the exams. Thus, after 1300 Tangut officials rison, probably at Wulahai, and the Xia Empire entered achieved higher positions. The most important legacy of the Mongol orbit. the Xia state to the Mongols was its patronage of Tibetan Sending troops and hostages proved to be sticking Buddhism, revived in 1240 by KÖTEN, a son of ÖGEDEI points in Xia-Mongol relations. As the Mongols invaded KHAN, who had received his appanage in the former Xia the neighboring JIN DYNASTY in 1211, the Xia took area. advantage to pursue long-standing border claims against Tangut captives dwelling among the Mongols were the Jin. In 1218 the Mongols in North China invaded eventually assimilated into the Mongolian people. In the the Xia a fourth time. The Mongols besieged the capital 16th century the Tangut formed one of the 14 clans of again, and the Xia emperor Li (Weiming) Zunxu (r. the Khalkha and are still widespread in Mongolia. 1211–23) fled west, leaving his son and officials to Further reading: Ruth Dunnell, “The Fall of the Xia make peace. How the conflict was resolved is uncertain, Empire: Sino-Steppe Relations in the Late 12th–Early but the Tanguts did not contribute soldiers the next 13th Centuries,” in Rulers from the Steppe: State Formation year, when Chinggis Khan demanded men for his great on the Eurasian Periphery, ed. Gary Seaman and Daniel western campaign against KHORAZM. Xia territory gave Marks (Los Angeles: Ethnographies Press, 1991), easy access to Shaanxi province, a vital area of remain- 158–185; Elliot Sperling, “Rtsa-mi Lo-ts-ba Sangs-rgyas ing Jin control, so in 1221 MUQALI, the Mongol com- Grags-pa and the Tangut Background to Early Mongol- mander in North China, crossed the Huang (Yellow) Tibetan Relations,” in Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the River into Xia territory. Xia envoys promised 50,000 sol- 6th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan diers, which in the end never arrived, and Muqali had to Studies, ed. Per Kvaerne (Oslo: Institute for Comparative retreat without subduing Shaanxi. After Muqali’s death Research in Human Culture, 1994), 2: 801–824. in 1223 his Mongol and Chinese generals again raided the Xia. When Chinggis Khan returned victorious from the Xianbi (Xianbei, Hsien-pi) A branch of the Eastern conquest of Khorazm, he planned the final destruction Hu (Donghu, Tung-hu), the Xianbi (probably originally of the recalcitrant Xia state. The campaign began in the pronounced “Serbi”) were the first Mongolic-speaking northwest this time with the capture of Heishui (Khara- peoples to dominate the steppe and the first Inner Asian Khota, near modern Ejin Qi) in February–March 1226. people to found a stable dynasty in China. The cities of the Gansu corridor were sacked one by Around 209 B.C.E. the Eastern Hu peoples were one. Crossing the Huang (Yellow) River, the Mongols defeated by the XIONGNU, to whom they paid skin and sacked Lingzhou near the capital in November, and on cloth taxes for the next two centuries. (In 443 a Xianbi December 4 Chinggis Khan crossed back over the frozen delegation identified Gaxian Cave, now in Inner Mongo- Huang (Yellow) River to attack a relief column. The lia’s Oroqen Autonomous Banner, as its long-forgotten Mongols were victorious and besieged the capital. Con- ancestral temple, to which it had fled from Xiongnu fident the capital would fall, Chinggis Khan turned its attacks.) The Eastern Hu were more sedentary than the capture over to his generals and left to attack the Jin Xiongnu, keeping pigs, for example. After 50 C.E. the cities along the Jin-Xia frontier in Gansu and Shaanxi. Xianbi began moving into northern Mongolia, incorpo- In July, when the last Xia ruler, Li Xian (r. 1226–27), rating at one point 100,000 tents of the Xiongnu into finally surrendered, Chinggis Khan was on his deathbed their own people. to the south in Jin territory. After Chinggis’s death the The Xianbi language contains a number of identifi- Xia royal family and the population of Zhongxing were able words preserved in Chinese transcription, particu- massacred. larly qaghan, “KHAN, emperor,” and qasun, “queen” (cf. 592 Xiangyang, siege of Mongolian KHATUN). Clearly, the Xianbi spoke a Turkic or Peace” and persecuted Buddhism. Finally, both Taiwudi Mongolic language, and historical considerations support and Yuwen Tai dreamed of a Confucian primitivist return a Mongolic ancestry. The relatively poor Xianbi remains to the institutions of the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 B.C.E.), resemble those of the Xiongnu but with differences: a viewpoint made official when the Yuwen rulers named Graves frequently contain many bodies and have fewer their dynasty Zhou in 557. animal remains, while animal figures are more static and The Tabghach dynasties neither conquered the Tarim have a distinct iconography, such as a little horse on top Basin nor extended their rule to the Mongolian steppe, of a large one. Chinese histories treat the Xianbi as ances- which by 400 was under the ROURAN dynasty. Even so, tors of the KITANS, Qai (Xi), and SHIWEI peoples. their prestige in North China resulted in the term Unlike the Xiongnu, the Xianbi did not form a cen- Tabghach becoming the Old Turkish word both for China tralized dynasty in Mongolia. Tanshihuai (r. 136?–81) itself and for anything great and imposing. unified the steppe but had no successor. Stable Xianbi See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; MONGOLIC LAN- dynasties emerged only as they settled on the Chinese GUAGE FAMILY. frontiers in the late third century. After the Shanxi Further reading: Emma Bunker, ed., Ancient Bronzes Xiongnu sacked the capital, Luoyang (316), these local of the Eastern Eurasian Steppe: From the Arthur W. Sackler dynasties began vying for power in North China. The Collections (New York: Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, Qifu clan, head of a four-clan Xianbi confederacy in east- 1997); Adam Kessler, Empires beyond the Great Wall: The ern Gansu, founded the Later Qin dynasty (385–431) in Heritage of Genghis Khan (Los Angeles: Natural History Shaanxi. The more agricultural Murong family in Liao- Museum of Los Angeles County, 1993). ning founded several dynasties named Yan around mod- ern Beijing and Shandong from 337 to 410. Another Xiangyang, siege of (Hsiang-yang) The twin cities of branch of the Murong family migrated west and con- Xiangyang and Fancheng (modern Xiangfan in Hubei quered the Qiang people in Qinghai (Kökenuur). There province) were a key SONG DYNASTY fortress straddling they founded the Achai (Tibetan, A-zha), or Tuyuhun, the south and north banks, respectively, of the Han River. dynasty until their destruction by the new Tibetan empire The Mongol taking of the town in 1273 opened the way around 638. Finally, the Tabghach (Chinese, Tuoba) for an all-out assault on the Song. occupied the Dai region in northern Shanxi and south- Briefly held by the Mongols in 1236–38, the twin central Inner Mongolia and founded the Northern Wei cities, with walls almost five kilometers (three miles) dynasty (386–528) that reunited all North China. around and 200,000 people, withstood a Mongol assault The Wei created a script for Xianbi, which has not in 1257. Lü Wende (d. 1270) commanded the Song survived and in which were written a small number of dynasty’s Middle Chang (Yangtze) sector, and his son-in- books, including the Confucian Classic of Filial Piety and law Fan Wenhu and son Lü Wenhuan commanded translated Chinese poetry. The Xianbi “Chele Song,” cele- Xiangyang. In 1268 QUBILAI KHAN assigned AJU and the brating the beauty of the steppe, has been preserved in Song defector Liu Zheng (1213–75) to take Xiangyang by Chinese translation. siege. The two first blockaded the city with a ring of forts Tabghach Hong (reign title Xiaowendi, 471–99) and in 1270 blocked the Han River with five stone plat- moved the capital from Datong south to Luoyang and forms capped by arbalests. They also built 5,000 ships ordered compulsory sinicization of Tabghach customs and and trained 70,000 marines, yet Song food supplies still surnames. Xiaowendi, however, extended the nomadic held out. In summer 1271 and April 1272 Song loyalist traditions of an armed populace to a depopulated North volunteers manned newly designed paddleboats to break China, making each peasant a state militiaman farming the blockade, but the boats were eventually destroyed. state land. After a massive revolt of the tribal frontier Fan Wenhu was blamed for not offering land support and armies in 523, Yuwen Tai, of an old Xianbi family, founded transferred. A breach of Fancheng’s wall in April 1272 the Western Wei-Northern Zhou regime (535–81) in was repaired, but on January 25, 1273, the special man- Shaanxi. The Yuwen regime reversed the sinicization pol- gonels of the deputy commander ARIQ-QAYA’s Iraqi icy yet relied on the peasant militia to conquer Sichuan artillerymen, Isma‘il and ‘Ala’ud-Din, breached the walls and reunite the North (577). In 589, eight years after a again, while his marines cut the heavily defended pon- Northern Zhou general, Yang Jian, had deposed the toon bridge linking Fancheng to Xiangyang. The resi- Yuwens and founded the Sui dynasty (581–617), the mili- dents of Fancheng were butchered, but on March 14 Lü tia-based army he had inherited reunited China. Wenhuan surrendered Xiangyang on more lenient terms. Culturally, the Tabghach regimes in North China The Mongol victory opened the possibility of a full-scale showed an intense engagement with Chinese religions. assault on the Song. Rulers built vast stone Buddhas near their capitals in See also MILITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. Datong and Luoyang and received the title Tathagata (that is, Buddha), yet Tabghach Dao (reign title Taiwudi, 424–52) saw himself as a Taoist “Perfect Ruler of Great Xilingol See SHILIIN GOL. Xinjiang Mongols 593 Xilinguole See SHILIIN GOL. Khoshuds into flight north of the Tianshan, with more than half the South Route Torghuds and Khoshuds being Xing’an See KHINGGAN LEAGUE. lost or scattered. In 1876 the Khoshuds joined the return- ing Qing armies, while the Chakhar and West Route Torghuds assisted cut-off Qing garrisons against the Rus- Xinjiang Mongols (Sinkiang) The Mongols of Xin- sian occupation of Ili from 1871 to 1881. With the restora- jiang form a small minority principally in the northern tion of order Chakhar and Shibe bannermen were part of that land. They are primarily descendants of the employed to open canals and begin military farms. TORGHUDS and KHOSHUDS who fled from Kalmykia and of Culturally, the Torghud and Khoshud banners con- the CHAKHAR stationed there as garrison soldiers. tinued to use the Oirat CLEAR SCRIPT, which also became SETTLEMENT widely used by the Chakhar. The Borotala Chakhar Xinjiang came under China’s QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) dialect also acquired many Oirat features. Except among in 1755–57. The destruction of the ZÜNGHARS opened the the Khoshuds and South Route Torghuds, the Mongols northern pastures for a large-scale immigration of KAZA- lived in close contact with the Kazakhs and developed a KHS, whose loyalty the Qing suspected. At first the Qian- pidgin Mongol Kazakh developed to communicate with long emperor (1736–96) relied on small garrisons of their neighbors. Compared to the Kazakhs, however, the Chakhar, Solon (i.e., Daur and Ewenki), and Manchu Mongols practiced less extensive nomadization and had bannermen on regular three-year tours of duty to garri- less contact with either the surrounding towns or Russian son the area. In 1762, however, those bannermen already merchants. on duty were assigned permanently to Xinjiang, and During the Chinese Republican revolution Chakhar 5,000 new bannermen—Chakhars, Solons, Manchus, and and Torghud troops fought for the Qing authorities in Shibe—were selected for permanent assignment there. By January–February 1912. The Chakhar commander 1767 1,837 Chakhar Mongol bannermen had been sta- Sumiya (Sumyaa, 1874–1935) defected to Mongolia with tioned in Rashiyan (modern Wenquan) and Borotala 116 households rather than join the Republicans, but (modern Bole). Surviving Zünghars, except those of more typical was the position of the Japanese-educated Tekes and Zhaosu in the Ili valley, were attached to Torghud East Route prince Palta (1882–1920), who held Chakhar or Solon BANNERS (see EIGHT BANNERS). the strategic Altai region first for the Qing and then for In 1771 a tattered body of about 70,000 KALMYKS the republic. A small number of ALTAI URIYANGKHAI ban- appeared on the frontier of Xinjiang (see FLIGHT OF THE ner families were then caught on the Xinjiang side of the KALMYKS). Originally hoping to conquer Züngharia for border when the Xinjiang-Mongolia border was demar- themselves, they had been too devastated by Kazakh and cated. Until 1933 the new Chinese warlord regime made Kyrgyz attacks to do more than beg for admission. After little change in Xinjiang Mongol life, although Chinese- an imperial audience in 1772, the Kalmyks were divided style county administration was gradually extended. The among 13 banners. The Torghud princes were organized South Route Torghuds, being the most numerous and in 1775 into four Ünen-Süzügtü LEAGUES distributed as strategic, had particularly strained relations with the Xin- follows: the South Route league, including the banner of jiang governors. the former Kalmyk viceroy Ubashi (1744–74), in the Zul- REVOLUTION TO THE PRESENT tus (modern Kaidu) River valley; the North Route league, including the banner of Tsebeg-Dorji (d. 1778), one of During the 1930s a Soviet-influenced educational move- the chief instigators of the flight, around Khobogsair ment spread through the Kazakhs and Mongols of north- (Hoboksar); the East Route league around Kur-Kara-Usu ern Xinjiang. The lyrics to the widely sung Altan (modern Usu); and the West Route league around Ebinur surghuuli (Golden school), by Torghud headmaster Tse. Lake. The Khoshud princes were organized into the Mid- Ölzeibatu (1909–80) of Dörböljin (modern Emin), dle Route Batu-Sedkiltü league on the pastures around expressed the new schools’ Mongol-nationalist, demo- the lower Zultus River and Bosten Lake. Xinjiang’s mod- cratic, and antireactionary ideas. The Kazakh-led and ern Mongolian population is about 50 percent Torghud, Soviet-supported 1944 Three-Regions Revolution was the 20 percent Öölöd (Zünghars), 17 percent Chakhar, and first Turkestani nationalist movement to gain Mongol almost 10 percent Khoshud. support, establishing revolutionary regimes in every Mongol area except the Khoshud around Bosten Lake. In UNDER THE QING AND EARLY REPUBLIC 1946 Ölzeibatu founded the first Xinjiang Mongolian The Mongols of Xinjiang, especially the strategically placed newspaper Aradiyin ayalgha (People’s voice) in the area South Route Torghuds and the Khoshuds, formed an controlled by the revolutionaries. important reserve for the Qing Empire. In 1820 1,000 From 1949 to 1951 Chinese Communist troops Torghud-Khoshud troops joined the Qing armies in defeat- occupied the various Mongol areas in Xinjiang, incorpo- ing an invasion from the city of Kokand in the Ferghana rating the Ili revolutionaries into the new regime. In 1954 valley. The great Turkestani rebellion in 1864 drove the the new government created two prefectural level Mongols of Xinjiang Dörböd Korla Capital of autonomous prefecture K A Z A K H S TA N Kaz akh s Khowd _BOROTALA ______ Mongol and Tibetan autonomous prefecture Habaha Kazakhs Nationality or sub-ethinc group Altay Tarbagatai Burqin MONGOLIA MAP Mongol Autonomous Prefecture (Tacheng) Kazakhs Zak MAC Mongol Autonomous County ha BAYANGOL MAP Sub-provincial level units Khobogsair chi n Ala-Köl Emin MAC Provincial capital Tor g International border Bole Kazakhs Manas hud Chinese province-level borders Lake Wenquan Ebi Nuur Border of autonomous prefecture Kazakhs Border of Khobogsair county and of the four _BO _ R_O_T original counties of Bayangol prefecture _A_LA_ M Jinghe _ _AP Usu _ hs k Gulja (Yining) Ürümqi za Nilka Ka Tekes Hami Zhaosu Bayanbulug Turpan (Monggol Küre) (Zultus) Hejing Khoshud (to Subei MAC) Ysyk Köl Yanqi HAC Bosten Lake K Y R G Y Z S TA N Bohu Korla GANSU Aksay Subei MAC X I N J I A N G Kashgar B A Y A N G O L M A P TAJIKISTAN H A N I S TA N AFG QINGHAI PAKISTAN 0 200 miles TIBET INDIA 0 200 km Xiongnu 595 autonomous units, Bayangol (including the South Route STONES. The Xiongnu name appears in Chinese histories Torghuds and the Khoshuds) and Borotala (including the in the late fourth century B.C.E. as the Chinese states Chakhar and the West Route Torghuds), and one county- began expanding north. Eventually, China’s Qin dynasty level autonomous unit, Khobogsair (including the North (221–09) pushed the Xiongnu out of Ordos and into the Route Torghuds) territory. Selenge-Orkhon River valley in northern Mongolia. The Mongol population of Xinjiang rapidly increased In 209 the Shanyu, or Xiongnu ruler, MODUN from 60,600 in 1954 to 138,000 in 1990. By 1982 the (209–174 B.C.E.) overthrew his father, unified the steppe, Mongols still formed the largest single nationality in recovered Ordos, and conquered the farming peoples of Khobogsair, at 37 percent, but in Borotala and Bayangol the Tarim Basin. He forced China’s new Han dynasty (206 the Mongols were only a small percentage outnumbered B.C.E.–221 C.E.) to agree to a heqin, “peace and friend- not only by recent Han Chinese immigrants but also by ship” treaty, in which the Han gave the Shanyu tribute, an Kazakhs (Borotala), Hui, or Chinese-speaking Muslims imperial princess, and recognition as an equal. In return (Bayangol), and UIGHURS (both). Virtually all Xinjiang Modun agreed to cease raids. Border markets were also Mongols still speak Mongolian. opened, which allowed the ordinary Xiongnu access to See also BAYANGOL MONGOL AUTONOMOUS PREFEC- Chinese goods. From 198 B.C.E to 134 C.E. the heqin sys- TURE; BOROTALA MONGOL AUTONOMOUS PREFECTURE; tem governed Han-Xiongnu relations, usually guarantee- KALMYK-OIRAT LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT; KHOBOGSAIR MON- ing peace at the price of costly tribute and Chinese pride. GOL AUTONOMOUS COUNTY. Further reading: C. R. Bawden, “A Mongol Docu- INSTITUTIONS ment of 1764 concerning the Repopulation of Ili,” Zen- The position of Shanyu was basically hereditary, although tralasiatische Studien 5 (1971): 79–94; Baatar C. H. Hai, minor sons could rarely enforce a claim to rule. Chinese “The Family of Prince Palta,” in Meng-ku wen hua kuo chi historians do imply, however, the existence of some sort hsueh shu yen tao hui lun wen chi, ed. Chang Chün-i of confirmation assembly. As with the later Mongols, sons (Taipei: Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, and younger brothers inherited their widowed stepmoth- 1993), 408–417; P. B. Tseren, “Traditional Pastoral Prac- ers and sisters-in-law. tice of the Oirat Mongols and Their Relationship with the The highest posts under the Shanyu were those of Environment,” in Culture and Environment in Inner Asia, Tuqi (Wise) Kings of the Left and the Right, who served vol. 2, Society and Culture, ed. Caroline Humphrey and as viceroys in the east and west, respectively. The Wise David Sneath (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1996), King of the Left was generally the heir apparent. A num- 147–159; Tsui Yenhu, “Development of Social Organiza- ber of other offices existed, but their functions are not tion in the Pastoral Areas of North Xinjiang and Their clear. The Xiongnu were the first to use the famed Inner Relationship with the Environment,” in Culture and Envi- Asian DECIMAL ORGANIZATION. Twenty-four myriarchs, ronment in Inner Asia, vol. 2, Society and Culture, ed. Car- each nominally ruling 10,000 households (although often oline Humphrey and David Sneath (Cambridge: White as few as 4,000 in reality), appointed subordinate officers. Horse Press, 1996), 205–230. Despite this bureaucratic-seeming structure, high offices were hereditary and filled by scions of the Huyan, the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu, Khunnu, Huns) As the first Lan, and later the Xubu clans. great nomadic empire, the Xiongnu ruled Mongolia from The Shanyu bowed daily to the Sun in the morning 209 B.C.E. to 91 C.E. and established many of the classic and the Moon in the evening. Annual sacrifices at the steppe institutions. The first syllable of the Chinese tran- assemblies of the first and fifth moon (approximately scription “Xiongnu” appears to be cognate to both February and June) were made to the ancestors, heaven “Khion” (in Central Asia and India) and “Hun” (in and earth, and other spirits. In 121 B.C.E. Han armies cap- Europe). The second syllable means “slave.” The idea of a tured a “gold man which [a Xiongnu king] used in wor- link between the Xiongnu of Mongolia and the Huns of shiping Heaven.” Since Xiongnu art includes human Europe, previously out of fashion, has now been images, this figure was most likely a native Xiongnu work. strengthened by archaeological evidence. At the autumn assemblies (roughly August through Octo- ber) men and animals were counted (see QURILTAI). ESTABLISHMENT OF THE XIONGNU EMPIRE Militarily, the Xiongnu relied on mounted archery, Xiongnu culture, as known archaeologically, is an out- using a compound bow lined with horn or bone and growth of that of the non-Chinese Rong in northern arrows with a range of tips, including “whistling arrows” Hebei and the Di in western Shanxi, northern Shaanxi, used to guide volleys. Close combat was with short and ORDOS (Inner Mongolia south of the Huang (Yellow) swords, halberds, and maces. They did not have stirrups. River) during the Spring and Autumn period (721–481 B.C.E.). The Rong and Di culture, as exemplified by the LANGUAGE AND CULTURE “Ordos bronzes,” assimilated northern and western influ- The only surviving materials of Xiongnu language are ences from the Scythian ANIMAL STYLE and Mongolian ELK transcriptions in Chinese characters whose pronunciation 596 Xiongnu at the time of the Xiongnu is very uncertain. (Note that By 90, with the resettlement of northern Xiongnu, the conventional transcriptions used in this article are of the Xiongnu population in Shanxi reached 237,500 peo- the Chinese characters’ modern pronunciation and often ple. Although the Shanxi Xiongnu did not retain their far from the original one.) A few words are definitely nomadic material culture, they did retain a strong ethnic Turco-Mongolian (chengli or tengri, heaven; woluduo identity and repeatedly revolted against the unpopular aotuo or ORDO, palace-tent). Several scholars have Chinese-imposed Shanyus. In 216 the Shanyu office was claimed to analyze less obvious words, usually assuming abolished, but the Shanyu family, now taking the Han an affiliation with either Oghur Turkic (related to dynasty’s imperial surname, Liu, still dominated the local ancient Bulghar/Bulgarian and modern Chuvash) or less administration. In 304, as the princes of the Jinn dynasty probably Ket, a Siberian language isolate in the lower (265–420) waged civil war, Liu Yuan (d. 310), a descen- Yenisey valley. No attempt has yet won general credence, dant of the Shanyus, revolted in the name of the defunct however. Han dynasty. His son captured the western dynasty Rich Xiongnu graves have been found in the ORDOS (265–316) Jinn capitals, Luoyang and Chang’an, and area and North China, the Selenge-Orkhon valley, and changed the dynasty name to Zhao. Unable to unify the along the Yenisey River. The graves are characteristically north, his dynasty fell in 329. Anarchy ensued in which single with double coffins oriented to the north, ceramic Xiongnu generals founded the northern Liang in Gansu vessels near the head, extensive animal remains, espe- (397–439) and the Xia in Shaanxi and Ordos (407–31). cially of HORSES, and bronze cauldrons. Xiongnu bronzes In 431 the XIANBI people’s Wei dynasty (386–534) con- and fabrics often were decorated in the ANIMAL STYLE, but quered the Xia, exterminating the Xiongnu ruling group other styles were also used. Goods from China and Cen- and exiling the Xiongnu to the Inner Mongolian frontier tral Asia were also welcomed. A number of Xiongnu forts as soldiers. and settlements have been excavated in northern Mongo- KHIONS AND HUNS IN THE WEST lia, Buriatia, and Khakassia. The architecture frequently shows Chinese features (kangs, or heated sleeping plat- By 350 the Khion people, probably a western branch of forms, ceramic tiles, etc.). the Xiongnu, were invading Iran from Central Asia (mod- ern Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan). For the WARS WITH THE HAN AND BREAKUP next two centuries the Khions were involved in The Chinese emperor Han Wudi (141–87 B.C.E.) turned Afghanistan-based dynasties such as the Kidarites (c. against the heqin policy in 134 B.C.E., and from 129 to 360–400) and Heftalites (c. 460–550) and in tribal con- 119 massive Chinese expeditions seized Gansu and drove federacies such as the “Red Khions” (Kermikhions) in the Xiongnu north to their Selenge-Orkhon base. Trying Iran and the “White Huns” in India (c. 500–42). All these to outflank the Xiongnu, the Han attempted from 108 on dynasties and confederacies were, however, more or less to control the Tarim Basin, only succeeding by 60. In mixed with the native elements. 72–71 neighboring nomads attacked the weakened While no historical records trace their migration to Xiongnu, which eventually split into five factions. Europe, characteristic Xiongnu remains can be followed Shanyu Huhanye (58–31 B.C.E.) eventually fled south to from northern Mongolia, Zungharia, and the Yenisey Inner Mongolia and agreed to submit personally to the valley through western Siberia and the upper Kama and Han court, receiving in return regular gifts of gold, fab- Volga to the north Caucasus steppe, the lower Danube, rics, copper cash, and grain. and the Hungarian plain, the three known centers of When civil war broke out in China, the Shanyu Hun occupation after their invasion westward in 375. Hudu’ershi (19–46 C.E.) reunified the Xiongnu, con- The western Huns lacked the institution of Shanyu; mil- quered the Tarim Basin, and again demanded equal itary needs raised charismatic chiefs such as Attila heqin relations with the Han. After his death, however, (444–53), based in Hungary. Attila’s son, ruling in the the southern Xiongnu elected a separate Shanyu and lower Danube, appears on a list of the early kings of submitted to the Chinese court in 53 C.E., many being Bulgaria. The Huns of the north Caucasus remained a resettled within the Chinese frontiers, particularly in distinct people until at least 681, when they converted Shanxi. In 73 the Han responded to northern Xiongnu to Christianity. raids in Gansu by invading the Tarim Basin. After inva- See also BULGHARS; NOYON UUL; TRIBUTE SYSTEM. sion by their nomadic neighbors in 85–87, the northern Further reading: Emma Bunker, ed., Ancient Bronzes Xiongnu state collapsed; many fled to Inner Mongolia, of the Eastern Eurasian Steppe: From the Arthur W. Sackler and the Han armies drove the northern Shanyu’s forces Collections (New York: Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, west to the Ili valley in 91. Again the reassertion of Chi- 1997); Nicola Di Cosmo, Ancient China and Its Enemies: nese authority in the Tarim was lengthy and not com- The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asia History (Cam- pleted until 127, when the Xiongnu in the Ili valley bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Peter Golden, were definitively defeated. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethno- xöömii 597 genesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Shih Yü, “The Hsiung-nu,” in The Cambridge History of Eurasia and the Middle East (Wiesbaden: Otto Harras- Early Inner Asia, ed. Denis Sinor (Cambridge: Cambridge sowitz, 1992); Adam Kessler, Empires beyond the Great University Press, 1990), 118–149. Wall: The Heritage of Genghis Khan (Los Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 1993); Sima Xixia See XIA DYNASTY. Qian, “Account of the Xiongnu,” trans. Burton Watson, in Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 129–162; Ying- xöömii See THROAT SINGING. Y Yadamsüren, Ürjingiin (1905–1987) One of the Mon- golia’s favored portrait artists who later helped create the Yahbh-Allaha, Mar (1245–1317) Catholicos (patriarch) of the Assyrian Church of the East and confidante of the neotraditional Mongol Zurag style Mongol khans in the Middle East Born in Erdene Zasag banner (modern Tümendelger Born Marqos (Mark) in an ÖNGGÜD Christian family in Sum, Eastern) to an unwed mother, Yadamsüren North China, Yahbh-Allaha took monastic vows and set learned wood carving from his maternal grandfather, out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with Rabban Sawma (d. Ürjin. In 1918 he began assisting Ürjin’s monk brother, 1294). Once in the IL-KHANATE, the Assyrian catholicos Choidashi, in block-printing scriptures. In 1930 (head of the Church of the East, or Nestorians), Mar Yadamsüren joined the MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY Denkha (r. 1266–81), elevated Marqos in 1280 to be YOUTH LEAGUE and migrated to ULAANBAATAR, where he metropolitan of North China, but war in Turkestan pre- become a typesetter. While attending Moscow’s Com- vented his return. munist University of the Toilers of the East in 1934 he On Mar Denkha’s death, Marqos was elected catholi- began painting, and in 1939 he entered the Surikov Art cos under the name Mar (Lord) Yahbh-Allaha (November Institute in Moscow. From his return to Mongolia in 1281). Abagha’s successor, Sultan Ahmad (1282–84), the 1942 he became a professional painter. Until the late first Muslim Il-Khan, briefly imprisoned Mar Yahbh- 1950s Yadamsüren painted revolutionary topics with oil Allaha on charges of supporting his rival Arghun. After paints in a European style. Well-known works included overthrowing Ahmad, Arghun Khan (1284–91) showed portraits of MARSHAL CHOIBALSANG (1941) and of GEN- great favor to Mar Yahbh-Allaha and dispatched Rabban ERAL SÜKHEBAATUR (1942). He was a stage artist for the Sawma as an envoy to Europe in 1287–88. film Tsogtu Taiji (1945). In the 1950s Yadamsüren began In October 1295 GHAZAN KHAN (1295–1304) and collecting and drawing traditional artifacts, traveling NAWROZ (d. 1297) began a reign of terror against non- throughout Mongolia to find good specimens. In 1958 Islamic religions. Newly built churches were razed, and Yadamsüren exhibited Old Fiddler (Öwgön khuurch) Mar Yahbh-Allaha was arrested and tortured until ransom which became one of Mongolia’s most frequently repro- was paid. From summer 1296 on Ghazan Khan moder- duced paintings. The work was a classic neotraditional ated his policy toward non-Muslim religions and fre- work both in its then relatively new MONGOL ZURAG style quently visited the catholicos. Ghazan’s brother and in its subject: an aged player of the traditional Kharbanda (Sultan Öljeitü, 1304–16), despite having HORSE-HEAD FIDDLE. Yadamsüren also used the Mongol been baptized by the catholicos, treated him coldly, and Zurag style for paintings on “modern” topics, such as after 1310 the catholicos retired in bitterness from the Friendship (Nökhörlöl, 1967), showing Russian and court until his death. Mongolian partisans exchanging smokes. Further reading: E. A. Wallis Budge, The Monks of See also MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC; SOVIET UNION Kublai Khan, Emperor of China (1928; rpt., New York: AND MONGOLIA. AMS Press, 1973). 598 Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 yaks See CATTLE. Cast and certified by private moneychangers, ingots cir- culated in various weights. The ding contained 50 taels of Yalawachi See MAHMUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG. silver (the Yuan used a large tael of more than 40 grams). Shaped with a narrow waist and wide end and looking yam See JAM. like a double ax or a pillow, the ingots were called süke, “ax,” in Mongolian and yastuq/balish, “pillow,” in Uighur and Persian, respectively. (WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK mispro- Yan Shi (Yen Shih) (1182–1240) North Chinese local nounced the Uighur name as iascot.) Ingots of one-tenth strongman whose defection to the Mongols established Mon- yastuq, called in Persian sum and by Italian traders gol power in Shandong province sommo, also circulated and in the GOLDEN HORDE were Born in a peasant household in Tai’an prefecture, Shan- used as the primary money of account. Balducci Pegolotti dong, Yan Shi grew up as a gregarious and semiliterate in 1340 gives the Golden Horde sommo as 206 grams tough, often on the wrong side of the law. In 1213, in (7.27 ounces) and .976 fine; the Yuan sommo was 224 response to the Mongol invasion, the JIN DYNASTY grams (7.9 ounces). While the Persian historian, ‘ALA’UD- (1115–1234) authorities enrolled civilian volunteers, and DIN ATA-MALIK JUVAINI mentions both gold and silver yas- Yan Shi became a company commander. In 1218 Yan Shi tuqs, silver was by far the predominant form. While the deserted to South China’s SONG DYNASTY (960–1279), Mongols did not issue their own currency, local curren- then active in Shandong. In 1220, as MUQALI, the cies were valued against the yastuq for official purposes. supreme Mongol commander, moved south, Yan Shi Thus, in the Middle East one yastuq equaled 75 gold deserted to him with eight prefectures and 300,000 dinars of standard purity. In the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY in households. In retaliation the Song generals slaughtered China paper currency replaced silver as currency, but the his clan. In 1221 Muqali and Yan Shi besieged Dongping, unit for public accounting was still the ding, that is, paper one of Shandong’s major cities. After Muqali departed Yan bills worth one ding or yastuq of silver. Shi took the city and made it his base. In 1225 another Shandong strongman on the Song side, Peng Yibin, besieged Yan Shi in Dongping, and Yan Shi surrendered Yeh-lü Ch’u-ts’ai See YELÜ CHUCAI. back to the Song. In July–August, however, he betrayed Peng Yibin in battle and rejoined the Mongols, decisively Yekhe Juu See ORDOS. crushing the Song armies in North China and retaking Dongping. In 1230 he was granted an audience with ÖGEDEI KHAN and made a myriarch, or commander of Yellow Uighurs See YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. 10,000. His subsequent performance in campaigns against the Jin and Song was mediocre. Despite his lack Yelü Ahai (1153–1225) and Tuhua (d. c. 1235) of learning, he generously patronized letters and educa- Brothers who defected from the Jin dynasty and served as tion in Shandong. His sons served QUBILAI KHAN as mili- Chinggis’s earliest civil administrators tary and civil officials. Yelü Ahai and Yelü Tuhua, members of the old Kitan Further reading: C. C. Hsiao, “Yen Shih,” in In the imperial clan, served the JIN DYNASTY as officials in Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Huanzhou (near modern Zhenglan Qi, Inner Mongolia). Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz Around 1200 Yelü Ahai went as the Jin’s envoy to the et al. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1993), 60–74. KEREYID Khanate. There he met CHINGGIS KHAN, then a junior ally of the Kereyid, and offered to defect to Ching- yarghuchi See JARGHUCHI. gis with his younger brother Tuhua as hostage. The brothers returned the next year, and Tuhua was enrolled yarligh See JARLIQ. in the KESHIG, or imperial guard. In 1203, when the Kereyid khan turned against Chinggis Khan, these two yarlyk See JARLIQ. remained loyal and participated in the BALJUNA COVENANT. Both brothers served with JEBE in the van- guard against the Jin from 1211 to 1213. Yelü Ahai yasa See JASAQ. attempted, unsuccessfully, to moderate the violence of this first conquest of North China. When the Jin ruler yasaq See JASAQ. fled south, Chinggis Khan allowed the brothers to set up a rudimentary civil administration. Ahai named himself yastuq (ding, balish, iascot) The MONGOL EMPIRE grand preceptor (Taishi) and Tuhua grand mentor adopted as its money of account the ding silver ingot used (Taifu); these were traditional Chinese titles for leading by the Jin and Song dynasties in China for storing silver. officials. After 1217 Yelü Ahai served in the Mongols’ 600 Yelü Chucai western campaign and was great DARUGHACHI (overseer) but tenaciously sought to reform traditional Mongol in Samarqand, as was his son Miansige. Tuhua remained practices. His program of action included 1) reducing the in Xuande city (modern Xuanhua) near Inner Mongolia, power of the imperial clan; 2) separating civil and mili- coordinating the Kitan and Han (ethnic Chinese) armies. tary authorities; 3) setting both tax payments and dis- Under ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41), YELÜ CHUCAI (no rela- bursements from the royal treasury according to fixed, tion) reformed Mongol rule and eased Yelü Tuhua out of low rates; 4) reduction and greater accuracy in the use of daily administration. the death penalty; and 5) separation of mercantile and Further reading: Paul D. Buell, “Sino-Khitan Admin- governmental activities by limiting ORTOQ partnerships. istration in Mongol Bukhara,” Journal of Asian History 13 To further these plans he instructed Ögedei in the various (1979): 121–151; ———, “Yeh-lü A-hai, Yeh-lü T’u-hua,” classics of the Chinese tradition and built an observatory in In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the and a temple of Confucius in Ögedei’s new capital at Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de QARA-QORUM. Rachewiltz et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), Yelü Chucai faced opposition from many other offi- 112–121. cials seeking the emperor’s ear. Early on a Mongol official, Beter, proposed that the Han (ethnic Chinese) population of North China be exterminated and the land turned to Yelü Chucai (Yeh-lü Ch’u-ts’ai, I-la Ch’u-ts’ai) pastures. Yelü Chucai used this proposal to set forth his (1190–1244) Chief minister of Ögedei Khan in North plan for replacing unpredictable requisitions with regular China and proponent of Confucian principles at the Mongol tax payments. Ögedei allowed this plan on a trial basis court and was astonished by the amount of goods collected. In Yelü Chucai was born in 1190 into a family of officials reforming administration he had also to combat Mahmud serving the Jurchen JIN DYNASTY (1115–1234), while Yalavach, governor of Turkestan, who wished to import deeply conscious of its past as the ruling family of the Islamic methods of taxation into North China (see MAH- Kitan Liao dynasty (907–1123). Orphaned at age two, MUD YALAVACH AND MAS‘UD BEG). During the SIEGE OF Yelü was raised and educated by his mother. By age 16 KAIFENG he strenuously opposed SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR’s pro- he had mastered the Chinese classical curriculum and posal to slaughter the whole population, winning entered an official career. When the Jin capital fell to the Ögedei’s consent only after days of indecision. With the Mongols in 1215, he began to serve the conquerors as a fall of Kaifeng Yelü Chucai protected Jin Confucian offi- scribe. From then on he never wavered in his conviction cials willing to serve the Mongols. In these debates his that for all the suffering of the conquests, CHINGGIS enemies charged Yelü Chucai with being more loyal to KHAN was the heavenly destined emperor and that he or the fallen Jin dynasty than to the Mongol rulers, while he his descendants would certainly unify “All under insisted that all his measures were for the long-term good heaven.” of the dynasty. Yelü Chucai from the beginning had a great interest Despite these victories, Yelü Chucai had to accept in ASTROLOGY and calendrical sciences. His early influ- many compromises. Ögedei’s assignment of new appanages ence on Chinggis Khan came from his skill at interpret- to the aristocracy was not canceled, although their juris- ing omens, taking auspices through SCAPULIMANCY, and diction was limited. The ortoq partnerships were not predicting events as well as through his striking personal curbed, and the continued demand for tax payments in appearance. Extremely tall, his splendid whiskers made silver, unprecedented in Chinese history, caused Chinggis nickname him Utu-Saqal, “Long Beard.” Before widespread hardship. In 1239 other officials, mostly 1223 he studied Dhyana (Zen or Meditation) Buddhism Turkestani and Uighur, bid for the right to collect taxes in with the master Wansong Xingxiu (1166–1246). Yelü North China at levels double or more those Yelü Chucai Chucai’s mature belief, however, that CONFUCIANISM gov- had originally set. Hoping to continue his extravagant erned the state, Taoism (Daoism) cultivated one’s nature, generosity, Ögedei consented and handed over tax policy and Buddhism controlled the mind earned Wansong to ‘Abd-ur-Rahman, a protegé of Empress TÖREGENE. Xingxiu’s criticism as denigrating Buddhism. Despite this When Ögedei’s drinking finally killed him in 1241, ecumenism, Yelü Chucai strongly advocated state pro- Empress Töregene tried to inveigle Yelü Chucai into sup- scription of heretical subsects within these three main porting ‘Abd-ur-Rahman’s policies, but Yelü Chucai religions. refused. He died in 1244, his life’s work seemingly in When Chinggis Khan died Yelü Chucai found a ruins, yet in later decades his policies became precedents much greater scope for action with his son ÖGEDEI KHAN often appealed to by ministers of the Mongol YUAN (1229–41). Ögedei appointed him governor (formally, DYNASTY. Yelü Chucai appears in later Mongolian legend director of the secretariat, Zhongshusheng ling) of North as Chuu Mergen (Chu the Wise) of the Jurchen, one of China. Modeling his career on those officials who slowly Chinggis’s “nine paladins.” drew the emperors of the ancient Han dynasty (202 See also BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CALENDAR B.C.E.–220 C.E.) into Confucianism, Yelü Chucai patiently AND DATING SYSTEMS; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; Yogur languages and people 601 PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN in the ninth century and in part descendants of Mongols THE MONGOL EMPIRE. settled along China’s northwest frontier in the 13th and Further reading: Igor de Rachewiltz, “The Hsi-yu Lu 14th centuries. Today they form a single small nationality by Yeh-lü Ch’u-ts’ai,” Monumenta Serica 21 (1962): in China’s Gansu province, numbering 12,297 (1990), 1–128; Igor de Rachewiltz, “Yeh-lü Ch’u-ts’ai, Yeh-lü some speaking a Turkish language and some a Mongolic Chu, Yeh-lü Hsi-liang,” in In the Service of the Khan: Emi- language. nent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz et al. (Wiesbaden: ORIGINS Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 136–175. In 840, with the fall of the UIGHUR EMPIRE in Mongolia, a body of UIGHURS fled south to Ganzhou (modern Yeme See JEBE. Zhangye) in Gansu. The kingdom they established there was conquered in 1029 by the Tanguts (Mi-nyag) of the emerging XIA DYNASTY (1038–1227), although a body of Yen Shih See YAN SHI. “Yellow-Headed Uighurs,” including members of the rul- ing Yaghlaqar lineage, remained in the Tsaidam area Yerbanov, Mikhey Nikolayevich See ERBANOV, (modern Haixi). The designation “Yellow-Headed” may MIKHEI NIKOLAEVICH. refer to fair-colored hair (found today in many Siberian peoples), yellow turbans, or possibly their imperial lin- Yesügei See YISÜGEI BA’ATUR. eage. In 1226 the Mongol general SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR con- quered these Sarigh Uighurs (“Yellow Uighurs”) during Yike Zhao See ORDOS. his campaign against the Xia dynasty. After 1374 the Yellow Uighurs, then nomadizing in yurts and raising CAMELS, HORSES, CATTLE, and SHEEP in Yisügei Ba’atur (Yesügei) (d. 1171?) Mongol chief and the Subei-Aksay-Tsaidam areas, surrendered to the MING father of Chinggis Khan DYNASTY and were organized into the Anding, Aduan, Yisügei Ba’atur was a member of the aristocratic BORJIGID Quxian, and Handong guards. The first ruler of the Yel- lineage, the dominant lineage in the MONGOL TRIBE that low Uighurs in the Anding guard was a Chinggisid occupied the northeast part of present-day Mongolia. prince, Buyan-Temür. Meanwhile, the Chigil Mongol (The title ba’atur means hero.) Yisügei was the grandson guard nomadized around modern Yumen. All these of the first Mongol chief to assume the title of KHAN, nomads were Buddhist, and the Chigil Mongols gener- Qabul Khan, and the nephew of Qabul’s second succes- ously patronized Tibetan lamas (see NORTHERN YUAN sor, Qutula Khan. Yisügei had two wives, one of obscure DYNASTY). From 1472 to 1528 attacks from the Islamic origin and another, Ö’ELÜN, whom he had captured from Chinggisid state of MOGHULISTAN drove the Yellow Uighur a MERKID tribesman who was leading her home after mar- and Chigil Mongol guards east to the mountains south of rying her. Suzhou (modern Jiuquan) and Ganzhou. From 1542 to After Qutula Khan died in battle with the Tatar tribe, 1596 ORDOS and TÜMED Mongols of Inner Mongolia sub- Yisügei Ba’atur became one of the main contenders for dued most of the Yellow Uighurs as part of their advance power among the Mongols. He strengthened his claim to into Kökenuur (Qinghai; see UPPER MONGOLS). leadership of the Mongols by becoming blood brother By 1645 the remaining Yellow Uighurs had submitted (ANDA) of Toghril Khan (later known as ONG KHAN), ruler as Huangfan, or “Yellow Barbarians,” to the QING DYNASTY of the powerful KEREYID Khanate to the west, and helping (1636–1912). Those in the west near Suzhou, who were Toghril Khan secure his throne. On his way home from Turkish speaking, were settled in seven OTOGs (camp-dis- betrothing his nine-year-old son Temüjin (CHINGGIS tricts) totaling more than 7,000 around 1700, and those KHAN’s childhood name) to the daughter of a chieftain of near Ganzhou, who were Mongolian speaking, were in the important QONGGIRAD clan, Yisügei stopped at a camp five otogs totaling more than 6,000 in 1779. By this time of the TATARS. Accepting their hospitality, he was poisoned, the word Uighur had altered to Yogur, and the two groups leaving his two wives widows and his sons orphans. The called themselves Saregh (Turkish) or Shera (Mongolian) Kiyad-Borjigid clan he had built among his subjects and Yogur, both meaning “Yellow Yogur/Uighur.” After a brief allies dispersed soon after his death. Chinggis Khan later period subject to GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN (1678–97) of said of his father that despite his battle prowess and hardi- the ZÜNGHARS, the Yogurs returned to their obedience to ness, he ultimately failed because he did not know how to the Qing in 1698. All the otogs had chiefs confirmed by make allowance for his followers’ weakness. the Qing and paid a fixed “tribute” of horses in return for “gifts” of TEA (see TRIBUTE SYSTEM). They also included a Yogur languages and people (Yugur, Yugu, Yellow number of Heifan “Black Barbarians,” or Tibetans, so- Uighurs, Shera Yogur) The Yogurs are in part descen- called from their black tents. By this time the Yogurs dants of the Uighur Turks who fled south from Mongolia around Huangnibao were farmers. 602 yörööl and magtaal LANGUAGES Oirat, and the Turkish clans of Turgesh, Yaghlaqar, Kyr- The two languages of the Yogurs include Western Yogur, gyz, and Andijan, as well as many Tibetan clans. The pas- in the Turkic family, and Eastern Yogur, a language of the toral Yogurs lived in Tibetan-style black tents. Married Mongolic family. It was estimated in the mid-1980s that lamas gathered at Buddhist temples on holy days to per- about 3,000 spoke Eastern Yogur and about 4,600 spoke form services, and mostly male, but sometimes female, Western Yogur. Western Yogur is a relatively conservative yekheje (shamans) sacrificed sheep to Denggeri Khan, Turkish language, showing many features of Old Turkish “Khan Heaven.” in pronunciation and the number system. In February 1954 the government of the new Peo- Eastern Yogur is a typical “peripheral” Mongolic lan- ple’s Republic of China proclaimed Sunan a Yogur guage in preserving the Middle Mongolian initial h- (e.g., Autonomous County. The county, which contains more heleghe, liver, hgu-, to die). It also shares a number of fea- than 75 percent of the Yogurs, consists of three discontin- tures with the Gansu-Qinghai family of Tu, Dongxiang, uous districts, two south and one (Minghua) north of the and Bao’an, particularly the de-stressing of the first sylla- main railway. In 1982 the county’s population was ble, which leads to its frequent loss (e.g., mudə n from 33,816, of which the 8,088 Yogurs formed 23.92 percent, Middle Mongolian ömüdü(n), trousers) and the formation the Tibetans 22.03 percent, and the Han (ethnic Chinese) of consonant clusters in h- or r- (e.g., hdoro from Middle 50.86 percent. With illiteracy among those over six just Mongolian dotora, inside, hje- from Middle Mongolian more than 40 percent, primary school enrollment of hichi-, to be ashamed, rdə from Middle Mongolian urtu). school-age children at 40 percent and only 80 percent of Other shared Gansu-Qinghai features include the fusion the nationality employed in the herding and agriculture of the accusative and genitive forms, the ablative in -sa, sector (1982 figures), the Yogur are relatively developed and the terminal converb in -la (not -ra). They also share compared to other Gansu-Qinghai minorities. the transformation of b- to p- when followed by an aspi- See also ALTAIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; BAO’AN LANGUAGE rated stop (e.g., Middle Mongolian bichig becomes East- AND PEOPLE; DONGXIANG LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE; MON- ern Yogur puchig). Unlike Tu, Dongxiang, and Bao’an, GOLIC LANGUAGE FAMILY; TU LANGUAGE AND PEOPLE. however, Eastern Yogur retains vowel harmony and sepa- Further reading: Toru Saguchi, “Historical Develop- rate front rounded vowels ö and ü, and its verbal forms ment of the Sarïgh Uyghurs,” Memoirs of the Research and vocabulary are considerably closer to classical Mon- Department of the Toyo Bunko 44 (1986): 1–26; Henry golian. It is unclear whether Eastern Yogur thus repre- Schwarz, Minorities of Northern China: A Survey (Belling- sents a more conservative branch of the common ham: Western Washington University Press, 1984), 57–68. Gansu-Qinghai subfamily or a branch that was secondar- ily “re-Mongolized” through contact with the Oirats, or West Mongols. yörööl and magtaal The yörööl (blessing or benedic- Both the Yellow Uighurs and the Mongols used the tion) and magtaal (praise or panegyric) together form same Uighur script. As late as the early 18th century, one of the major genres of Mongol folk poetry. The offer- Buddhist texts in both Uighur Turkish and in CLEAR ing of a yörööl (Kalmyk-Oirat, yöräl, Buriat, yerüül) SCRIPT Oirat Mongolian circulated among the Yogurs. By accompanies virtually all public ritual functions in tradi- the 19th century, however, the Yogur languages were no tional and in much modern Mongolian life. Occasions for longer written and only Chinese is now used for writing. a yörööl include dedication of newly made or acquired tools and implements (felt, YURT, saddles, rifles, etc.); the SOCIETY AND CONTEMPORARY SITUATION birth or acquisition of a valuable new animal; the making The Hui (Chinese-speaking Muslim) rebellion of of a cradle for a newborn baby; the presentation of a 1862–74 and Qing conscription into armies organized to whole sheep, liquor, or new KOUMISS; sacrifices to the suppress the rebellion caused great hardship among the household fire (see FIRE CULT), the OBOO, or war standard, Yogurs. By 1949 the Yogur population had declined to aspersions (tsatsal) of mare’s milk to heaven (see TENG- only about 3,000, who kept 43,030 sheep, 27,740 goats, GERI); and WEDDINGS. Such yörööls often include descrip- 6,790 cattle (mostly yaks), and 1,740 horses. In the tive magtaals, which are also spoken separately for Kangle district, southeast of the Sunan county seat, the mountains and other features of the natural environment five Mongolian-speaking otogs still existed with their own and especially during sporting events to announce the chiefs. In Dahe district, northwest of the Sunan county great qualities of the victorious horse and jockey, seat, and at Huangnibao there were three Turkish-speak- wrestler, or archer. Sometimes political addresses and ing otogs, including the Khurangat tribe and the Yagh- wedding speeches are separated as zorig. laqar tribe, and one Mongolian-speaking otog. The A typical yörööl begins with a syllable or line of invo- farming Yogurs around Huangnibao (modern Minghua cation, such as om sain amgalan boltugai “Om (the sacred district) spoke only Chinese, however. The Yogurs pre- Tantric seed-syllable)! May there be a good peace!” or the served scores of “bones,” or clans, including the famous exclamation “Zee!” The speaker then describes the occa- Mongol clans of Suldus, Arulad, QONGGIRAD, Tuman, and sion and the offerings made (where appropriate), praises Yuan dynasty 603 the features of the object being blessed one by one, gives lai’s recruitment of Confucian-oriented officials created a a predictive picture of its successful use, and concludes network that would plan his coronation in 1260. As KHAN with the blessing proper. The poetic forms of yörööls and Qubilai’s elder brother MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) magtaals are marked by groups of lines (couplets, tercets, appointed Qubilai supervisor of North China and Inner or quatrains) alliterating on the first syllable. Parallelism Mongolia, where he pursued experiments in Confucian between both lines and larger strophes is common, as are governance and constructed a new seat at Kaiping (later long cataloguelike lists. One of the most distinctive fea- SHANGDU). tures of this genre and Mongolian ritual language gener- Unlike earlier khans, Möngke had no powerful ally is the combination of repeated restatement of widow, so the empire was left without an obvious regent. obvious facts together with pervasive hyperbole. Thus, a Qubilai’s brother ARIQ-BÖKE used his position in Mongolia YURT’s latticework is jade and its door is garnet, an arrow proper to win the support of Möngke’s old establishment is fledged with the “flight feathers of the King Garuda and of the rulers in the GOLDEN HORDE and CHAGHATAY (the mythological Indian bird) who flies gracefully on KHANATE. Qubilai, however, easily stripped Ariq-Böke of high,” and so on. This ritual hyperbole, found also in control in North China and, summoning a new general Mongolian EPICS, resembles a lay adaption of the lan- assembly (QURILTAI), had himself elected khan on April guage of Tantric visualizations, which re-creates this 15, 1260. His support came from Chinese and semuren world in the form of a perfected world. Confucians and from Mongols living in or near China, In Mongolian society men with a talent for speaking descendants of the brothers of Chinggis Khan and the such praises and blessings, called yöröölchi (blessers) or great noble families (JALAYIR, QONGGIRAD, Ikires, etc.) in khonjin, are widely sought for all sorts of ritual occasions. North China and Inner Mongolia. While the addresses are delivered orally and creative vari- The succeeding conflict with Ariq-Böke largely ations on existing patterns are valued, written exemplars turned on Qubilai’s superior control of the civilian have long circulated in booklets to help speakers develop administration. Qubilai’s new administration ordered their repertoire. widespread emergency mobilization of military equip- See also FOLK POETRY AND TALES. ment and manpower, both Mongol and Chinese, while blockading Ariq-Böke in QARA-QORUM. The resulting Yuan dynasty (1206/1271–1368) Officially pro- famine intensified when Alghu, the Chaghatayid ruler, claimed in 1271, the Yuan dynasty represented both the betrayed Ariq-Böke and began supporting Qubilai. Even- continuation of the Mongol Empire and a new Mongol tually Ariq-Böke surrendered (August 21, 1264) and was dynasty in China. The editors of the encyclopedic YUAN pardoned. SHI (History of the Yuan), writing in the first years of the With Ariq-Böke defeated, Berke, HÜLE’Ü, and Alghu, succeeding MING DYNASTY (1368–1644), treated the Yuan ruling the Golden Horde, the IL-KHANATE, and the dynasty as synonymous with the MONGOL EMPIRE and Chaghatay Khanate, respectively, acknowledged Qubilai’s naturally saw it beginning with the coronation in 1206 of victory and his precedence as ruler in the eastern home- CHINGGIS KHAN (Genghis) in Mongolia. Later Chinese land but declined to attend a new quriltai. The khanates historians, viewing the Yuan as a purely Chinese dynasty, were now all effectively separate, each choosing its own put its beginning with the final fall of the Song in 1279. rulers with, at most, nominal recognition from the others. Officially, the name Yuan was not proclaimed until GEOGRAPHY AND FOREIGN RELATIONS December 18, 1271, when it replaced Great Mongol Empire (Mongolian, Yeke Mongghol ulus; Chinese, Da Geographically, the core of the Yuan dynasty was North Menggu guo) as the empire’s formal title. China, Manchuria, and its adjacent Inner Mongolian While the Mongol dynasty began in 1206, QUBILAI steppe. The Mongols had incorporated Inner Mongolia by KHAN’s (1260–94) rise created a new power center in 1211, while occupation of North China began in earnest North China that differed significantly from the earlier in 1214. By the time of the death of Chinggis Khan in reigns of the Mongol khans. With Qubilai’s 1260 corona- 1227, Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, and Gansu provinces tion this new power center supplanted the old power had been pacified, while Manchuria was partially settled center in Mongolia. In that sense the Yuan dynasty as the by the Mongols. ÖGEDEI KHAN (1229–41) completed the separate North China–based component of the divided conquest of Manchuria and of Shaanxi and Henan Mongol Empire really began existence in 1260. It is in provinces in North China. this sense that Yuan is used in this article. These provinces felt a very heavy Mongol influence. Chinese census figures indicate a catastrophic drop in FORMATION OF THE DYNASTY North China’s population during the first conquest. The The Yuan dynasty’s origins lie in Qubilai’s cultivation of a Mongol rulers divided Inner Mongolia into grazing new ruling elite drawn from both the old officials of the grounds for the nobility and for the allied tribes, such as JIN DYNASTY and the new SEMUREN (West and Central the ÖNGGÜD and the Qonggirad. Manchuria was given Asian) class of North China. Begun in the 1240s, Qubi- over to the families of the descendants of Chinggis Khan’s Yuan Dynasty, 1330 Baarin . aR Kyr Te Len Lake Am le gyz Baikal u ng rR . it An g Irty a a rs a rg sh R ra R . . Qasarids Ba ad mi Ta r t Yenisey m R. d ye Tu Oirats er ji Gile Suldus U¨ Belgüteids Wa t Te m ü Lake g e Od Balkhash chig inids Qa chi ’un ids G Almaligh Qara-Qorum N Shimu'ultu A Na'ur (1261) Y LINGBEI O Sea of Besh-Baligh Yingchang IA Japan Qara-Qocho Quanning L Shenyang CHAGHATAY KHANATE Hami Shangdu (Turpan) Liaoyang CENTRAL ˘ Uiju Ssangsong ˘ Datong Dongning (Tongnyong) ˘ JAPAN GANSU Daidu Qara’unas ˘ Kaegyong Liangzhou Baozhou Bo Gulf Ganzhou ZHENGDONG . Guzang Taiyuan Zhengding Munakata R H u a ng (1260) Zhongxing Ninghai (1281) us Yidu nd m I Kökenuur Xingzhou N Lake Dongping Yellow Chin I. Hakata ga ’ SHAANXI Pingyang (1274) (Yellow) R. Sea -r m D oo Fengxiang Cheju I. is --ssm maad d Kaifeng Xuzhou Imari Fengyuan HENAN TIBET Me (Jingzhao) Yangzhou (1281) ko Xiangyang ng Shanghai Bra R. Ji a Wuchang Changzhou hm n ap ’Dam (Ezhou) gli mDo-khams g Ts a u tr a dBus SICHUAN ng R. ng Hangzhou Cha ’Bri-gung Chengdu ng Sa-skya Hezhou JIANGZHE Chu-mig (Yan sNe’u-gdong Chongqing Yuezhou gt z Longxing e) R Tanzhou Frontiers of the Yuan Dynasty . Provinces of the Yuan Dynasty White Jang HUGUANG Quanzhou ng Ja Area disputed with Chaghatay Dali k Jingjiang ac Khanate Bl YUNNAN Yachi JIANGXI Barga Subject tribes or Chinggisid hs Canton appanages oot PACIFIC OCEAN ldt Go Yaishan I. Battles (1279) Capitals VI Bach- Dang ˘ (1288) ET 0 600 miles BURMA Babai-Xifu N South China Sea AM 0 600 km Yuan dynasty 605 brothers and the family of MUQALI of the Jalayir clan. portion to its wealth than was the North and the local About half of North China proper was divided into soldiery in the south was mostly not Mongol but North appanages granted to members of the nobility. Artisan Chinese and former Song soldiers. colonies, both of conscripted Chinese and of deported Qubilai’s conquest of the Southern Song did not end Muslims from Central and West Asia, dotted the country- his territorial ambitions. Maritime invasions of Japan side. During the Mongol pacification campaigns the Mon- (1274 and 1280), Cham-pa (in modern central Vietnam, gols destroyed city walls, prohibited residence in remote 1281), and Java (1292–93) all failed. More costly land mountain areas, and took over large areas as ranch lands invasions of BURMA (Myanmar, 1282–87) and VIETNAM for the herds of Mongol garrisons. Qubilai relocated his (1285–88) secured only the payment of annual tribute. A primary capital to Yanjing (modern Beijing), which was final costly campaign against the Babai-Xifu of northern rebuilt and renamed DAIDU (Great Capital). Kaiping, now Thailand (1301) ended Yuan military ambitions in South- renamed Shangdu (Upper Capital), remained the summer east Asia. capital. With Ariq-Böke’s surrender Qubilai recovered the Between Ögedei’s death and Qubilai’s accession, the Mongolian homeland and most of modern Xinjiang. Mongols took most of the major cities in Sichuan and From 1269 to 1285 the hostile Ögedeid prince QAIDU Korea, raided Tibet, and subdued the Dali kingdom in KHAN (1236–1301) raided the northwest frontier with modern YUNNAN. Qubilai peacefully induced Korea to increasing effect. A victory over the garrison in Besh- submit, but only after further campaigns in 1269–73 was Baligh (ca. 1285) gave his coalition the entire Tarim Basin Korea fully integrated into the Yuan realm. The Korean by 1288–89, and from then his raids went deep into kings received brides from the Mongol imperial family Mongolia, even briefly occupying Qara-Qorum (1289). In and served as senior grand councillors of the “Eastern 1293 the Yuan began a major counteroffensive in Mongo- Expeditionary Branch Secretariat” (Zhengdong xing lia, which concluded with Qaidu’s death and the pacifica- zhongshu sheng), effectively a Yuan provincial adminis- tion of Mongolia as a branch secretariat in 1312. Xinjiang tration. Yunnan was given a branch secretariat in 1273. was not recovered, however, and a major westward expe- Sichuan remained a military frontier zone until the fall of dition around 1314 had only ephemeral results. While no Chongqing in 1278 during the final conquest of the Song. longer the capital, Mongolia retained its importance as a Qubilai tried to rule central Tibet (dBus-gTsang) through frontier post and the site of the imperial ancestors’ burial the Sa-skya order, whose leader, ’PHAGS-PA LAMA, was grounds and palace-tents (ORDOs). Garrisoning Mongolia Qubilai’s private chaplain, but a rebellion in 1268 was a common route to power for princes until the 1329 brought more direct Mongol rule through pacification death of Qoshila (titled Mingzong, 1328–29). commissions (xuanwei si) subject to the Commission for The Yuan dynasty, as the successor of the Mongol Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzhengyuan) based in great khans, claimed authority over all the Mongol suc- Daidu. cessor states. The Il-Khans in Iran, descended from Qubi- The conquest of the SONG DYNASTY from 1274 to lai’s brother Hüle’ü, and so likewise belonging to the 1279 brought the Chang (Yangtze) valley and the South Toluid branch of the Chinggisids, acknowledged this China coast under Yuan control. During the conquest claim both in their coins and by accepting seals from the Qubilai and his commander in chief, BAYAN CHINGSANG, Yuan dynasty. After 1269 the other branches of the diligently avoided the kind of massive destruction that Chinggisid family resisted Qubilai and the Il-Khans, but had befallen North China. As a result, the population of in 1304 the various Mongol Khanates made peace. Yuan South China remained much larger than that of North relations with the Il-Khans remained close until the lat- China—11.4 million households compared to 2.0 mil- ter’s fall in 1335, while frequent diplomatic missions lion households, according to the 1291 census. Grain stimulated trade and intellectual exchange between from the Chang (Yangtze) valley breadbasket came China and Iran. The khans of the Golden Horde sent north first through a reconstructed Grand Canal and occasional embassies until at least 1341. Despite the later by sea. peace of 1304, border clashes with the Changhatayids Although Chinese writers hailed the unification of continued. The two regimes repeatedly interfered in each South and North China as one of the great achievements others’ court politics, but neither ever successfully con- of the dynasty, the Mongols maintained a separation trolled the other. between the areas. Mongols always used two separate words (kitad and nanggiyad) to refer to South China and ADMINISTRATION North China. The Mongol rulers distrusted Southern loy- The center of Yuan administration was, as in all Chinese alties and discriminated against them in the selection of dynasties, the emperor (qa’an in Mongolian, huangdi in officials. When the exam system was restored in 1315, Chinese). Unlike ethnically Chinese dynasties, however, the quotas for North and South Chinese were equal the Mongols did not recognize primogeniture, leaving despite the great difference in their populations. At the any descendant of Qubilai theoretically eligible. Up to same time, the South was taxed much less heavily in pro- 1311 the election quriltais (assemblies) saw genuine 606 Yuan dynasty debate, but with the enthronement of Shidebala in 1320, “clerks” (li), a partisan term that indicated any official they became a pure formality. For the next 20 years pow- without Confucian training. The Yuan also ignored the erful empress-dowagers, rebellious guards units, or high traditional Chinese law of avoidance, allowing officials to officials dictated the successions. serve in their own districts. Prescribed terms of office The Yuan dynasty borrowed its formal administrative were also widely ignored. Even so, the central government structure from that of the previous Jin dynasty in North maintained its control over the provinces primarily by the China. The Secretariat (Zhongshusheng) served as the selection and rotation of personnel. primary organ of civil governance. The Military Affairs Bureau (Shumiyuan, often translated Privy Council) FISCAL POLICY commanded all military units in the North China–Inner One of Qubilai’s earliest aims was to make the qubchiri, a Mongolia heartland except the KESHIG (imperial guard). direct silver tax, less onerous. The creation of a paper The Censorate (Yushitai) supervised official conduct. The currency, which the government accepted for qubchiri vast imperial household establishment, which included payments, achieved this end. To make up lost revenue, such Mongol institutions as the keshig (imperial guards Qubilai expanded the grain tax and enforced the tamgha, of present and deceased emperors), the ordos (palace- or commercial tax, on the ortoq merchants. The main tents and staff of present and deceased emperors), the source of revenue, however, was the salt monopoly, “houseboys” (ger-ün kö’üd), or enslaved artisans, and the which by 1290 accounted for more than half the govern- ORTOQ, or government-affiliated merchants, was entirely ment’s total revenue. As the court allowed the census and independent of these organs, as were the large Commis- land registration to lapse, the role of commercial and sion for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs and the smaller monopoly taxes grew even more. By 1320 the salt Commission for the Promotion of Religion (Chongfusi) monopoly reached 80 percent of government revenue. directing Christian clergy (erke’ün). Other more tradi- The great achievement of Yuan finance was maintain- tional autonomous organizations included the various ing a reasonably stable paper currency for almost 100 educational and literary organs, such as the Hanlin and years. Unlike the Jin dynasty, the Yuan issued paper cur- Historiography Academy, which promoted Confucian rency only in proportion to actual silver reserves, which studies and compiled historical records, the Academy of in turn depended on an international silver market linked Scholarly Worthies, which supervised state schools and to the Yuan by intercontinental trade. This policy of silver Taoist (Daoist) temples, and the Directorate of Astron- backing kept inflation more or less under control but omy (Sitianjian). Muslims dominated offices for made the Yuan vulnerable to periods of trade downturn. “Turkestani” (Huihui) medicine, astronomy, and the ortoq With the conquest of the Song, commerce on the South administration. Sea proved another source of revenue and bullion. All people in the empire were assigned to four differ- Apart from the formal institutions of finance, the ent categories, in descending order of rank: Mongols, Chinggisid nobility, the great Mongol families, and later semuren (“various sorts,” or western immigrants), the the Qipchaq and other imperial guards all disposed of Han (North Chinese), and southerners. In local adminis- vast private estates. Moreover, the Mongol tradition of tration Qubilai decreed that the DARUGHACHIs (overseers) entrusting favored persons—military commanders, mes- should be Mongol or semuren, while the administrators sengers, ortoq merchants, court physicians, honored cler- should be Han or Southerners. In the Central Secretariat ics, and so on—with PAIZA badges that allowed them to the two grand councillors (chengxiang) after 1270 were seize necessary goods was only partly curtailed. Thus, the always Mongols or semuren, while the four managers decentralized Yuan upper class disposed of great (pingzhang) who handled financial affairs included only resources, even as the formal government faced looming an occasional Han and no Southerners. The privileged fiscal problems. ortoq merchants were all semuren, while Han and South- ern civilians could not bear arms. MILITARY POLICIES Yuan administration was the forerunner of the modern By the time of the Yuan founding, the Mongolian military Chinese province structure. The central Secretariat in had already undergone major change. Chinggis Khan had Daidu directly administered only the dynasty’s North Chi- put several tümens (10,000s) under Muqali as his TAM- nese–Inner Mongolian heartland. Elsewhere branch secre- MACHI (permanent garrison) army. Under Ögedei Khan tariats controlled administration. Overseers (darughachi), four Chinese generals, commanding armies personally who by law were Mongols or semuren, served alongside all loyal to themselves, were promoted to the rank of myri- local officials. Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia up to 1312 arch: YAN SHI, SHII TIANZE, ZHANG ROU, and Liu Heima. were not part of this secretariat system. Qubilai inherited both of these armies in 1260 in addi- Qubilai resisted pressure to create an examination tion to the Mongol armies subject to his princely sup- system, instead relying on recommendation and the yin porters. In the early years of his reign, relentless privilege, by which officials could recommend a kinsman conscription of Mongols and Chinese resident in North for office. Confucians despised most Yuan officials as mere China and Inner Mongolia built a strong field army. Yuan dynasty 607 Qubilai also radically changed the guard’s structure. decimal units served as civil administrators for the sol- Not until 1263 did he recruit the traditional keshig-type diers’ home camps (a’uruq) in time of peace. Ordinary guard, which in any case during the Yuan was more soldiers served tours of duty ranging from one to six political than military in function. Immediately upon years. Many Mongol soldiers benefited from the posses- his election as khan, he drafted a new guard army of sion of slaves originally taken as prisoners of war—in Han Chinese, which by 1279 totaled 50,000. The con- Zhenjiang figures show the average Mongol held 15 quest of the Song from 1274 to 1276 demonstrated the slaves, while the Chinese rarely held any. Each regular effectiveness of the new Mongol-Chinese army, as the Chinese military household supplying a soldier received Mongol aristocrats Bayan Chingsang and AJU, the low- financial assistance from one or two auxiliary military born Uighur Ariq-Qaya, and Qubilai’s Chinese guards households. Soldiers were exempt from qubchiri taxes commander, Dong Wenbing (1218–78), all worked and partially exempt from the grain tax. Despite these together in a combined land-marine assault down the benefits, shortages of male labor frequently drove soldier Han and Chang (Yangtze) Rivers. Much of the defeated households into poverty. With the conclusion of the great Song army was then recruited into the Yuan military as campaigns against the Song, the effectiveness of the garri- “Newly Adhered Troops” (Xinfu Jun). The suppression son armies, both Mongol and Chinese, began to decline. of NAYAN’S REBELLION in 1287 also relied heavily on Chi- Only frequent reregistration to equalize burdens could nese and Korean units. prevent the paper strength from diverging from the real The war against Qaidu and his partisans in Mongolia strength. After 1290 this reregistration lapsed, and the eventually brought new units to the fore. In 1278, grati- garrison forces gradually became ineffective. fied by the performance of a Qipchaq 1,000 under TUTUGH, Qubilai ordered that all Qipchaq Turks in his POLITICAL HISTORY realm be mobilized under Tutugh. Similar guards were After the defeat of Ariq-Böke in 1264, Qubilai’s advisers formed of displaced OSSETES (Alan or Asud), QARLUQS, began a period of institution building, proclaiming a Qangli, and Russians. These guards, composed of salaried dynastic title, a censorate, a regular civilian administra- professional fighters drawn from ethnic reserves, eventu- tion, and other classic institutions of Chinese rule. At the ally became the dynasty’s main fighting forces. same time, ’Phags-pa Lama made Tibetan Buddhism the From the 1240s Chinese generals in Mongol service court religion. Qubilai eventually tired of what he saw as had been dealing with river-borne attacks from the Song the doctrinaire attitude of the Confucian officials, dis- dynasty. Mongol commanders such as Aju had begun missing the leading Confucians LIAN XIXIAN and Yelü Zhu experimenting with river warfare during campaigns from office in 1270 and elevating the Central Asian against Dali and Vietnam in the 1250s. The defection of financier AHMAD FANAKATI. The fall of the great Song the Song general Liu Zheng (Liu Cheng, 1213–75) and fortress Xiangyang in 1273 opened the possibility of the the capture of 146 ships in Sichuan in 1265 stimulated destruction of the Song. In 1274 Qubilai levied a force of the creation of an inland navy that eventually was orga- 100,000 men to conquer the Song, whose capital fell in nized in four wings. The conquest of Korea gave the Yuan 1276. Military adventures in Japan and Southeast Asia dynasty its first ocean naval force, and the first invasion occupied Qubilai until the end of his reign. Throughout of Japan in 1274 involved 300 large ships. The conquest Ahmad’s dominance Qubilai’s heir apparent, JINGIM of the Song added tremendously to Yuan shipbuilding (1243–85) and the chingsangs (grand councillors) Bayan resources, and the second invasion in 1280 involved 900 and Hantum, both Mongols of distinguished families, vessels. The navy never became an independent branch covertly patronized Confucian officials. An abortive of service, however, and was always deployed under the insurrection that killed Ahmad in 1282 strengthened the command of generals with primary experience in land hands of the Confucians and their aristocratic Mongol fighting. supporters. SANGHA, a Tibetan financier, rose to high All military forces stationed in the area under the position by successfully addressing a revenue crisis. His central Secretariat (North China and Inner Mongolia) fall in 1291 left the Mongol Confucian aristocrats in came under the command of the Bureau of Military almost complete control of the government, although Affairs. These were primarily Mongol, tammachi, Han, Sangha’s policies were continued. and ethnic guards units. Areas of active military opera- Jingim died in 1285, but the coronation of his tions received Branch Bureaus of Military Affairs, but youngest son, Temür (titled Chengzong, 1294–1307), provincial garrisons were put under the Branch Secretari- after Qubilai’s death in 1294 established the patterns of ats in peacetime. Garrisons in South China were primar- power for the next few decades. Temür’s administration ily Han and Newly-Adhered Troops, with only a liquidated the adventure in Vietnam and, apart from the scattering of Mongol units. Pyrrhic victory against Babai-Xifu in northern Thailand, Both Mongol and Chinese units were organized accepted the status quo on the frontiers. Mongols of aris- according to the same DECIMAL ORGANIZATION, and both tocratic families dominated the higher levels of Temür’s were expected to be self-supporting. Commanders of the administration, which domestically abandoned Qubilai’s 608 Yuan dynasty activist remolding of society and adopted a nonconfronta- every accession was followed by massive donatives to the tional approach to social interests. Temür and his succes- aristocracy and the recruitment of a new keshig, so the sors repudiated the anti-Taoist persecutions of Qubilai’s repeated short reigns exacerbated the budget crisis. From late years and his hostility to Muslims and ortoq mer- 1309 to 1311 Haishan’s administration attempted to push chants. through a new nonconvertible silver currency but was From Qubilai’s time the princes of the imperial fam- defeated by public resistance. Ayurbarwada’s administra- ily had married women of the Qonggirad clan. In 1284 tion, led by TEMÜDER, unsuccessfully attempted a new Jingim’s ordo (palace-tent) had received control of the cadastral survey in 1314. Temüder also chipped away at tammachi, or garrison armies, in North China and Inner the autonomy of the princely appanages. Opponents of Mongolia, a position inherited by Jingim’s Qonggirad fiscal centralization charged Temüder with corruption, widow, Bairam Egechi (Kökejin). Bairam Egechi played a and his execution of Confucian opponents stimulated key role in Temür’s succession, but after his death with- such broad opposition that Ayurbarwada dismissed him out an heir, a rival QUDA (in-law) lineage tried to break in 1318. Despite these nagging problems, growth contin- Qonggirad influence. Empress Bulughan of the Baya’ud ued. By 1330 the Yuan’s directly administered population clan tried to secure the throne for Ananda, a son of had risen to 13.4 million households from 11.84 million Jingim’s brother Manggala and a Muslim, but the Mongol in 1290. Confucian HARGHASUN DARQAN of the Oronar clan, the Ayurbarwada also returned to Qubilai’s early encour- senior grand councillor, arranged for the sons of Temür’s agement of CONFUCIANISM. In 1315 he restored the Con- brother Dharmabala and Dharmabala’s Qonggirad widow fucian examination system for choosing officials, Targi to converge on Daidu and kill Ananda. This action although with a quota system of 25 percent for each of protected the throne for Jingim’s descendants and the the empire’s four ethnolegal classes. From this time on Qonggirad. After negotiations Targi’s eldest son, Haishan lowborn Mongol and semuren Confucians used the exams (titled Wuzong, 1307–11), who had been garrisoning for upward mobility. Mongolia, received the throne, with her younger son When Ayurbarwada died in 1320 the fiscal, power- Ayurbarwada (titled Renzong, 1311–20) as heir apparent. political, and ideological issues combined to create two During the reigns of Haishan and Ayurbarwada the decades of political turmoil. Temüder joined the Qonggi- financial cost of the court’s unwillingness to antagonize rad empress Targi to put Ayurbarwada’s son Shidebala major interest groups became evident. By Mongol custom (titled Yingzong, 1320–23) on the throne. When Targi and Temüder died in 1322, their opponents seemed to have triumphed, but in 1323 Temüder’s faction linked up with the Ossetian (Alan) guard and assassinated both the emperor and his Mongol Confucian grand councillor, Baiju of the Jalayir. The conspirators invited Yisün-Temür (titled Taidingdi, 1323–28), the eldest son of Gammala, Jingim’s eldest son, then stationed in Mongolia, to take the throne. Yisün-Temür’s legitimacy was always in doubt, and his Muslim advisers Dawla-Shah and ‘Ubaidullah increased opposition by their favoritism toward Muslims and Christians and lavish payments to ortoq merchants. When Yisün-Temür died at Shangdu, the Qipchaq EL- TEMÜR and the Merkid BAYAN (1281?–1340) activated a conspiracy in Daidu to restore Haishan’s exiled sons to the throne. The resulting two-month civil war split the ethnic guards’ regiments, the great non-Chinggisid fami- lies, and the imperial family down the middle. The Con- fucian officials in the capital and the major provinces, however, strongly supported the conspirators. Victorious, El-Temür and Bayan executed Dawla-Shah and ‘Ubaidul- lah, purged Temüder’s old clique, curtailed Muslim privi- leges, and strengthened Confucian influence. At first, the military strength of Haishan’s elder son, Qoshila (titled Mingzong, 1328–29), who had the support of the Chaghatayid Khanate, intimidated his brother Tuq-Temür Temür Öljeitü Khan, an emperor (1294–1307) of the Yuan (titled Wenzong, 1329–32), who had been exiled in dynasty. Anonymous court portrait (Courtesy National Palace South China. Tuq-Temür’s entourage assassinated Qoshila Museum, Taipei) in 1329. Yuan dynasty 609 When Tuq-Temür died of disease three years later, however, his Qonggirad empress Budashiri leagued with Bayan to put Qoshila’s sons on the throne and to domi- nate the administration. Bayan, a lowborn loner in Yuan politics, canceled the exam system and tried to reverse the Confucianization of the Yuan administration. Execu- tions and disappearances of prominent Mongol and semuren opponents increased opposition. Eventually the power of the Confucian officials became clear when Bayan’s own nephew TOQTO’A (1314–55) secured an edict of dismissal from the emperor Toghan-Temür (title Shundi, 1333–70) in 1340. COURT CULTURE AND MONGOL LIFE UNDER THE YUAN The Yuan imperial court preserved its Mongol character until the end of the dynasty. The Mongol practice of long- standing quda (in-law) alliance with Mongol clans, partic- Mongol literati in the Yuan dynasty (From the Yuan-era [i.e., ularly the Qonggirad and the Ikires, kept the imperial 14th-century] printing of the Shilin guangji) blood purely Mongol until Haishan’s son Tuq-Temür, whose mother was a Tangut concubine. After 1340 Qong- girad influence declined. None of the emperors mastered Chinese and participating in the exchange of poetry with written Chinese, although they could generally converse Chinese friends and colleagues. Semuren officials, particu- well in the language. larly UIGHURS, Tanguts, and Önggüd, also joined in this Perhaps Qubilai’s most lasting legacy to Mongolian appreciation of Chinese cultural traditions. At the same culture was his promotion of Tibetan Buddhism. From time, as late as 1345 Aruqtu of the Arulad clan had to 1260, when ’Phags-pa Lama was made state preceptor admit to the emperor that he could not read the newly (guoshi), all the Yuan emperors kept a Tibetan lama of the edited Chinese dynastic histories he was presenting to Sa-skya order at court to perform Tantric empowerments the throne. for the emperor and the numerous branches of the impe- The average Mongol garrison family seems to have rial family. Judging from personal names, the Qonggirad lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from clan was perhaps even more actively involved in Bud- the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of dhism than was the imperial family. Few members of the equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. great keshig and DARQAN clans, such as the Jalayir, the Social interaction with local Chinese was routine, and Arulad, the Üüshin, and the Oronar, however, show Bud- intermarriage was common. Membership in the keshig, dhist names, even in the 14th century. open to handsome, able-bodied Mongols, offered one Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number avenue of promotion for such Mongols, and after 1315 of monuments of Buddhist art. ’Phags-pa Lama invited the exams offered another. The life of a late Yuan Mongol Nepalese artists, including the famous ANIGA, although commander, Chagha’an-Temür, illustrates this milieu. His few of his Buddhist artworks survive. Monuments of a great-grandfather Kökedei, a NAIMAN from Uighuristan, Sino-Tibetan style include the Tantric statues at had settled in Henan as a tammachi soldier in Ögedei’s Feilaifeng built under the direction of the Tibetan monk time. Chagha’an-Temür passed the local examinations, in Mongol service Yang Rin-chen-skyabs (fl. 1277–88), but his friends included Kuankuan, a non-Chinese village and the reliefs at the great gate of Juyongguan of 1345. tough fond of hunting and horse riding, and Li Siqi, a Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan Chinese police chief and tax clerk. Chagha’an-Temür’s originals, began on a large scale after 1300. sister married another Chinese buddy, Wang Baobao, and The other powerful influence on Mongol upper-class when Chagha’an-Temür rose to fame he adopted their culture was Chinese, particularly Confucianism. Many son, named Köke-Temür, as his own. When rebels began members of Mongol aristocratic lineages, particularly the attacking officials and plundering landholding families in Jalayir and the Oronar, delighted in patronizing Confu- 1352, Chagha’an-Temür and his friends raised a multieth- cian scholars and institutions, although their personal nic volunteer corps to defend their district. level of familiarity with Confucian texts in the original was rather slight. A considerable number of Confucian FALL OF THE DYNASTY and Chinese historical works were translated into Mon- Toqto’a’s exile of Bayan and Empress Budashiri in 1340 golian. By the mid-14th century a significant number of ended the 20-year conflict over administration with vic- Mongols were composing examination essays in classical tory for policy-oriented Confucians. El-Temür had 610 Yuan dynasty sponsored the compilation of a Chinese-language hyperinflationary spiral, forcing a return to silver ingots administrative compendium, the Jingshi dadian (1330), and copper cash as the main currency. By 1360 the value and now Toqto’a restored the examinations, revived of silver in gold, stable from 1285 to 1350 at 1 to 10, had seminars in the classics for the young emperor, and pro- suddenly doubled to 1 to 5. Constant military operations moted frustrated South Chinese scholars. Toqto’a also and repeated outbreaks of plague from 1353 to 1362 in completed the long-delayed compilation of the dynastic virtually every province led the population, which had histories of the Yuan’s predecessors in 1344–45. been stable or increasing up to 1330, into another sharp Unfortunately, the restoration of stable government decline. After 1351 the prohibition on weapons owner- coincided with a gathering socioeconomic crisis. In 1331 ship by Chinese civilians became a dead letter, as rebels an epidemic in Henan had reportedly killed nine-tenths and loyalists alike armed volunteers. of the population, an outbreak that seems to mark the After Toqto’a’s fall the court lost control of the beginning of the medieval BLACK DEATH. In 1337–38 scat- remaining loyalist armies, and most taxes were spent tered uprisings broke out in South China, which Toqto’a locally on warlord forces. Under Chagha’an-Temür and blamed on the oppressive grand councillor Bayan. His other volunteer commanders, nominally loyal Yuan own term in office saw turmoil among the tribal border armies defeated the Song regime, while along the Chang populations and banditry in North China in 1341–43. In (Yangtze) the former monk Zhu Yuanzhang defeated his 1344 massive flooding foretold a change in the Huang rivals and unified the south. The court managed to sur- (Yellow) River’s course, while growing piracy menaced vive among the North Chinese warlords until Zhu Yuan- the seaborne transportation of southern grain north to zhang’s great commander Xu Da drove north to Daidu, Daidu. Meanwhile, plague, famine, and droughts struck forcing the Mongolian court to flee to Inner Mongolia. Henan; plague ominously spread to the coastal provinces. Toghan-Temür died in 1370 in Yingchang, and his son Toqto’a proposed a program of restoring the Huang (Yel- Ayushiridara ascended the throne in the old Mongolian low) River to its old channel and rebuilding the Grand capital of Qara-Qorum. Zhu Yuanzhang declared the new Canal, thus avoiding seaborne piracy. Given the chronic Ming dynasty (1368–1644), but Ayushiridara and his deficit, Toqto’a advocated paying for the massive works descendants continued to claim the Yuan title in Mongo- projects by issuing unbacked paper money. lia until 1634. Within China hundreds of thousands of Within a few weeks of the inauguration of Toqto’a’s Mongol households joined the new dynasty as military great project in May 1351, Buddhist millenarian sectari- households. ans among the canal workers revolted. These “Red Tur- Why did the Yuan dynasty fall? Charges from the bans” seized control of virtually the whole Huai River Yuan shi and Quan Heng’s Geng/shen waishi (The unoffi- area. The garrisons proved useless, and several widely cial history of 1380) of Toghan-Temür’s outrageous publicized defeats of poorly lead, disease-ridden imperial immorality rely on selective use of the evidence. Modern guards bolstered Red Turban morale and sparked more historians often see the fall of the Yuan as a judgment on uprisings throughout the south. By 1354, however, Toq- the decline of the Mongols, who became soft and lazy. to’a and the Yuan establishment had broken the back of Certainly, the Mongol military had radically changed, not the uprising. Major victories showed the Ossetian and so much in its fighting spirit or courage but its relation to Qipchaq imperial guards units still had plenty of fight in the surrounding society. From the end of Qubilai’s reign them, but the bulk of the loyalist armies were volunteer on the dynasty had renounced the systematic mobilization forces, raised among Chinese officials and salt workers, of men and materiel that marked the Mongol conquest. Mongol tammachi households (such as that of Chagha’an- After several generations of living with the Chinese, it was Temür), and Miao tribesmen. Toqto’a’s dismissal in 1354, simply impossible for the Mongol troops to fight them as however, shattered the Yuan’s military unity. Rebel leaders alien conquerors. Nevertheless, men like Chagha’an- used the reprieve to retake the Chang (Yangtze) valley as Temür proved successful enough fighting as defenders of pirates seized the coastline and remnants of the Red Tur- the hierarchical, multiethnic Chinese rural society against bans reoccupied Henan from 1355 to 1360, setting up a sectarian religious violence. revived “Song dynasty.” The fall of the Yuan cannot be divorced from the pan- In central Tibet Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan (1302–64), Eurasian crisis of the 14th century. The plagues, famine, a cleric of the Phag-mo-gru-pa order and myriarch of hyperinflation, depopulation, and misery of China in the sNe’u-gdong (modern Nêdong), gradually overthrew the 1340s and 1350s resemble the contemporary situation in Sa-skya order from 1351 to 1358. The Yuan court had no Europe and stand in sharp contrast to the increasing pop- alternative but to recognize Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan as ulation, stable currency, and general prosperity evident in ruler of Tibet. Meanwhile, the Korean king Kongmin China up to 1330. The ultimate explanation of the (1351–74) abolished the Branch Secretariat and extermi- socioeconomic crisis of the 1340s is thus best sought not nated the family of Toghan-Temür’s wife, Empress Ki. in faults of Mongol administration but rather in the Black By 1355 virtually every aspect of the Yuan order was Death. Yet the chronic deficits of the Yuan government, in shambles. Toqto’a’s unbacked currency had entered a which left the Yuan few options in dealing with the Yuan dynasty 611 Huang (Yellow) River flooding, and the political conflicts Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing, and that diverted attention undoubtedly compounded the cri- foodways into China. Middle Eastern crops such as car- sis. Even so, until the fall of Toqto’a, the Yuan administra- rots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, and mel- tion showed remarkable resilience in dealing with the ons, high-quality granulated sugar, and, most important, rebellions. Had the counterattack succeeded as it almost cotton were all either introduced or successfully popular- did until Toqto’a’s dismissal in 1354, the Yuan might have ized by the Yuan court. ruled China, albeit in a less traditionally Mongol form, Finally, the Yuan exercised a profound influence on for many decades more. the succeeding Ming dynasty. While its founder, Zhu Yuanzhang (titled Ming Taizu, 1368–97) admired the THE IMPACT OF THE MONGOLS ON EAST ASIA Yuan’s unification of China and adopted its garrison sys- The influence of the Mongols on subsequent East Asian tem, he was disgusted by the broad role accorded the history was tremendous. Ironically, the Mongol military imperial family and the in-law families, the crude lan- conquests were largely responsible for re-creating a uni- guage and ideological laxity of the clerks, the predomi- fied, militarily powerful China. Since the decline of the nant influence of military men, the monetized economy, Tang, independent, ethnically based Confucian regimes— the official patronage of ortoq merchants, and the persis- Korea, Dali (Yunnan), Vietnam, the Kitan Liao, the tent tradition of ad hoc requisitions by paiza holders. In Tangut XIA DYNASTY, and the Jurchen Jin—had boxed in organizing his new dynasty he sought to restrict policy the ethnic Chinese Song state. Outside traders began to making to the emperor and his classically trained Con- treat North and South China as two separate countries. fucian civil officials alone. The ironic result was the rise The Mongol conquest prevented a permanent division of of eunuchs as the emperor’s only way around the Confu- North and South China and blocked the emergence of a cian elite. The strict enforcement of orthodox culture permanent constellation of Confucian states, except for under Zhu himself led to massive purges and in the long Vietnam and Korea. The Mongol rule of Tibet, Xinjiang, run to widespread cynicism toward a regime of stifling and Mongolia proper from a capital at modern Beijing hypocrisy. Creating an administration that tried as much also supplied the precedent for the QING DYNASTY’s as possible to dispense as far as possible with mercantile (1636–1912) Inner Asian empire, as well as that of the activity, large estates, and even the use of money, the People’s Republic today. Ming emperors proved incapable of emulating the Mon- Culturally, the reunification of China had important gols’ success in managing paper money, inadvertently consequences. From the Jurchen conquest of North returning China to a silver bullion currency. Zhu China in 1127, innovative South Chinese cultural trends Yuanzhang’s preferred policy of direct taxes, collected as had diverged from the more conservative north. Confu- much as possible in kind according to fixed schedules, cianism, Buddhism, and Taoism all developed differing limited the arbitrary requisitions of the autonomous schools—the more literary Dongping Confucian school, Yuan upper class but eventually resulted in an almost the scholastic Caodong Dhyana (Sôtô Zen) school, and complete budgetary paralysis that stymied any attempt the ascetic Complete Realization (Quanzhen) Taoism in to resolve pressing problems. Thus, much of China’s the north compared to the more philosophical Zhu Xi subsequent imperial history can be understood as a Confucianism, the more anti-intellectual Linji Dhyana reaction against the distinctive Mongolian administra- (Rinzai Zen) school, and the less sectarian Celestial Mas- tive style. ter (Tianshi) Taoism in the south. By reunifying China See also APPANAGE SYSTEM; BUDDHISM IN THE MONGOL the Mongols broke down sectarian boundaries both EMPIRE; CENSUS IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; CHRISTIANITY IN within and between the “Three Religions.” At the same THE MONGOL EMPIRE; EAST ASIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL time, the choice of Zhu Xi Confucianism as the standard EMPIRE; EIGHT WHITE YURTS; ISLAM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; for the examinations marked its first adoption as the offi- JAPAN AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; KOREA AND THE MONGOL cial state doctrine of late imperial China. The colloquial EMPIRE; MANCHURIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; MONGO- Chinese culture, encouraged by the Mongols’ employ- LIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PAPER CURRENCY IN ment of non-Confucian clerks, also stimulated the further THE MONGOL EMPIRE; PROVINCES IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; development of Chinese drama. SIBERIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE; SOCIAL CLASSES IN THE The other cultures and peoples in the Mongols’ MONGOL EMPIRE; SOUTH SEAS; RELIGIOUS POLICY IN THE world empire permanently influenced China. The most MONGOL EMPIRE; TAOISM IN THE MONGOL EMPIRE; TIBET obvious influence was the large Hui, or Chinese-speaking AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE. Muslim, community in North China, today numbering Further reading: Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Con- almost 9 million and stemming from the Muslim ele- quest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge University ments of the semuren community of the Yuan. Tibetan- Press, 2001); Paul Heng-chao Ch’en, Chinese Legal Tradi- rite Tantric Buddhism also took permanent root in tion under the Mongols: The Code of 1291 as Reconstructed Chinese Buddhism. The semuren, with the active sponsor- (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979). John ship of the Yuan government, also introduced Middle W. Dardess, Confucians and Conquerors: Aspects of Political 612 Yuan shi Changes in Late Yüan China (New York: Columbia Univer- Comparison of the Yuan shi’s relatively sparse annals of sity Press, 1973); Elizabeth Endicott-West, Mongolian Rule the early reigns with the extant veritable records of in China: Local Administration in the Yuan Dynasty (Cam- CHINGGIS KHAN and ÖGEDEI KHAN (known as the bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); Herbert SHENGWU QINZHENG LU, or Record of the campaigns led by Franke and Denis Twitchett, eds., Cambridge History of the lawgiving warrior) shows that the editors added China, vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 many entries from other sources. The mode of compila- (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Ch’i- tion for the much denser annals of Qubilai and his suc- ch’ing Hsiao, Military Establishment of the Yüan Dynasty cessors, which contain hundreds of entries per year, is, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978); John however, not documented. Most of the treatises were D. Langlois, ed., China under Mongol Rule (Princeton, N.J.: compressed summaries of the corresponding chapters in Princeton University Press, 1981); Igor de Rachewiltz et the now mostly lost administrative encyclopedia Jingshi al., eds., In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of dadian (Compendium on administration of the world, the Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300) (Wiesbaden: 1330), compiled by the ÖNGGÜD high official Zhao Otto Harrassowitz 1993); Herbert Franz Schurmann, Eco- Shiyan (1260–1336) and the South Chinese scholar Yu Ji nomic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty: Translation of Chapters (1272–1348). As a result, the treatises contain virtually 93 and 94 of the Yüan Shih (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard no information on changes after 1330. Many of the University Press, 1967). biographies were copied almost verbatim from the extant Guochao mingchen shilue (Sketches of eminent ministers Yuan shi (History of the Yuan) The Yuan shi was a of the dynasty, 1328) and Guochao wenlei (Anthology of massive encyclopedia of the Mongol YUAN DYNASTY the dynasty) by Su Tianjue (1292–1354). Although these (1206/71–1368) compiled by the succeeding MING collections focused on Confucians, whether Mongol, DYNASTY according to the standard format of Chinese SEMUREN, or Chinese, the Yuan shi biographies also incor- dynastic histories. In January 1369, less than five porated biographical data from many now lost sources, months after the fall of the Yuan, the first emperor of Mongolian and Chinese, thus achieving an admirable eth- the new Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang (titled Ming nic and ideological catholicity. Taizu, 1368–98), assigned the task of compiling a his- Despite being a “standard history,” the Yuan shi drew tory of the defunct dynasty to the Hanlin academician criticism from the start. Inconsistencies of fact appear Song Lian (1310–81), seconded by edict attendant repeatedly between the biographies and the annals. Char- Wang Yi (1323–74). Song and Wang and their staff fin- acters for writing non-Chinese names were not standard- ished their first draft on September 12 the same year. ized, which resulted in one father-son pair accidentally The draft, however, lacked material on the long reign of receiving two separate biographies each! Studies of these the last Yuan emperor, Toghan-Temür (titled Shundi, problems include the Yuan shi ben zheng (Textual correc- 1333–70), and the emperor rejected the text. After a call tions to the History of the Yuan, 1802) by Wang Huizu for the officials of the empire to forward documentary (1731–1807), while attempts to reorganize part or all of material on the last reign, Song Lian, again assisted by the Yuan shi materials include the Yuan shi jishi benmo Wang Yi, completed a version acceptable to the emperor (Topical Yuan history, 1616) by Chen Bangzhan (d. on July 23, 1370. 1623), Mengwu’r shiji (Historical records of the Mongols) The Yuan shi followed a format pioneered by Sima by Tu Ji (1856–1921), and Ke Shaomin’s Xin Yuan shi Qian’s Shi ji (Historical records), which facilitated refer- (New history of the Yuan, 1919). Even so, the Yuan shi’s ence in the absence of an index. The standard format almost verbatim reproduction of numerous sources involved four sections: 1) strictly chronological annals of increases its value for the serious historian, making it an each emperor; 2) topical treatises on calendars, geogra- absolutely indispensable resource on all aspects of the phy, rituals, personnel, finance, military, criminal punish- MONGOL EMPIRE. ments, and so on; 3) tables of the imperial family and See also EAST ASIAN SOURCES ON THE MONGOL EMPIRE. high officials; and 4) biographies (including “biogra- Further reading: Ch’i-ch’ing Hsiao, Military Estab- phies” of foreign countries). The editors dispensed with lishment of the Yüan Dynasty (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard the usual assessment that often followed chapters in ear- University Press, 1978); Herbert Franz Schurmann, Eco- lier histories, probably due to lack of time. nomic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty: Translation of Chap- The compilation of a work of more than 4,000 pages ters 93 and 94 of the Yüan Shih (Cambridge, Mass.: in less than two years was possible only by wholesale Harvard University Press, 1967). borrowing from existing sources, and each of the three main sections—basic annals, treatises, and biographies— drew heavily on sources already compiled under the Yugu See YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. Yuan. The basic annals were based on the translated Veri- table Records (shilu), which QUBILAI KHAN and his succes- sors compiled about their predecessors in Mongolian. Yugur See YOGUR LANGUAGES AND PEOPLE. yurt 613 Yunnan The Mongol conquest of the Dali kingdom in 1990), with a heavily Yi (Black Jang)-influenced cul- began the integration of Yunnan into China proper. The ture, are a legacy of Mongol rule in Yunnan. Dali (Ta-li) kingdom (937–1253), successor to the Nanzhao (Nan-chao) dynasty (c. 653–902), centered on Yün Tse See ULANFU. Dali, the capital, and Yachi (modern Kunming). The administration combined a Chinese system of prefectures and commanderies with the “White Jang” (Mongolian, Yun Ze See ULANFU. Chagha’anjang, the modern Naxi) and “Black Jang” (Mon- golian, Qarajang, the modern Yi) tribes. The ruling Duan yurt (ger) The Inner Asian yurt of recent centuries is dynasty was of the Chinese-influenced Bai people of Dali, the latest form of mobile Inner Asian residence, built but the “Black Jang” were numerous and powerful. (The with a collapsible wooden frame covered by felt. Once idea that the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms were formed by widespread over the Eurasian steppe, the yurt is still used ethnically Thai peoples is no longer accepted.) Chinese- by most of Mongolia’s rural dwellers and among the Mon- rite Buddhism was the city dwellers’ dominant religion. gols of Inner Mongolia’s high steppe, Xinjiang, and Along the modern Chinese-Burmese border were the Kökenuur (see UPPER MONGOLS) in China. The KAZAKHS “Gold Tooths” (Persian, Zardandan, named from their of Mongolia and Xinjiang and the Kyrgyz of Kyrgyzstan gold-plated teeth), ancestors of the modern Dai (Tai) peo- also dwell in yurts today. Mongolia’s cities are all sur- ple but not yet Theravadin (Southeast Asian) Buddhist. rounded by districts of fixed yurt-courtyards. MÖNGKE KHAN (1251–59) dispatched Prince Qubilai The term yurt is Turkish in origin and actually means to Dali in 1253 hoping to outflank the Song. The Gao “homeland”; its use for the felt tent is something of a family, probably Black Jang in origin, dominated the court misnomer. In Mongolian the felt tent is called ger (home) and resisted. Qubilai took Dali on January 3, 1254, and or isgii ger (felt home), and in Kazakh üy (home) or kigiz spared the city, despite the slaying of the Mongol ambas- üy (felt home). sadors. King Duan Xingzhi was confirmed as local ruler, STRUCTURE AND ASSEMBLY with a Chinese pacification commissioner. After Qubilai’s The walls of a yurt in recent centuries are formed by lat- departure back for North China, unrest broke out among ticework sections, or khana (term in Kalmyk-Oirat), which the Black Jang, which Uriyangqadai (1199–1271), son of can be expanded or contracted. The khana are placed SÜBE’ETEI BA’ATUR, ruthlessly suppressed, butchering Yachi within a circle, completed by the door or door frame, and and emptying recalcitrant mountain valleys. By 1256 the attached to one another with thongs. The roof is formed by pacification was complete, yet difficult frontier conditions a smoke-hole circle, or toono (kharach in Kalmyk-Oirat), made Dali impossible to use for invading the Song. which is attached to the walls by about 80 uni, or poles, The mountainous northern parts of the region radiating out from the toono to the khana like the spokes of proved excellent for horses, and Möngke Khan placed the a wheel. The uni and the khana are attached by leather region under 19 Mongol myriarchies. The small Mongol thongs. Once built, the yurt framework is covered by wall garrisons recruited Black Jang auxiliaries, and in their and roof felts. The walls are cinched with rope sashes isolation from the Mongol world the two began to fuse. (khoshlon). An örkh, or felt smoke-hole cover, is attached In 1267 QUBILAI KHAN (1260–94) made his younger son on one corner to the rear of the yurt and can be opened to Hügechi prince of Yunnan, and in 1273 he dispatched let sunlight in and smoke out or closed to keep in warmth. SAYYID AJALL to implement civilian administration in the The khana are roughly 1 1/2 meters (51/2 feet) high new Yunnan Branch Secretariat. Mongol Yuan rule in and 2 1/3 meters (seven to eight feet) long. Yurt sizes are Yunnan was henceforth divided among the imperial generally measured by how many khana they have; six to princes, the Branch Secretariat under Sayyid Ajall and his eight are normal. The average yurt thus has a diameter of family, the Mongol commanders, the Black Jang tribal about 5 to 6 meters (15 to 18 feet) and a living space of leaders, and the Duan family in Dali. Yunnan used its dis- about 16 to 23 square meters (175 to 250 square feet). tinctive cowrie money throughout the dynasty. The yurt and its furniture can be disassembled and Under Emperor Temür (1294–1307) a disastrous reassembled in about one hour each and transported on expedition against the Babai-Xifu in northern Thailand two or three oxcarts or camels or on a single truck. Tradi- spurred first a local official, Song Longji, and then the tionally, yurts are assembled first by fixing the hearth site Gold-Tooths to revolt in 1301–03. The revolts were even- and placing the main chests and the door. Then the khana tually suppressed. are set up. The toono (with either the attached uni or After the expulsion of the Mongols from China in lashed-on pillars, depending on the type) is lifted in over 1368, the Yuan prince Vajravarmi continued to rule Yun- the khana and set up, and the uni is fitted into position and nan, refusing relations with the new MING DYNASTY. In lashed to the khana. Then the felt and smoke-hole flap are 1382 the Ming defeated the Vajravarmi’s armies and con- placed over the frame. Yurts are always assembled with the quered Yunnan. A small population of Mongols (13,148 door to the south or southeast; in Mongolian “back” 614 yurt Mongolian yurt and camp, Khöwsgöl 1992 (Courtesy Christopher Atwood) (khoino), “front” (ömnö), “left” (züün), and “right” (baruun) In the MONGOL EMPIRE period felt flaps were used for also mean “north,” “south,” “east,” and “west,” respectively. doors, something still found among the Kalmyks of the 19th century. These were sewn with stitched patterns or REGIONAL VARIATIONS colored patterns. In Mongolia and Inner Mongolia, how- There are a number of regional variations in yurt con- ever, the yurts of all but the poorest nomads have struction. In Inner Mongolia and some eastern KHALKHA wooden doors. These doors also vary, with a more com- yurts the uni are permanently lashed to pegs wired to the plicated double door being found in north-central toono, so that when the uni are lashed to the khana, the Khalkha. toono needs no support. Among the central and western Khalkha Mongols and the BURIATS and OIRATS the uni are FURNISHING, USE, AND SYMBOLISM not permanently attached but fitted separately into slots In the 19th century traditional furnishings of the yurts on the toono. As a result, two pillars (bagana) are needed consisted primarily of hides, felts, and sometimes to hold up the toono. Among the KALMYKS, although the imported pile rugs to cover the ground; at least two large uni are not attached to the toono, they are pushed up at a chests for holding religious articles, clothes, and other much higher angle, so that the toono does not need pillars. valuables; a large wok (togoo) placed on a four-legged Among the Mongols of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia iron trivet (tulga) over an open fire; and low stools and the toono is constructed in two concentric circles, held tables for sitting and serving. Wealthier Mongols covered together by crossbars. Among the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and the inside khana with embroidered cloths or rugs and the Xinjiang’s Oirat Mongols, however, the toono (called outside roof with decorated felt covers. A single narrow shang’ïraq in Kazakh and Kyrgyz and kharach by the Xin- bed was usually kept but used mostly to hold bedding; jiang Mongols) is formed of an outer circle and three family members usually slept between quilts placed on pairs of perpendicularly intersecting crossbars. Among the ground. The floor by the door was usually covered by the Kalmyks the kharach is formed by an outer circle and boards. Today yurt dwellers all use an enclosed stove a single cross. with a stovepipe. The stove may be a small manufactured yurt 615 one or assembled of bricks mortared with mud and dried HISTORY OF THE YURT grass and covered with a sheet of iron with a round hole Despite its status as the exemplar of Mongolian tradition, for the wok. Large cots are now generally used, and nomadic housing has undergone many changes. From the sometimes the whole yurt is floored with wooden boards, first millennium B.C.E. through the XIONGNU (Hun) and especially if it is not frequently moved. TÜRK EMPIRES, Central Eurasian nomads dwelled in two- Yurt frameworks are made of willow wood and are wheeled high carts with a pyramidal superstructure cov- often painted: Orange, bright red, and turquoise blue pre- ered by black felt and pulled by draft animals: HORSES, dominate. Wooden chests, stools, and tables are mostly oxen, or CAMELS. Camels were used to pull these carts orange with stereotyped decorations, including cloud through deep rivers. These tents were not collapsible and patterns, auspicious Buddhist symbols (the unending were moved with people inside them. The felt was coated knot, the wishing jewel, etc.), and the four friendly ani- with ewe’s milk or tallow to make it waterproof. The ear- mals (elephant, rabbit, monkey, and bird). liest known collapsible yurts are pictured in Chinese art The yurt’s felt covering and its relatively small size of the sixth century C.E. High carts were used by the make it relatively easy to heat even in extremely cold western Turks until the 11th century, but among the weather, so that it is the preferred winter dwelling even KITANS of the 10th to 12th centuries such high cart tents for semisedentarized Mongols with built houses were used only as shrines for the ancestors. The living all (baishing). Yurts are generally heated with dried animal stayed in collapsible yurts. dung or else with wood in the northern forest-steppe. During the Mongol Empire the collapsible yurt was The lower flaps, or khayaa (kalmyk-Oirat, irg), of the used alongside the cart yurt. Some noncollapsible yurts yurt’s felt walls are important for weather conditioning: kept permanently on carts had the form of a rounded-off In winter their outsides are buried in dirt, stones, and square, while the smoke-hole area was like the top of a snow to block drafts, while in summer they are tied up, bell. These chomchog yurts are still found in the EIGHT leaving about a 30-centimeter (one-foot) gap between the WHITE YURTS of the CHINGGIS KHAN cult in ORDOS. felt and the ground and allowing cross breezes into the WILLIAM OF RUBRUCK also describes round, presumably yurt. Traditionally, poor people used reed or rawhide collapsible, yurts being moved fully assembled on carts. mats to help waterproof their patched and ragged felts. Some were almost 10 meters (30 feet) across and pulled The use of the yurt is bound with a strong symbolic by 22 oxen. The small pyramidal yurts on high carts, ear- structure based on the two polarities of honored and lier used for residences, were used to keep goods and ordinary and male and female. The khoimor, or honored possessions and apparently as servants’ dwellings. They part of the yurt, is in the back, opposite the door. There is were pulled by a single draft animal. During nomadization the Buddhist altar, if present, a display of family pho- tographs and awards, and the master and mistress’s bed. Honored guests are seated in that section. Near the door is the ordinary section, where horse tackle and cooking gear are kept and baby animals are nursed. The right side (looking from the khoimor to the door) is for men and their things, and the left for women and their things. Movement through the yurt should be clockwise, follow- ing the daily movement of the sunlight through the toono. The toono itself is seen in many myths and stories as the gateway between the human and the divine realm; from it hung the family ONGGHON (cloth or felt spirit figurine) in shamanist households or smoke offerings of grass and herbs in Buddhist ones. Saws are placed between the felt and the uni near the door and the rope hanging from the toono tucked in above the uni in a swivel pattern seen as a wolf’s snout: These protect the yurt from harm. The mak- ing of a new yurt is accompanied by an anointing of the yurt with butter and a poetic benediction (see YÖRÖÖL AND MAGTAAL). In the past, stepping on the threshold of the yurt is seen as stepping on the master’s neck. In the Mongol Empire those who did so knowingly at the khan’s court were executed; foreigners who did so ignorantly were The yurt-courtyards outside Mörön, Khöwsgöl province excused but never again allowed into his presence. (From N. Tsultem, Mongolian Architecture [1988]) 616 yurt each main yurt would go in front, and the cart yurts The 20th century introduced technical improve- would be tied behind in single file and move at a very ments to the yurt even as social changes eliminated it slow pace. When camped, the main yurt would be among the Mongols of Russia and in the more densely flanked by two lines of high carts behind and beside the inhabited regions of Inner Mongolia. Enclosed stoves and main one. stovepipes, first introduced among the Transbaikal Buri- High carts disappeared in the postimperial period; by ats and spread by them into Mongolia and Inner Mongo- the 16th century only the collapsible yurt remained. lia from the 1920s on, dramatically improved the air Large palatial yurts were now called örgöö, and Mongo- quality, while in the postwar period canvas covers over lian princes dwelt regularly in vast 12-khana yurts until the felt greatly improved waterproofing. Yurt frameworks the 20th century. By the 19th century yurt frameworks and felt in Mongolia became mostly the work of small were built mostly in the monasteries by lama craftsmen. urban factories, although with the economic crisis of the Much of the felt was made either in the monasteries or by 1990s homemade felt became more common. Chinese seasonal laborers. The seminomadic western Further reading: Peter Alford Andrews, Felt Tents Buriats built not yurts but hexagonal or octagonal log cab- and Pavilions: The Nomadic Tradition and Its Interaction ins of the size and structure of yurts. In eastern Inner with Princely Tentage, 2 vols. (London: Melisende, 1999); Mongolia mud-brick houses in the form of yurts also Micheal V. Kriukov and Vadym P. Kurylev, “The Origins appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In Khüriye of the Yurt: Evidence from Chinese Sources of the Third (modern ULAANBAATAR) during the 19th century, lamas Century B.C. to the Thirteenth Century A.D.,” in Gary and layfolk alike lived in fixed yurts, establishing the pat- Seaman, Foundations of Empire: Archeology and Art of the tern for the yurt-courtyard (ger khashaa) quarters that still Eurasian Steppe (Los Angeles: Ethnographics Press, exist today. Such fixed yurts are always surrounded by a 1992), 157–183; Jerzy Wasilewski, “Space in Nomadic wooden fence and often include a utility shed. In recent Cultures—A Spatial Analysis of the Mongol Yurt,” in years providing clean water, sanitation, and electricity for Altaica Collecta, ed. Walther Heissig (Wiesbaden: Otto these districts has taxed the abilities of urban planners. Harrassowitz, 1976), 345–360. Zakchin See ZAKHACHIN. Z tion was almost 8,000 and reached 10,800 in 1956 and 22,500 in 1989. See also KHOWD PROVINCE. Zakhachin (Zakhchin, Dzakhachin, Zakchin) The Zakhachin Mongols are a subethnic group, or yastan, in Zakhchin See ZAKHACHIN. southern Khowd province. Originally in the Zünghar principality, certain subjects formed into a special OTOG Z^ amcarano See ZHAMTSARANO, TSYBEN ZHAMTSARA- (camp district) of zakhachins (border wardens) directly NOVICH. subject to the Zünghar ruler. CLAN NAMES suggest many were actually of non-Zünghar origin, probably captured in Oirat wars with the Mongols. In 1754 a large body Zanabazar See JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTU, FIRST. under the zaisang (local official) Maamud was captured southwest of the Altai and surrendered to the Qing zasag (Inner Mongolian, jasag; Chinese, zhasake) armies. They were stationed as a directly administered The zasag, or ruler, was the head of an autonomous ban- Zakhachin banner along the Üyench and Bodonch Rivers, ner or local district under the Mongolian administration and two new monasteries were endowed. of the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912). In 1777 they were assigned to the Manchu AMBAN The position of zasag was first created in the Qing (assistant military governor) of KHOWD CITY fortress. dynasty’s reorganization of Inner Mongolia in 1636. All of Shortly thereafter, Maamud’s nephew Jaltsan was the Qing zasags were TAIJI (noblemen), and virtually all granted hereditary jurisdiction over 30 households. were descendants of CHINGGIS KHAN or his brothers. From 1800 on the Zakhachin banner thus consisted of a Thus, the zasag was simultaneously a hereditary Qing banner with four sumus and one independent hereditary official and a representative of Chinggis Khan. Qing sumu (SUM, or unit supplying 50 soldiers). The dynasty regulations limited the BORJIGID (Chinggisid) Zakhachins supplied horses to the Manchu garrison in ruler’s classically patrimonial powers, reserving the right ULIASTAI, farm labor for the fields at Khowd, and, after to depose serving zasags, divide their banners, or alter 1801, manning and provisioning of the five postroad the succession. Primogeniture was normal, however, and stations between Khowd and Dihua (Ürümqi). The after 1670 in Inner Mongolia and 1765 in KHALKHA ban- Zakhachins kept relatively few horses or camels but ner boundaries were not altered. many sheep and goats. In 1878 a new monastery, Ölzöi The zasag was the banner’s supreme judge, but plain- Tsaghaan Padma, was established, and in 1906, on the tiffs could appeal to the league and the LIFAN YUAN occasion of the Dalai Lama’s arrival in Mongolia, a (Court of Dependencies) in Beijing. All capital cases were tsanid (Tibetan, mtshan-nyid, or higher Buddhist stud- subject to mandatory review. The Qing regulations also ies) faculty was added. In 1929 the Zakhachin popula- enforced a rudimentary distinction between the banner 617 618 Zavchan finances and the zasag’s personal funds, although the pre- head; sheep survived relatively well and now number cise boundaries were subject to constant lawsuits. Each 1,050,500 head. In the socialist era Zawkhan developed banner office had a specified complement of officials. significant arable agriculture that proved unsustainable While they served theoretically at the pleasure of the after 1990. The capital, ULIASTAI, founded as a QING zasag, the zasags frequently lost power to their DYNASTY garrison in the 18th century, had a population of tusalagchis (administrators), who were taijis and often 24,300 in 2000. The town of Tosontsengel, created in members of the zasag’s family. Mongolia’s socialist industrialization after 1966, became While every zasag had the same powers within his Mongolia’s largest lumber-processing center by 1980. Its banner, they and all the nobility were ranked according current population is 12,700. Tosontsengel has posted to their traditional prominence, seniority, and service to one of Mongolia’s coldest recorded temperatures at the dynasty. These ranks, from first-rank prince to mere –52.9°C (–63.2°F). taiji first degree, carried with them both symbolic distinc- See also JALKHANZA KHUTUGTU DAMDINBAZAR. tions and different salaries. The Qing used the possibili- ties of promotion or demotion to control the zasags. The zasags, along with the other titled taijis, had the right and Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamtsu (Dzaya Pandita, Jaya duty of audience at court every three (Inner Mongolia) or Pandita) (1599–1662) Oirat scholar and lama who six (Khalkha) years, as well as participation in the impe- designed the clear script used among the Oirats and rial hunt. Kalmyks After 1911 Mongolia’s theocratic government pre- Namkhai-Jamtsu was born in Gürööchin (Hunters) OTOG served the zasag system and even extended it to HULUN (camp-district) of the Khoshud tribe, the fifth son of BUIR and certain western Mongolian banners, where it Baabakhan. When he was 16 years old the Oirat nobles had not previously existed. By contrast, Mongolia’s revo- agreed to dispatch one child each to Tibet as a lama. lutionary government after 1921 made the banner chiefs Baibaghas Baatur Noyan (d. 1630), head of the Khoshud elective officials from 1922 to 1924. In Inner Mongolia tribe, chose Namkhai-Jamtsu as a replacement for his under the Republic of China and Japan, the zasags own son. In 1617 he arrived in Tibet and after taking his (jasags) were partially transformed into appointive offi- gelüng vows from the Dalai Lama studied tsanid (Tibetan, cials from 1929 to 1945, after which the old system col- mtshan-nyid, academic study of Buddhist philosophy). lapsed. His examination for the Lharamba degree was flawless. In See also DUGUILANG; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. 1639 he returned to his homeland. For the rest of his life he traveled constantly among Zavchan See ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. the palace-yurts (örgöö) of the Oirat lords in Zungharia (Junggar basin) and the Ili valley, with occasional trips to the Volga KALMYKS and Khalkha, holding Buddhist ser- Zavhan See ZAWKHAN PROVINCE. vices, particularly funerary and new year services, and consecrations for the nobles and their families. While Zawkhan province (Dzavhan, Zavhan, Zavchan, offered lavish donations, he preferred to have donors Dzabkhan) Created in the 1931 administrative reorga- send their gifts to the monasteries of Tibet, to which he nization, Zawkhan province lies in northwest Mongolia. felt an abiding gratitude for his education. In winter Its territory includes parts of KHALKHA Mongolia’s prerev- 1648–49 he created the CLEAR SCRIPT as an improvement olutionary Zasagtu Khan and Sain Noyan provinces. The on the UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT. From 1650 to 1662 he western, Zasagtu Khan, sections are inhabited by the transcribed from the Uighur-Mongolian or translated KHOTOGHOID and Eljigin Khalkhas. Part of the province freshly from the Tibetan 177 works. The colophons borders the Tuvan Republic in Russia. appended to his translations often feature accomplished The province’s territory of 82,500 square kilometers devotional poetry. From 1657 to 1661 he and other cler- (31,850 square miles) covers the northwestern half of the ics worked diligently, and more or less successfully, to wooded KHANGAI RANGE and the eastern part of the arid negotiate a bloodless end to the bitter feud between GREAT LAKES BASIN. Several landlocked rivers, including Baibaghas’s son Ablai (fl. 1638–72) and the Khoshud the Zawkhan River, from which the province is named, ruler Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan. He died in 1662 while on a flow from the Khangai Range through the province to journey to Tibet, and his disciples continued with his lakes in UWS PROVINCE and KHOWD PROVINCE. ashes to Lhasa. Zaya Pandita’s biography, Saran-u Gerel The province’s resident population grew from 55,100 (Light of the moon, 1690), written by a pupil, Ratna- in 1956 to 87,200 in 2000. In the 1980s and the early and bhadra, is the first original prose work of Oirat clear mid-1990s Zawkhan had the largest livestock herd in script literature. Mongolia, at 2.1–2.4 million head, and the largest sheep Namkhai-Jamtsu should not be confused with the herd, at 1.4–1.3 million. The livestock herd was hit heav- founder of the incarnation lineage of Khalkha Zaya Pan- ily by the spring 2000 ZUD and declined to 1,941,300 ditas, Lubsang-Perenlai (1642–1715). Zhang Rou 619 See also OIRATS; SUTRA OF THE WISE AND FOOLISH; TREA- tsarano joined the new Mongolian People’s Party and at SURY OF APHORISTIC JEWELS; ZÜNGHARS. the March 1–3, 1921, conference drafted the new party’s manifesto. After the success of the 1921 REVOLUTION 6 Zhamtsarano remained a party and government leader in Zhamtsarano, Tsyben Zhamtsaranovich (Zam- Mongolia until 1928. While in Mongolia in 1926, Zhamt- carano, Tsewang, Jamsrangiin Tseween) (1881–1942) sarano married Badamzhap Tsedenovna; they had no Buriat folklorist, nationalist, and mentor in modern life for children. His primary sphere of activity was in promoting a generation of Mongolian revolutionaries Born on April cultural activities, particularly in the “Philology Institute” 26, 1881, in Khoito-Aga village in the Aga steppe, Tsy- (Sudur bichig-ün khüriyeleng), and Mongolian leaders ben was the son of the zaisang (petty headman) Zham- sought his advice as a sort of elder statesman cum human tsarano of the Sharaid clan. Growing up, Tsyben encyclopedia. While Zhamtsarano did not spare obscu- received both a formal education at the Chita primary rantist lamas, he believed the Buddha’s views were fully school and an informal education from the tales and compatible with communism and reprinted many Bud- EPICS told by his great-grandmother, grandmother, and dhist works. He hoped for a neutral Mongolia uniting all grandfather and the Indian stories and Buriat laws read the Mongol peoples. Economically, he was an early and to him by his father. In 1895 he attended the private consistent advocate of using cooperatives to drive out gymnasium (academic high school) founded by the Chinese merchants out of Mongolia. Buriat court physician Pëtr A. Badmaev (1856–1920) in In fall 1928, at the SEVENTH CONGRESS OF THE MON- St. Petersburg. After a period at the Irkutsk Pedagogical GOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVOLUTIONARY PARTY, Zhamtsarano was Academy he and his Aga landsman Bazar B. Baradiin shouted down by leftists who were egged on by the Com- (1878–1937) began auditing classes at the Imperial Uni- munist International. He remained in Mongolia until versity of St. Petersburg. 1932 but was restricted to academic work. In 1932 he Supplementing professorial instruction with private was finally expelled as a rightist and returned to the Ori- reading, the two became noted specialists in Buriat and ental Institute of Leningrad. There he continued his aca- Mongol culture, with Zhamtsarano specializing in folklore demic work, writing a comprehensive ethnographic and SHAMANISM and Baradiin in Buddhism. Zhamtsarano survey of Mongolia in Mongolian (1934) and defending received funding to collect folklore in the Buriat country- his doctorate with the dissertation Mongolian Chronicles side in 1903–07 and in Inner Mongolia in 1909–10 of the Seventeenth Century (1936, in Russian; English between lecturing, editing folklore texts, and doing translation, 1955). research in St. Petersburg. On August 10, 1937, Zhamtsarano was arrested in After the 1911 RESTORATION of Mongol indepen- the first wave of the GREAT PURGE. Charged with being a dence Zhamtsarano worked simultaneously in the Rus- pan-Mongolist Japanese agent, he denied the charges and sian consulate in Khüriye (modern ULAANBAATAR) and in did not implicate any others despite extreme torture. He Mongolia’s Foreign Ministry. There he instigated the died on April 14, 1942, in the labor camp of Sol’-Iletsk, founding of a modern-style school for Mongolian youth, near Orenburg. a UIGHUR-MONGOLIAN SCRIPT movable-type press, and a See also ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; AGA BURIAT monthly journal, Shine toli khemekhü bichig (New mir- AUTONOMOUS AREA; BURIATS; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REVO- ror). In the journal he published documents and LUTIONARY PARTY; NEW SCHOOLS MOVEMENTS; REVOLU- treaties, discussions of general human development, and TIONARY PERIOD; THEOCRATIC PERIOD. translations from works such as Leon Cahun’s historical ^ Further reading: Robert A. Rupen, “Cyben Zamcara- novel of the MONGOL EMPIRE, La Bannière bleue (Blue ^ novi^c Zamcarano (1880–?1940),” Harvard Journal of Asi- banner). Controversy over these works forced the jour- atic Studies 19 (1956): 126–145. nal to close down, but in 1915 Zhamtsarano began pub- lishing Neislel khüriyen-ü sonin bichig (Capital Khüriye Zhangar See JANGGHAR. news). In spring 1917, with the overthrow of czarism, Zhamtsarano returned to Buriatia. In December 1917 he Zhangjia See JANGJIYA KHUTUGTU. was elected chairman of the Buriat National Committee (Russian abbreviation, Burnatskom). During the period Zhang Rou (Chang Jou) (1190–1268) Chinese warlord of the Bolshevik seizure of power and White Russian who supported the Mongols in campaigns from Hebei to the rule, he was a member of the Chita Soviet and taught at Yangtze Irkutsk University. A prosperous landlord’s son, Zhang Rou gathered a self- In summer 1920, after the Bolsheviks recovered Buri- defense force when the Mongols invaded his native Hebei atia, Zhamtsarano linked up with Mongolian revolution- in 1213. The murder of his patron at the Jin court shook aries, several of whom he knew from the Foreign his loyalty, and in summer 1218 MUQALI, CHINGGIS KHAN’s Ministry school, seeking Soviet aid against China. Zham- viceroy in China, captured him. Muqali admired Zhang’s 620 Zhao Wuda courage and after taking two sons of Zhang as hostages Zhongdu on March 31, 1214. The Jin had lost hundreds appointed him the local Mongol commander. Zhang of towns, but the Mongol army was being ravaged by made his base at Mancheng and by 1220 had carved out a famine and epidemics. Chinggis sent JABAR KHOJA to semi-independent fiefdom in the central Hebei plain. In deliver his terms: The Jin would have to pay an immense 1226 the Mongols made him chiliarch (commander of ransom and surrender a princess of the imperial family. 1,000). After joining ÖGEDEI KHAN’s final campaign Negotiations continued through April, and grain supplies against the Jin, he received an imperial audience and was in the city grew increasingly tight. Finally, on April 30 the promoted to myriarch (commander of 10,000) in 1234. Jin councillors decided to secure a respite whatever the From 1236 to 1255 Zhang Rou served three khans on the cost and agreed to Chinggis’s terms. On May 11 Grand SONG DYNASTY frontier, gradually acquiring experience at Councillor Wanyan Fuxing escorted the daughter of the checking the Song generals’ river-borne incursions. In emperor’s murdered predecessor to Chinggis Khan’s 1259 he joined QUBILAI KHAN’s inconclusive invasion of camp, and the siege was lifted. The Mongols withdrew the Song. Barely literate himself, Zhang Rou rescued from the North China plain, and the Jin emperor set many scholars and documents during the sack of Kaifeng about reestablishing control in North China. in 1233 (see KAIFENG, SIEGE OF). In rebuilding Baozhou After this respite the Jin court migrated to Kaifeng in (modern Baoding) in Hebei and Bozhou (modern Boxian) Henan, south of the Huang (Yellow) River, as a better in Anhui, he funded schools and Confucian temples. base for continued resistance. The crown prince, Qubilai Khan enfeoffed Zhang as duke, and his ninth Shouzhong, was left as regent in Zhongdu, with Wanyan song, Zhang Hongfan (1237–79), commanded the hunt Fuxing to assist him. On their way south Kitan and Tatar for the last fugitive Song emperor. tribal auxiliaries in the imperial entourage revolted, Further reading: C. C. Hsiao, “Chang Jou,” in In the deserting to the Mongol banner. In September Shouzhong Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early himself fled Zhongdu for Nanjing, leaving Wanyan Fu- Mongol-Yuan Period (1200–1300), ed. Igor de Rachewiltz xing to guard the city. et al. (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1993), 46–59. Chinggis Khan, furious at the Jin’s betrayal of the treaty, decided to take Zhongdu and conquer all North China. The KITANS and Tatar deserters began the siege of Zhao Wuda See JUU UDA. Zhongdu in July under the direction of Shimo Ming’an (see SHIMO MING’AN AND XIANDEBU). In March 1215 the Zhenhai See CHINQAI. Jin court dispatched Li Ying and Wugulun Qingshou to deliver supplies to the besieged defenders. The besiegers intercepted them in Bazhou (modern Baxian), about 60 Zhenjin See JINGIM. miles south of Zhongdu, and seized their supplies for their own use. Famine and cannibalism raged in Zhongdu, sieges of (Chung-tu, Jungdu) The Mon- Zhongdu. On May 31, 1215, Wanyan Fuxing took poi- gols’ two sieges of the North Chinese capital city, son, and the Mongols entered the city. The city was given Zhongdu, ended very differently: The first in spring 1214 over to pillage, and the gardens and estates were divided with a negotiated settlement and the second from sum- among the victorious commanders. Chinggis Khan, sum- mer 1214 to May 1215 with the sack of the city and the mering in Huanzhou in Inner Mongolia, sent SHIGI establishment of Mongol control. Zhongdu (Central Cap- QUTUQU and others to confiscate the royal treasury. When ital) was the capital of North China’s JIN DYNASTY, situ- order was reestablished the Kitan Shimo Ming’an and ated on the site of modern Beijing. On the North China Jabar Khoja were put in charge of the city for the Mon- plain, it was defended to the north and west by low but gols. Renamed DAIDU in 1272, Zhongdu remained the rugged ranges, through which the Juyongguan Pass to the center of Mongol rule in China until 1368. northwest was the major pathway. See also MASSACRES AND THE MONGOL CONQUEST; MIL- Mongol cavalry first appeared at Zhongdu in October ITARY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE. 1211, but they soon withdrew. In 1213 the Mongols seized Juyongguan Pass again (see JUYONGGUAN PASS, BAT- TLES OF). The Mongols approached Zhongdu and Zorig, Sanjaasürengiin (1962–1998) One of the most defeated Marshal Shuhu Gaoqi in November 1213. Jin charismatic leaders of the 1990 Democratic Revolution who morale was weakened by the violent conflicts. Just at that was murdered on the eve of being nominated Mongolia’s time, Heshilie Hushahu had overthrown the previous prime minister emperor and enthroned his nephew, Wanyan Xun (titled Zorig was the second son of Sanjaasüreng, rector of the Xuanzong, r. 1213–24). After Shuhu Gaoqi’s defeat he Mongolian State University. His mother, the physician killed Hushahu in his palace. Dorjpalam, was actually the daughter of the Russian The Mongols left to reduce the rest of North China, Andrei Dmitrievich Simukov (1902–42), a distinguished but CHINGGIS KHAN and his men rendezvoused at adviser to the Mongolian government in the 1930s. Zünghars 621 When Simukov and his wife were arrested in the GREAT zud Zud (or jud in Inner Mongolian) refers to any pas- PURGE in 1939, Dorjpalam was adopted by Mongolians toral disaster that causes a massive die-off in the herds and raised as a Mongolian child. and widespread hunger. Zuds include “drought zud,” or In 1970 Zorig entered School No. 23, a Russian-lan- die-off caused by lack of rain in the summer, “white zud,” guage school for Mongolia’s social elite, and from 1980 to or die-off caused by heavy snows in the winter, and 1985 studied philosophy (that is, Marxism-Leninism) at “black zud,” usually in the spring, caused by a prolonged Moscow State University. Zorig was already dissatisfied cold snap that freezes the moisture from the previously with Mongolia’s economic and intellectual development melted snow cover and encloses the grass in a sheath of and desired to emulate Japan’s successful modernization. ice the animals cannot break. From 1985 he worked for the MONGOLIAN REVOLUTIONARY Historically, zuds have sometimes had serious conse- YOUTH LEAGUE before teaching and researching on reforms quence for the nomads. In 839 a massive “white zud” at Mongolian State University. Zorig spoke softly and had caused the fall of the UIGHUR EMPIRE. In the 20th century a modest demeanor but was sometimes very stubborn. serious winter zuds that killed millions of animals On December 2–3, 1989, while writing a dissertation occurred in 1923–24, 1944–45, and 1968–69. That of on political reform, Zorig was invited to attend sessions 1944–45 killed 8 million animals. That and the 1968–69 of the “Conference of Young Creative Artists” and was zud occurred in years of the monkey, traditionally seen as elected head of the Mongolian Democratic Association, a dangerous year (see 12-ANIMAL CYCLE). In recent years which grew out of this meeting. During the ensuing zuds struck twice in early spring 2000 and 2001. The demonstrations that toppled the one-party system, Zorig’s massive die-off cut Mongolia’s total herd from 33.5 mil- public leadership and familiarity with Japanese reporters lion in December 1999 to 26.1 million in December gave him a high international profile. 2001. Many herders lost their entire herds. Despite seri- While denied leadership in the Mongolian Demo- ous hardship, government intervention and international cratic Party, Zorig won a seat in the Great People’s Khural assistance prevented the crisis from reaching the point of and was one of the drafters of the 1992 CONSTITUTION. starvation. His visible role and reputation made him the object Further reading: Guy Templer, Jeremy Swift, and among opponents of scurrilous rumors and insinuations Polly Payne, “Changing Significance of Risk in the Mon- about his part-Russian descent. While originally a demo- golian Pastoral Economy,” Nomadic Peoples 33 (1993): cratic socialist, by 1991 he was sponsoring discussions on 105–122. the ideas of “neoconservatism,” and in 1992 Zorig formed a new Republican Party with a classic liberal pro- Zünghars The Zünghar tribe fashioned a powerful gram. His name recognition made him one of only six principality under GALDAN BOSHOGTU KHAN (r. 1678–97) democratic movement politicians to win a seat in the and his successors that became the last great independent Great State Khural (from an ULAANBAATAR district) in July nomadic power on the steppe. 1992. That October several democratic parties, including his Republican Party, merged, and he became a leader in ORIGINS AND RISE OF THE ZÜNGHARS the new Mongolian National Democratic Party. The Zünghars as a tribal name first appear early in the After this party joined the winning Democratic Coalition 17th century as one part of the Oirat confederation (see in parliamentary elections in 1996, Zorig served on the OIRATS). The chiefs of the Zünghars were of the Choros Parliament’s Committee on Security and Foreign Policy, lineage and reckoned their descent from the famous emphasizing relations with Japan. In 1998, when Parlia- taishis Toghoon (r. c.1417–38) and ESEN (r. 1438–54). ment members began serving in government, Zorig The Choros, who also ruled the DÖRBÖD tribe, had an became minister of infrastructure, all the while steering ancestral myth of descent from a boy nourished by a clear of the allegations of corruption that dogged other sacred tree, a legend shared with the Uighur royal family. Democratic politicians. After repeated attempts to nomi- The term Zünghar (the Left, i.e., Eastern, Hand, Zöün nate a Democratic Coalition acceptable to Mongolia’s pres- Ghar in CLEAR SCRIPT Oirat, Zünghar in modern Kalmyk, ident, N. Bagabandi, Zorig was being considered as a new Züüngar in modern Mongolian) appears to have arisen as nominee when he was murdered by two assailants in his a way to distinguish them from the Dörböds, so that the apartment on October 2, 1998. Neither the murderer nor Zünghars were the Dörböds to the east. the motive has yet been identified, but the murder was The Zünghars’ rise to leadership among the Oirats widely blamed on hostile political forces. In December began with Khara-Khula (d. 1634), who first appears in Zorig’s younger sister, the geologist S. Oyuun (b. 1964), Russian diplomatic records in 1619. In the 1620s wars won the by-election to his district and has gone on to a against the KHALKHA, Khara-Khula had hardly a third of the career as a good-government reformer. Zorig was survived men of Khoshud khan Baibaghas (d. 1630), while Baatur by his wife, but they had no children. Dalai Taishi of the Dörböds was considered the most pow- See also 1990 DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION; MONGOLIA, erful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara-Khula’s son Baatur Khung- STATE OF; MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC. Taiji (d. 1653) joined the 1636–42 expedition to Tibet led 622 Zünghars by Baibaghas’s brother TÖRÖ-BAIKHU GÜÜSHI KHAN households, nomadizing in the Ili valley, numbered 24 (1582–1655). Baatur Khung-Taiji returned with the title otogs administered by 54 albachi zaisang (tax officials), Erdeni Baatur Khung-Taiji given him by the Dalai Lama, with a nominal strength of 87,300 households. These much booty, and Güüshi Khan’s daughter Amin-Dara as were his personal Choros subjects, captured Siberian and wife. From around 1630 to 1677, TORGHUDS, KHOSHUDS, Mongolian peoples, and functional units such as the and Dörböds migrated west to the Volga or south to 4,000 Kötöchi-Nar (equerries), 1,000 Buuchin (muske- Kökenuur, increasing the Zünghars’ relative power in teers), 5,000 Uruud (craftsmen), and 2,000 ZAKHACHINs Züngharia. (borderers). The appanages of the great nobles, which Baatur Khung-Taiji had given half his people to Seng- surrounded the Ili center, were arranged into 21 anggis, ge, his son by Amin-Dara. From 1657 on Amin-Dara’s specified as six Choros, one Khoshud, two Torghud, eight sons Sengge (d. 1670) and Galdan (1644–97) faced disaf- Khoid, and (presumably) four Dörböd. The anggis did fection from their half brothers. This opposition they not pay regular taxes to the ruler. overcame with the backing of the Khoshud Ochirtu Tset- Given its general situation of two-front hostilities, sen Khan (fl. 1639–76), son of Baibaghas. First Sengge the Zünghars never threw their full force against any and then Galdan married Ochirtu’s granddaughter Anu- external enemy. The 1688 and 1732 invasions of Khalkha Dara. In 1676, however, the finally victorious Galdan both involved three tümens, or nominally 30,000 men. overthrew his grandfather-in-law, and in 1678 he received from the Dalai Lama the title Boshogtu Khan. This con- ZÜNGHAR CONQUESTS firmed the Zünghars as the confederation’s new leading From the beginning of their conversion in 1615, the tribe. Oirats maintained unusually close relations with the While often called the “Zunghar Khanate,” the Zün- Dalai and Panchen Lamas in central Tibet. After Güüshi ghar ruler bore the title of khan only rarely. Instead, the Khan’s and Baatur Khung-Taiji’s pacification of Tibet, the Zünghar ruler bore the title of Khung-Taiji, a title derived Zünghars’ slogan was “We are the main almsgivers [i.e., from Chinese huang-taizi, “crown prince” and originally lay patrons] of the Holy Tsong-kha-pa [founder of the meaning viceroy or regent for the khan. The title of khan Yellow Hats].” The Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag-dbang Blo- was taken later, if at all, and only by special grant from an bzang rGya-mtsho (1617–82), encouraged this often big- outside power, such as the Dalai Lama. While Galdan oted devotion, advising Mongolian lamas to prevent any held the title of khan, his nephew and successor Tse- non-dGe-lugs-pa teaching there. This devotion often bore wang-Rabtan was merely Khung-Taiji. GALDAN-TSEREN (r. fruit in the plundering and desecration of competing 1727–45) is usually called khan, but it is unclear from Buddhist centers, whether monasteries of the JIBZUN- whom he received the title. DAMBA KHUTUGTU during Galdan’s occupation in 1688–97 or rNying-ma-pa (a very traditional, non-dGe-lugs-pa ZÜNGHAR ORGANIZATION order) monasteries during Tseren-Dondug’s 1717–19 Galdan made the Zünghars a major force in Inner Asian occupation of Lhasa. politics, establishing the basic lines of Zünghar foreign To the east and southeast the Zünghars faced the policy until its disintegration. From his time on the term Khalkha Mongols and the QING DYNASTY (1636–1912) in Zünghar meant not just the Zünghar tribe but all the China. At first the Khalkhas and Oirats were in league, Oirats remaining in their homeland between the Altai bound by the provisions of the MONGOL-OIRAT CODE and the Tianshan ranges. The Oirats nomadized along the (Mongghol-Oirat tsaaji) to common action against rebels Ili, Emil (modern Emin), and upper Irtysh Rivers and in and invaders. Eventually, the refusal of the Khalkhas’ the mountain pastures of Ürümqi, Zultus (along the Tüshiyetü Khan Chakhundorji (r. 1655–99) to abide by Kaidu River), and Borotala (modern Bole). Baatur Khung- arbitration broke the league and provoked Galdan’s 1688 Taiji made the monastery at Khobogsair (Hoboksar) his invasion of Khalkha. His invasion proved to be a disaster, center, and Galdan did so at Borotala. (On political, mili- however, driving the Khalkhas into the arms of the Qing. tary, and cultural life in this period, see OIRATS.) Initially, relations with the Qing had been friendly. The total Zünghar population and military man- The Zünghars’ main interest was in trade with China, power underwent rapid expansion, largely through the which was, as under the MING DYNASTY, carried out incorporation of prisoners and subjugated tribes. In the through the TRIBUTE SYSTEM, really a form of state-subsi- late 16th century Mongolian chronicles speak of 8,000 dized monopoly trade. Until 1683 the Zünghar rulers Khoid and four otogs (camp districts) of Dörböd. In the allowed Turkestani merchants to freely join their “trib- 1620s the total manpower, excluding the Dörböd, was ute” missions, which often reached 3,000 men in size. 36,000, yet during the civil strife of 1661 the Khoshud Galdan’s invasion eventually provoked the Kangxi tribes alone fielded six tümens (nominally 10,000 each). emperor (1662–1722) into a campaign of annihilation. Galdan-Tseren reorganized the Zünghar principality, Nevertheless, Kangxi was friendly to Galdan’s nephew nominally numbering 200,000 households, into directly and successor, Tsewang-Rabtan (r. 1694–1727), until bor- ruled otogs and appanages, or anggis. His directly subject der conflicts with the Khalkhas and Hami, both under Zünghars 623 Chinese protection, provoked war from the Altai to Lhasa Before the Russian conquest of Siberia, the Kyrgyz of that lasted off and on until 1732. A peace treaty of 1739 Khakassia, the Telengits of the Altai, and the Baraba restored formal relations and “tribute” missions, although TATARS had paid the Oirats a fur tribute (see SIBERIA AND on a reduced scale. THE MONGOL EMPIRE). From 1607 the Russians, too, More lasting conquests of Galdan’s were the Tarim demanded yasak (fur-tribute) from the Siberians. Under Basin cities in which Naqshbandi Sufi (Islamic mystic) Baatur Khung-Taiji it was agreed that the Siberian peo- masters had replaced the last Chaghatayid khans (see ples would pay yasak to both Russia and the Zünghars. MOGHULISTAN). Galdan overthrew the Naqshbandi “Black By 1707, however, new Russian forts blocked off Khakas- Mountain” subsect and installed as his client rulers the sia, and in 1720 they began blocking off the Baraba exiled leader Afaq of the “White Mountain.” The Züng- steppe between Omsk and Barnaul. Many Kyrgyz of hars kept control over the Tarim Basin until 1757. In Khakassia were moved south and incorporated into the 1678 Galdan decreed that the “Khotongs” (Turkestanis) Zünghars. Despite protests and raids, however, the Züng- would be judged by their own law except in cases affect- har rulers never engaged in all-out war with Russia. ing the state. Farther to the west the Zünghars fought repeated DOWNFALL OF THE ZÜNGHARS wars against the KAZAKHS. Under Baatur Khung-Taiji the At Galdan-Tseren’s death in 1745 the Zünghar principal- Zünghars raided the Zheti-Su (Seven Rivers, or ity appeared still strong. Territory had been lost to both Semirech’ie) between Lake Balkhash and the Tianshan, Russia and the Qing, but the core was still untouched. while Galdan’s armies under his nephew Tsewang-Rabtan Less than 20 years later the Zünghars had not only disin- (1663–1727) reached Tashkent and the Syr-Dar’ya. After tegrated as a political structure, but the people had virtu- 1698 Tsewang-Rabdan’s raids reached Tengiz Lake and ally disappeared. Politically, this sudden collapse Turkestan, and the Zünghars controlled Zheti-Su stemmed from the strife between Galdan-Tseren’s sons. In Tashkent until 1745. 1749 Lamdarja, Galdan-Tseren’s son by a commoner wife, Prince Dawachi of the Choros (left), last khan of the independent Zünghars, who surrendered to the Qing armies in 1755. Prince Tseren of the Dörböd (right), one of the “three Tserens” who led their tribe to surrender to the Qing in 1753. Qing court portraits, with subjects posed in summer and winter court robes, respectively (Courtesy Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Ethnologisches Museum) 624 Zuu Ud seized the throne from his younger brother. The next year ing indicates some natural disaster had already taken the Zünghars began to desert to the Qing, which place. In Khalkha in 1754–55 a serious ZUD occurred, and increased pressure by cutting off trade missions. In 1752 in 1756–57 a smallpox epidemic broke out, and these Lamdarja was overthrown by his second cousin Dawaachi disasters may have also affected the Zünghars. and the Khoid AMURSANAA (1722?–57). In 1753 the With the suppression of Amursanaa’s rebellion, Qian- “three Tserens” led the entire Dörböd tribe to surrender long ordered that the remaining Zünghars be annihilated. to the Qing dynasty, and in 1754 Amursanaa followed. When the killing stopped in 1759, the Qing authorities Another wave of refugees flowed toward Siberia from estimated that of all the Zünghars in 1755, 30 percent 1753. In spring 1755 the Qing emperor, Qianlong had been slain, 40 percent had died of disease, 20 percent (1736–1796), dispatched a massive army that found itself had fled to Russia, and 10 percent remained. The Dör- the master of Zungharia after a virtually bloodless cam- böds, who had surrendered in 1753, together with two paign. Qianlong ordered the defeated confederation small bodies of Khoids who surrendered to the Qing in divided into four tribes—Dörböd, Khoshud, Choros, 1755, were resettled in modern UWS PROVINCE. Amur- Khoid—each ruled by a subordinate khan. In autumn sanaa’s Khoids, who had surrendered in 1754, together 1755 Amursanaa revolted against Qing rule. Zünghar with their subject Kyrgyz, were resettled as the Yekhe- refugees streamed north to the Cossack forts until Amur- Minggadai banner (modern Fuyu county, Heilongjiang). sanaa’s own flight and death. Zungharia was resettled by Kazakhs and bannermen from What led to this sudden collapse? A few factors can Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. The surviving Zünghars be discounted. Neither the possession of firearms by the were officially renamed ÖÖLÖD and today constitute Qing nor some inherent weakness of nomadic polities about 20 percent of Xinjiang’s approximately 140,000 seems plausible as an explanation, since the Zünghars Mongols. had been overcoming these obstacles for many decades Further reading: Fred W. Bergholz, The Partition of past. Certainly the irresponsibility of Lamdarja. the Steppe: The Struggle of the Russians, Manchus, and the Dawaachi, and Amursanaa contributed to the disaster. In Zunghar Mongols for Empire in Central Asia, 1619–1758 particular, Dawaachi’s and Amursanaa’s alliances with the (New York: Peter Lang, 1993); Junko Miyawaki, “Did a Kazakhs in 1752 and 1756–57 opened the Zünghar fron- Dzungar Khanate Really Exist?” Journal of the Anglo-Mon- tier to both plunder and immigration from their long- golian Society 10 (1987): 1–5. standing nomadic rivals. The impoverished condition of the Dörböd refugees who arrived in 1753 with little fight- Zuu Ud See JUU UDA. RULERS AND LEADERS OF MONGOLIA AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE GREAT KHANS AND REGENTS OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE Name Reign Years Status Temüjin Chinggis Khan 1206–1227 Tolui 1227–1229 Regent Ögedei Khan 1229–1241 Töregene 1242–1246 Regent Güyüg Khan 1246–1248 Oghul-Qaimish 1248–1251 Regent Möngke Khan 1251–1259 EMPERORS (GREAT KHANS) OF THE YUAN DYNASTY Name Mongolian Title Reign Years Chinese Title Qubilai Sechen Khan 1260–1294 Shizu (Shih-tsu) Temür Öljeitü Khan 1294–1307 Chengzong (Ch’eng-tsung) Haishan Külüg Khan 1307–1311 Wuzong (Wu-tsung) Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan 1311–1320 Renzong (Jen-tsung) Shidebala Gegeen Khan 1320–1323 Yingzong (Ying-tsung) Yisün-Temür 1323–1328 Taidingdi (T’ai-ting-ti) Qoshila 1328–1329 Mingzong (Ming-tsung) Tuq-Temür Jiya’atu Khan 1328, 1329–1332 Wenzong (Wen-tsung) Irinchinbal 1332 Ningzong (Ning-tsung) Toghan-Temür Uqa’atu Khan 1332–1370 Shundi (Shun-ti) THE IL-KHANS Name Reign Years Other Names Hüle’ü Khan 1256–1265 Abagha Khan 1265–1282 Sultan Ahmad 1282–1284 Born Tegüder Arghun Khan 1284–1291 Geikhatu Khan 1291–1295 Buddhist name Irinchin-Dorji Baidu Khan 1295 Ghazan Khan 1295–1304 Islamic name Mahmud Sultan Öljeitü 1304–1316 Raised as Kharbanda; Islamic name, Muhammad Khudabanda Sultan Abu Sa‘id 1316–1335 Ba’atur Khan 625 626 Rulers and Leaders of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire KHANS OF THE GOLDEN HORDE Name Reign Years Jochi d. 1225? Batu d. 1255 Sartaq 1256–1257 Ula’achi 1257 Berke 1257–1266 Mengü-Temür 1267–1280 Töde-Mengü 1280–1287 Töle-Bugha 1287–1291 Toqto’a Khan 1291–1312 Özbeg 1313–1341 Tïnïbeg 1341–1342 Janibeg 1342–1357 Berdibeg 1357–1359 Qulpa 1359–1360 Nawroz 1360 (After the murder of Nawroz, rival dynasties seized power in the Golden Horde.) KHANS OF THE CHAGHATAY KHANATE Name Reign Years Cha’adai d. 1242 Qara-Hüle’ü 1242–1246 Yisü-Möngke 1246–1251 [Orghina, regent for Mubarak-Shah, 1251–1260] Alghu 1260–1265/6 Mubarak-Shah 1265/6–1266 Baraq 1266–1271 Negübei 1271 Toqa-Temür 1272 interregnum Du’a 1282–1307 Könchek 1307–1308 Nalighu 1308–1309 Esen-Buqa 1309–1318? Kebeg 1318?–1327 Eljigidei 1327–1330 Töre-Temür 1330–1331 Tarmashirin 1331–1334 Buzan 1334–1335 Changshi 1335–1338 Yisün-Temür 1338–1341/43 ‘Ali Khalil 1341–1343 (Ögedeid prince) Muhammad 1342–1343 Qazan 1343–1346/47 (After the murder of Qazan, the Chaghatay split into Qara’una, Moghulistan, and Mawarannahr [Transoxiana] areas.) Rulers and Leaders of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire 627 EMPERORS (GREAT KHANS) OF THE NORTHERN YUAN DYNASTY Name Reign Title Reign Years Dynasty Ayushiridara Biligtü Khan 1370–1378 Qubilaid Toghus-Temüs Uskhal Khan 1378–1388 Qubilaid Engke Jorigtu Khan 1389?–1392? Elbeg Nigülesegchi Khan 1393?–1399? Qubilaid Gün-Temür 1400?–1402? Guilichi 1403?–1408 Ögedeid? Bunyashiri Öljeitü Khan 1408–1411 Qubilaid? Dalbag 1412–1414 Ariq-Bökid Oiradai 1415?–1425? Ariq-Bökid? Adai 1426–1438 Ögedeid Togtoo-Bukha Taisung Khan 1433–1452 Qubilaid Esen 1452–1454 Oirat (Choros) Mar-Körgis 1455?–1466/7 Qubilaid Molon Taiji 1467–1471? Qubilaid Manduul 1473–1479 Qubilaid Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 1480?–1517? Qubilaid/Dayan Khanid Barsu Bolod Sain-Alag Khan 1518?–1519? Dayan Khanid Bodi Alag Khan 1519?–1547 Dayan Khanid Daraisun Küdeng Khan 1548–1557 Dayan Khanid Tümen Jasagtu Khan 1558–1592 Dayan Khanid Buyan Sechen Khan 1593–1603 Dayan Khanid Ligdan Khutugtu Khan 1604–1634 Dayan Khanid KHOSHUD OR UPPER MONGOL KHANS OF TIBET Name Title Years Törö-Baikhu Güüshi Khan 1642–1655 Dayan Ochir Khan 1655–1669 Gönchug Dalai Khan 1669–1698 Lhazang Chinggis Khan 1698–1717 TORGHUD RULERS AND KHANS OF THE KALMYKS Name Title Years Khoo-Örlög d. 1644 Shikür-Daiching 1644–1661 Puntsog 1661–1669 Ayuuki Khan 1669–1724 Tseren-Dondug Khan 1724–1735 Dondug-Ombo Khan 1735–1741 Dondug-Dashi Khan 1741–1761 Ubashi Viceroy 1762–1771 628 Rulers and Leaders of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire RULERS OF THE ZÜNGHAR TRIBE Name Title Years Khara-Khula d. 1634 Baatur Khung-Taiji 1634–1653 Sengge 1653–1670 Galdan 1670–1697 Khung-Taiji 1676–1678 Boshogtu Khan 1678–1697 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji 1694–1727 Galdan-Tseren Khan 1727–1745 Tsewang-Dorji-Namjil Khung-Taiji 1746–1749 Lamdarja Khung-Taiji 1749–1752 Dawaachi Khung-Taiji 1752–1755 EMPERORS OF THE QING DYNASTY Chinese Reign Title (and Personal Name) Mongolian Reign Name Years Tianming (Nurhachi) Tngri-yin Boshugtu 1616–1626 Tianchong, Congde (Hong Taiji) Tngri-yin Sechen, Degedü Erdemtü 1627–1643 Shunzhi (Fulin) Eye-ber Jasagchi 1644–1661 Kangxi (Xuanye) Engkhe Amugulang 1662–1722 Yongzheng (Yinchen) Nairaltu Töb 1723–1735 Qianlong (Hongli) Tngri-yin Tedkhügsen 1736–1795 Jiaqing (Yunyan) Saishiyaltu Irögeltü 1796–1820 Daoguang (Minning) Törö Gereltü 1821–1850 Xianfeng (Yichu) Tügemel Elbegtü 1851–1861 Tongzhi (Zaichun) Bürintü Jasagchi 1862–1874 Guangxu (Zaitian) Badaragultu Törö 1875–1908 Xuantong (Puyi) Khebtü Yosu 1909–1912 THE JIBZUNDAMBA KHUTUGTUS Number and Name Dates Ethnic Origin I. Lubsang-Dambi-Jaltsan-Balsangbu (Zanabazar) 1635–1723 Mongol II. Lubsang-Dambi-Döngmi 1724–1758 Mongol III. Ishi-Dambi-Nima 1758–1773 Tibetan IV. Lubsang-Tubdan-Wangchug 1775–1813 Tibetan V. Lubsang-Tsültem-Jigmed 1815–1842 Tibetan VI. Lubsang-Baldan-Damba 1842–1848 Tibetan VII. Agwang-Choijin-Wangchug-Perenlai-Jamtsu 1850–1868 Tibetan VIII. Agwanglubsang-Choijin-Nima-Danzin-Wangchug-Balsangbu 1870–1924 Tibetan THEOCRATIC GOVERNMENT, 1911–1919 Emperor (Khaan) Prime Ministers Eighth Jibzundamba Khutugtu (1911–1924) Sain Noyan Khan Namnangsüren (1912–1919) Badmadorji (1919) Rulers and Leaders of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire 629 PEOPLE’S GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC, 1921–1990 Name Office Years in Office Bodô Prime Minister 1921–1922 General Sükhebaatur Commander in Chief 1921–1923 General Danzin Commander in Chief 1923–1924 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino Chairman of the Military Council 1922–1925 Dambadorji Party Chairman 1924–1928 Badarakhu Party Secretary (one of three) 1928–1932 Gendün Party Secretary (one of three) 1928–1932 Prime Minister 1932–1936 Choibalsang, Marshal Commander in Chief 1924–1928, 1937–1950 Prime Minister 1939–1952 Yu. Tsedenbal Party First Secretary 1940–1954, 1958–1984 Prime Minister 1952–1974 Head of State 1974–1984 Ja. Batmönkh Party First Secretary, Head of State 1984–1990 Note: The table above includes all who in practice were top leaders, regardless of their formal position. From 1928 to 1932 supreme authority was actually in the hands of the Comintern delegates, the Czech Bohumír Sˇmeral, and the Buriat M. I. Amagaev. DEMOCRATIC MONGOLIA FROM 1990 President Prime Minister P. Ochirbat, 1990–1997 (MPRP, 1990–1993) Sh. Gungaadorj, 1990 (MPRP) D. Byambasüren, 1990–1992 (MPRP) (Democrat, 1993–1997) P. Jasrai, 1992–1996 (MPRP) N. Bagabandi, 1997– (MPRP) M. Enkhsaikhan, 1996–1998 (Democrat) Ts. Elbegdorj, 1998 (Democrat) J. Narantsatsralt, 1998–1999 (Democrat) R. Amarjargal, 1999–2000 (Democrat) N. Enkhbayar, 2000– (MPRP) CHRONOLOGY 209 B.C.E. Modun kills his father and seizes the 924 Yel Aboaji leads an expedition through throne of the Xiongnu, who become the Inner Mongolia into the former Uighur dominant nomadic people of the heartland. Mongolian plateau. 925 Kitan small script created. 198 Modun and the emperor Gaozu of China’s 937 The Kitan emperor Deguang seizes 16 pre- Han dynasty sign a peace treaty, recog- fectures in northern China, around nizing equality of the Xiongnu. modern Beijing. 134 Han Wudi attacks the Xiongnu, beginning 1114 Wanyan (Onging) Aguda of the Jurchen a decades-long Chinese offensive defeats a Kitan army and declares him- against the nomads. self emperor of the Jin dynasty in 53 After splitting into northern and southern Manchuria. dynasties, the southern Xiongnu shanyu 1120 Wanyan Aguda armies sack the Kitan capi- (ruler) Huhanye surrenders and tal Shangjing in Inner Mongolia. becomes tributary to the Han. 1129 Yelü Dashi, member of the Liao imperial 85–87 C.E. Attacked repeatedly by other nomadic peo- family, rallies men of various nomadic ples, the Xiongnu flee west to modern tribes at Besh-Baligh in Turkestan, Kazakhstan and beyond and south to founding the Qara-Khitai dynasty of China. The Xianbi replace them as the Central Asia. dominant people in the steppe. 1147 After Mongol attacks, probably under 502–510 Under Khan Shilun, the Rouran dynasty Qabul Khan, the Jin dynasty of China unifies the Mongolian plateau. pacifies the Mongols with lavish 552 Bumin of the Ashina family defeats the gifts. Rouran ruler and establishes the first 1162 Temüjin (later Chinggis/Genghis Khan) Türk empire in Mongolia. born as the eldest son of the Mongol 630 Xieli Qaghan of the eastern Türks is cap- chief Yisügei Ba’atur in northeastern tured by the Chinese. Eastern Turks Mongolia. submit to China’s Tang dynasty. 1164 Qutula Khan of the Mongols killed by the c. 650 Earliest Old Turkish inscription at Ereen Tatars, in alliance with the Jin of north Kharganat (Bayan-Ölgii province). China. 659 Western Türks submit to China. 1171 Yisügei Ba’atur poisoned by the Tatars. 682 Ilterish establishes second Türk empire. 1201 The Mongol chief Jamugha elected as khan 715 Runic Turkish inscription of Toñuquq. rival to Temüjin (Chinggis Khan). 742 Second Türk empire overthrown by 1202 Mongols under Temüjin (Chinggis Khan) Uighur, Basmil, and Qarluq tribes. conquer and annihilate Tatars. 744 Qulligh Boyla founds the Uighur empire. 1203 Ong Qa’an of the Kereyid Khanate and 763 Under Bögü Qaghan, the Uighur empire Temüjin (Chinggis Khan) come into adopts Manicheism as its state religion. conflict, and Temüjin emerges victori- 839 A catastrophic zud (winter disaster) devas- ous, conquering the Kereyid. tates the Uighur herds. 1204 At the battle of Keltegei Cliffs, Chinggis 840 The Kyrgyz sack Ordu-Baligh, Uighur capi- Khan defeats the Naiman Khanate; tal in central Mongolia, the Uighurs flee adopts Uighur-Mongolian Script to the Kitans in Inner Mongolia, to 1206 At a great quriltai or assembly, Chinggis Gansu in northeast China, and to Khan elected as khan of the Mongols. Turpan in Xinjiang. 1209 The Uighurs submit, and Chinggis Khan 907 Yelü Abaoji is elected Qaghan of the Kitans. campaigns against the Xia, who agree to 920 Kitan large script created. pay tribute. 630 Chronology 631 1211 The Mongols attack the Jin dynasty in 1252 Possible date of authorship of the Secret North China. History of the Mongols. 1215 Second siege of the Jin capital, Zhongdu, 1252–1259 Persian official and historian ‘Ala’ud-Din ends with the sack of the city by the Ata-Malik Juvaini writes History of the Mongols. World Conqueror. 1217 The Mongol general Muqali appointed as 1254 Mongol siege, led by Qubilai Khan, of Dali prince of state and given command of in Yunnan ends with the city’s surrender. the tammachi (permanent garrison) 1258 Last ‘Abbasid caliph in Baghdad surrenders army in north China. to the Mongols under the Mongol 1218–1219 Winter: The governor of Otrar in Central prince Hüle’ü; the caliph is executed Asia massacres merchants in a trade del- with his family and the city sacked. egation sent by Chinggis Khan. 1259 Möngke Khan dies while campaigning in 1220 Chinggis Khan conquers Bukhara and Sichuan against the Chinese Song Samarqand in Central Asia. dynasty. 1221 Mongol armies destroy Balkh, Merv, 1260 Qubilai and his brother Ariq-Böke elected Urganch, Nishapur, and Herat cities in khans at rival quriltais; Mamluk Central Asia, Iran, and Afghanistan. Egyptian army defeats Mongol army of 1222–1223 Taoist Master Changchun instructs the Middle Eastern Il-Khanate in the Chinggis Khan in Taoism, receives edict Middle East at ‘Ain Jalut (in modern setting him over all monks and priests. Israel); Qubilai’s officials introduce uni- 1223 The Mongol generals Sübe’etei and Jebe fied paper currency. defeat Russian-Qipchaq force at the bat- 1262 Berke of the Golden Horde in the East tle of Kalka River. European steppe invades Hüle’ü’s Il- 1226 “Stone of Chinggis Khan,” the earliest sur- Khanate in the Middle East. viving monument in the Mongolian lan- 1264 Ariq-Böke surrenders to Qubilai Khan. guage, carved. 1269 Mengü-Temür of the Golden Horde, Baraq 1227 Chinggis Khan destroys the Xia (Tangut) of the Chaghatay Khanate, and the dynasty of northwest China, before his Ögedeid Qaidu ally against the Il- death. Khanate in the Middle East and Qubilai 1229 Ögedei elected khan, takes title of Great Khan in the east; ’Phags-pa Lama cre- Khan (Qa’an). ates the square script for Mongolian, 1230 Regular tax system set up in Mongol-ruled based on Tibetan. North China under the Kitan official 1271 Qubilai Khan renames the Mongol regime Yelü Chucai. in China the Yuan dynasty. 1233 Under Sübe’etei’s command Mongol siege 1273 Song China’s powerful Xiangyang fortress of the last Jin capital of Kaifeng ends surrenders to Yuan armies under the with Mongol victory. Mongol general Aju and the Chinese 1235 Ögedei Khan builds the capital city of general Liu Zheng. Qara-Qorum in central Mongolia. 1274 Qubilai Khan moves his court to his new 1240 Mongol armies under the Mongol prince capital, Daidu (modern Beijing). Batu sack Kiev and complete conquest 1276 The Song court surrenders, and Grand of Russia. Councillor Bayan Chingsang’s troops 1241 Mongol armies ravage Poland and peacefully enter the Song capital of Hungary; Ögedei Khan dies. Lin’an (Hangzhou). 1243 Mongol armies under the Mongol general 1279 Mongols assault camp of the last Song Baiju defeat the Seljük Turks at the emperor in Canton harbor; the Song Battle of Köse Da˘gı. emperor is drowned. 1246 Güyüg elected khan at a great quriltai in 1281 Typhoons destroy Mongol fleet in invasion central Mongolia and receives the papal of Japan. envoy John of Plano Carpini. 1282 Qubilai Khan’s financial expert, Ahmad, 1248 Güyüg Khan dies at Qum-Senggir in East murdered in unsuccessful palace coup. Turkestan. 1286 The Chaghatayid khan Du’a, of the 1251 Möngke elected khan, and after discover- Mongols’ Chaghatay Khanate in Central ing plot against him, purges his Asia, captures Besh-Baligh city in East opponents. Turkestan, from Qubilai’s forces. 632 Chronology 1287 New nonconvertible Zhiyuan paper cur- 1327 Fall of the Il-Khan’s powerful commander rency introduced in China under in chief Chuban. Mongols; Qubilai Khan defeats armies 1328 After Yisün-Temür’s death, the officials El- of the rebellious Mongol prince Nayan Temür and Bayan stage a coup d’état in Manchuria. and reestablish the line of the late 1288 Vietnamese crush the Mongol navy at Mongol emperor Haishan. Bach-D - a˘ ng River (near modern 1331 Massive plague in Henan, north China said Haiphong). to have killed nine-tenths of the popula- 1290 Mongol troops under Prince Buqa-Temür tion; Tarmashirin elected khan of the sack the ’Bri-gung-pa Monastery, crush- Chaghatay Khanate and begins ing the last resistance to Mongol rule in Islamization. Tibet. 1335 Grand Councillor Bayan abolishes 1294 Qubilai Khan dies; unbacked paper curren- Confucian examination system in cy introduced into the Il-Khanate but Mongol China; the Il-Khan Abu-Sa’id withdrawn after massive popular resis- dies without an heir, and Il-Khanate dis- tance. integrates. 1295 Ghazan Khan, new Muslim ruler of the 1338 Chuban’s grandson “Little” Hasan, founds Middle Eastern Il-Khanate, destroys the non-Chinggisid Suldus (Chubanid) churches, synagogues, and Buddhist dynasty in Azerbaijan, Iraq, and western temples. Iran. 1299 Toqto’a, khan of the Golden Horde, defeats 1338–1339 Outbreaks of the Black Death around Lake the rival Prince Noqai. Ysyk Köl in the eastern Chaghatay 1301 Qubilai’s dogged opponent Qaidu Khan Khanate. wins a battle against Yuan dynasty 1340 The Yuan official Toqto’a overthrows his forces at Qaraqata in northwestern uncle Bayan and restores examinations. Mongolia, but is wounded and dies 1346 Black Death reaches Saray on the Volga soon after. and then Crimea. 1304 General peace declared between the five 1346–1347 The Qara’una emir Qazaghan in Mongol houses of the Yuan, the Afghanistan and the Dughlat emir Chaghatay Khanate, the Ögedeids, the Dulaji in East Turkestan enthrone rival Il-Khanate, and the Golden Horde. khans, splitting the Chaghatay Khanate. 1305–1306 Persian official and historian Rashid-ud- Din completes the Mongol chapters of 1351 Grand Councillor Toqto’a begins vast pro- his Compendium of Chronicles. ject to reroute the Huang (Yellow) River, 1308–1309 The Il-Khan Öljeitü adopts Twelver (Ja‘fari) and rebellions breaks out against Yuan Shi‘ite Islam, but his attempts to impose (Mongol) rule. this on the realm cause civil unrest. 1355 After almost defeating the anti-Yuan rebels, 1312 Buddhist monk and scholar Chosgi-Odsir’s Grand Councillor Toqto’a is dismissed Mongolian translation of the Buddhist due to court intrigues, and rebellions in classic Bodhicaryavatara printed by south China revive. imperial mandate. 1357 Janibeg Khan of the Golden Horde invades 1313 Özbeg Khan seizes power in the Golden Azerbaijan, occupies Tabriz, and over- Horde and executes emirs and Buddhist throws the Suldus dynasty. baqshis (teachers) who oppose his 1359 Sheikh Uwais enters Tabriz and revives the Islamization policy. non-Chinggisid Jalayir dynasty. 1315 Confucian examination system reestab- 1360 Shibanid Khizr Khan overthrows Nawroz, lished in Mongol (Yuan) China. the last Batuid khan of the Golden Horde. 1323 Coup d’état by the Ossetian Guard, imperi- 1368 Armies of the new Chinese Ming dynasty al bodyguard formed by Ossetes occupy the Yuan (Mongol) capital of (Alans), kills the Yuan (Mongol) emper- Daidu (modern Beijing), and the or Shidebala, and his distant cousin Mongol (Yuan) emperors flee back to Yisün-Temür is made emperor; the Il- Mongolia. Khan commander in chief Chuban 1370 The non-Chinggisid Timur is elevated at a makes peace between the Il-Khanate quriltai as de facto ruler of the and Mamluk Egypt. Chaghatay Khanate in Central Asia. Chronology 633 1380 Grand Prince Dmitrii of Moscow defeats 1607 The Jewel Translucent Sutra, a versified his- the Golden Horde army at the Battle of tory of Altan Khan and the Buddhist Kulikovo Pole (Snipe’s Field). conversion, is written in the Inner 1382 The Chinggisid prince Toqtamish, after Mongolian town Guihua (modern reuniting the Golden Horde, sacks Höhhot). Moscow. 1612–1615 Khorchins and southern Khalkha (later Juu 1388 Yisüder, a descendant of Ariq-Böke, allies Uda) ally with the rising Manchus. with Oirats (West Mongols) and mur- 1627 Most Mongols join a revolt against the ders the emperor of the Yuan dynasty in supremacy of Ligdan Khan, the last Mongolia, beginning the Oirat-Mongol Yuan emperor of the Mongols. wars. 1628 Cossacks demanding yasak (fur tribute) 1389 Mongol tribes in eastern Inner Mongolia first clash with Buriats along the Angara surrender to the Ming dynasty and are and Uda Rivers, in Siberia. organized as “Three Guards.” 1628–1629 Ligdan Khan sponsors a complete transla- 1395 Timur invades the Golden Horde and sacks tion of the bKa’-’gyur (Buddhist Saray and Astrakhan. scriptures). 1405 Timur dies while organizing an invasion of 1630–1635 The Oirat (West Mongol) chief Khoo- China. Örlög leads most of the Torghuds west 1412 Grand Prince Vasilii I is the last Moscow to the Volga, founding the Kalmyk peo- prince to “go to the Horde” to receive ple. investiture from the Golden Horde. 1632 The Manchu emperor Hong Taiji dispatch- 1434 Toghoon Taishi of the Oirats kills Arugtai, es a large Manchu army with Mongol allies to destroy Ligdan Khan, who flees the kingmaker of the surviving Yuan west to Ordos and then to northeast court in Mongolia. Tibet. 1449 Esen Taishi of the Oirats captures the Ming 1634 Ligdan Khan dies of smallpox at Shara Tala dynasty’s Zhengtong emperor, and the (modern Tianzhu) in northwest China. Ming frontier lines collapse. 1636 Inner Mongolian princes acknowledge 1473–1474 To stave off Mongol attacks, the Ming border Hong Taiji as the first emperor of the official Yu Zijun begins building the first Qing dynasty. strip of what becomes the Great Wall. 1639 Zanabazar, son of the Tüshiyetü khan, rec- 1480 Khan Ahmad of the Great Horde backs ognized as the First Jibzundamba down after Czar Ivan III defies Tatar Khutugtu, the supreme Buddhist lama control at the stand on the Ugra River; of Mongolia. Madukhai Sechen Khatun, widow of the 1640 An assembly of Khalkha and Oirat princes previous Chinggisid khan, marries Batu- issues the Mongol-Oirat Code. Möngke Dayan Khan and drives off the 1642 After the Khoshud ruler Törö-Baikhu Oirats, beginning a Chinggisid revival in Güüshi Khan defeats the enemies of the Mongolia. “Yellow Hat” Buddhist order, the Fifth 1510 Dayan Khan defeats the Ordos and Tümed Dalai Lama proclaims him Khan of Tibet. Mongols at the Battle of Dalan Terigün 1647 Khori Buriats surrender to the Cossacks (Inner Mongolia), reunifying the Six and agree to pay yasak (fur tribute). Tümens of the Mongols. 1648–1649 Buddhist cleric and scholar Zaya Pandita 1571 The Mongol princes Altan Khan and the Namkhai-Jamtsu designs the clear script Ming dynasty make peace and open used by the Oirats. horse fairs for trading. 1662 Saghang Sechen of Ordos (Inner Mongolia) 1576 The Mongol prince Altan Khan and writes the Erdeni-yin Tobchi (Precious Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji meet summary), a famous chronicle of bSod-nam rGya-mtsho, the Third Dalai Mongolian history. Lama, in northeast Tibet, beginning the 1667 The Qing authorities complete the depor- Mongols’ “Second Conversion” to tation of all Solons (Daurs, Solon Buddhism. Ewenkis, and Old Barga) south from 1585 Abatai Khan begins building Erdeni Zuu, Siberia to Manchuria. the first monastery in Khalkha 1676 Galdan of the Zünghar tribe overthrows Mongolia. Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan of the Khoshud, 634 Chronology establishing Zünghar supremacy among 1741 Decree of Empress Elizabeth of Russia the Oirats. accords recognition and privileges to 1688 Galdan Boshogtu Khan of the Zünghars the Buddhist clergy among the invades Khalkha. Transbaikal Buriats. 1690 Ayuuki is recognized by the Dalai Lama as 1749 Mongolian translation of the bsTan-’gyur khan of the Kalmyks; Ratnabhadra in (canonical commentaries on the Zungharia writes Sarayin gerel (Light of Buddhist scriptures) completed under the moon), a hagiography of the the patronage of Qing emperor Buddhist cleric and scholar Zaya Qianlong. Pandita Namkhai-Jamtsu. 1752 Dawaachi and Amursanaa overthrow the 1691 At the Dolonnuur Assembly, the Khalkha Zünghar ruler in Xinjiang; Dawaachi princes and the Jibzundamba Khutugtu becomes new khung-taiji (ruler). officially submit to the Qing dynasty’s 1755 The Qing armies occupy Zungharia in Kangxi emperor. Xinjiang. 1693 The Tu (Monguor) lama, Agwang- 1756 Amursanaa and the Khotoghoid Khalkha Lubsang-Choidan from northwest prince Chinggünjab lead rebellions China, appointed by the Kangxi emper- against Qing rule. or the first Jangjiya Khutugtu and 1758 Third Jibzundamba Khutugtu indentified supervisor of Inner Mongolian in Eastern Tibet, not in Mongolia. Buddhism. 1771 Ubashi, viceroy of the Kalmyks, leads a 1694 Tsewang-Rabtan revolts against his uncle great emigration from the Volga back to Galdan Boshogtu Khan and takes con- Xinjiang in northwest China. trol of the Zünghar homeland. 1775 Inner Mongolian scholar and nobleman 1705 The Khoshud Lhazang Khan deposes the Rashipungsug’s Bolor Erikhe is the first Sixth Dalai Lama and kills the regent Mongolian chronicle to make extensive Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho. use of Chinese sources. 1709 Khalkha jirum (Khalkha regulations) 1779 Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye, the great replaces the Mongol-Oirat Code among monastery of the Jibzundamba the Khalkha Mongols. Khutugtus, finally fixed at the present 1717 Acting on an appeal by the Tibetan monas- spot of Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia. teries, the Zünghar army occupies Lhasa 1789 Qing law replaces the native code, Khalkha and kills Lhazang Khan. jirum. 1718 The Qing armies establish a garrison and 1811 Tsam dance, an exorcistic religious ceremo- military farm near modern Khowd city ny, introduced into Khüriye (modern in western Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar). 1721 Arana, an ethnic Mongol official in the 1822 Russian statesman Speransky reforms Eight Banners system, translates the administration of the Buriats and other Chinese religious novel Journey to the Siberian peoples. West. 1828 Earliest known duguilang (protest circle) 1723 Lubsang-Danzin leads the Upper Mongols formed in Ordos, Inner Mongolia; the of Tibet into rebellion against the Qing Zinzili Decrees, a revision of the dynasty. Mongol-Oirat Code for use among the 1724–1735 After the death of Kalmyk ruler Ayuuki Kalmyks, promulgated by decree of the Khan, the Russian authorities attempt to czar. interfere in the succession before 1833 Danzin-Rabjai directs the opera Saran accepting the more independent Khökhögen-ü Namtar (Tale of the moon Kalmyk khan Dondug-Ombo. cuckoo) in the Gobi Desert. 1727 Kyakhta Treaty defines Russo-Qing frontier 1836–1855 The Jibzundamba Khutugtu relocates from and divides the Buriats under Russia east Khüriye (now central Ulaanbaatar) from the Khalkha Mongols under the to Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery to Qing. avoid Chinese merchants. 1732–1734 Qing authorities resettle the Solons (Daurs, 1838 Two-year Buddhist parochial school Solon Ewenkis, and Old Barga) and the opened among Buzava Kalymks. New Barga in Hulun Buir (northeast 1840 The Christian western Buriat Iakov V. Inner Mongolia). Boldonov designs Cyrillic script for Chronology 635 Buriat and begins printing catechetical Russo-Chinese supervision; Hulun Buir literature. separated from Outer Mongolia. 1844 Sakhar Khamnaev founds first secular 1919 Part-Buriat Cossack general Grigorii school for non-Cossack Buriats. Semënov sponsors Buriat-Inner 1846 The Buriat Cossack Dorzhi Banzarov Mongolian pan-Mongolian movement; becomes first person of Mongol ancestry autonomy of Outer Mongolia revoked to earn a European Ph.D. at University by Chinese authorities. of Kazan’ in Russia. 1920 Red Army advance in Russia gives 1863 Tugultur Toboev writes first Buriat chronicle. Bolsheviks control of Buriat and Kalmyk 1871 Inner Mongolia nobleman and scholar territory; Kalmyk Autonomous Region Injannashi’s Khökhe Sudur (Blue chroni- organized. cle) gives a highly romanticized picture 1921 Russian Red Army and Mongolian parti- of Chinggis Khan. sans of the Mongolian People’s Party 1891 Chinese rebels of the Jindandao (Way of drive Chinese and White Russians out the Golden Pill) sect launch massive of Outer Mongolia and found new revo- pogroms against Mongols in southeast- lutionary regime. ern Inner Mongolia. 1922 Mongolian revolutionary Bodô and 14 oth- 1892 Legal privileges of the Kalmyk nobility are ers executed in Khüriye (modern abolished, and Kalmyks are legally inte- Ulaanbaatar) by their former comrades. grated into the Russian population. 1923 Buriat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet 1898 The Buriat monk Agwang Dorzhiev returns Socialist Republic (BMASSR) created. from Tibet to Russia as envoy of the 1924 Eighth Jibzundamba Khutugtu dies; Thirteenth Dalai Lama and begins Mongolian revolutionary General founding new tsanid (higher Buddhist Danzin shot at the Third Congress of faculties) in Buriatia and Kalmykia. the Mongolian People’s Party, and 1898–1900 Trans-Siberian Railway and Chinese Mongolia declared a People’s Republic. Eastern Railway cut through Buriat ter- 1925 First Congress of the Inner Mongolian ritory in Siberia and Hulun Buir in People’s Revolutionary Party; Kalmyk- Manchuria. Oirat language switched from clear 1900 Officials in Ordos, Inner Mongolia, orga- script to Cyrillic script. nize large scale duguilangs to assist the 1928 The Communist International engineers Boxer movement in anti-Christian dismissal of Dambadorji and other attacks. Mongolian leaders and installs new far- 1901 New Policies encouraging Chinese colo- left leadership that attacks Buddhism nization and modernization in Mongolia and the old aristocracy and pushes col- announced by the Qing court; in Russia, lectivization. the Speransky system abolished, and 1929 Ts. Damdinsüren publishes Mongolia’s first Buriats put under direct Russian admin- realist short story, “The Rejected Girl.” istration. 1931 Mongolian provinces reorganized; Uighur- 1902 Mongol reformer and educator Prince Mongolian script replaced among the Güngsangnorbu founds academy in Buriats by the Latin script. Kharachin (Inner Mongolia) offering 1932 Massive insurrection in northwest modern education in Mongolian, Mongolia against collectivization and Chinese, and Japanese. persecution of religion; Joseph Stalin 1906 Togtakhu Taiji launches insurrection orders an end to the far-left policies; against colonization and the New Natsugdorji writes the poem Minii nutag Policies in eastern Inner Mongolia. (My homeland); Japanese create 1911 Khalkha Mongolia declares its indepen- autonomous Khinggan provinces for the dence with Eighth Jibzundamba Mongols in eastern Inner Mongolia. Khutugtu as theocratic emperor. 1933 Hundreds executed or imprisoned in the 1912 Hulun Buir, Dariganga, and the Oirats of manufactured “Lhümbe Case” in western Mongolia join independent Mongolia. Khalkha Mongolia. 1935 Kalmyk Autonomous Region made an 1915 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty demotes Outer Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Mongolia to autonomous status under (ASSR). 636 Chronology 1936 Marshal Choibalsang appointed interior ter of the Mongolian People’s Republic, minister of the Mongolian People’s is the first Mongolian leader to visit Republic. Beijing. 1937 Prince Demchugdongrub establishes 1952–1956 Daurs separated from the Mongols as a autonomous government in central new nationality. Inner Mongolia under Japanese patron- 1954 Suiyuan province assigned to the Inner age; the Buriat-Mongolian ASSR dis- Mongolia Autonomous Region whose membered. capital is moved to Höhhot; Mongol 1937–1940 Great Purge and the campaign against autonomous areas created in Xinjiang Buddhism kills scores of thousands in and Qinghai in northwest China. Mongolia, Buriatia, and Kalmykia; all 1956 Trans-Mongolian Railway completed; de- monasteries in those areas closed down. Stalinization commission formed in 1939 Soviet forces defeat the Japanese at the Mongolia under B. Shirendew. Battle of Khalkhyn Gol; Buriat language 1957 Decrees exiling the Kalmyks revoked, and switched to Cyrillic script. they begin to return to their homeland. 1940 New constitution in the Mongolian 1958 Collectivization of pastoral regions in People’s Republic; Rinchinkhorlo pub- China completed with Great Leap lishes first realist novella in Inner Forward in China; Buriat-Mongolian Mongolia; 500th anniversary of the ASSR renamed Buriat ASSR. Jangghar epic celebrated in Kalmykia. 1959 Collectivization in the Mongolian People’s 1942 German armies occupy Kalmykia; Republic completed. Mongolia’s first original European-style 1960 New constitution in the Mongolian opera, Uchirtai Gurwan Tolgoi (Three People’s Republic. fateful hills) performed. 1961 Mongolian People’s Republic admitted to 1943 Kalmyks accused of collaboration with the the United Nations; construction begins Germans and deported as a people from on the new Darkhan city in northern their homeland on the Volga to Central Mongolia. Asia and Siberia. 1962 Yu. Tsedenbal denounces advocates of cele- 1944 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery reopened brating the 800th anniversary of in Mongolia. Chinggis Khan’s birth; Mongolia signs 1945 Soviet and Mongolian troops invade Inner border treaty with China. Mongolia, driving out the Japanese; 1963 Major historical and literary figures of Inner Mongolians form nationalist gov- Mongolia who had been killed in the ernments with pan-Mongolian aims; Great Purge exonerated of criminal plebiscite on independence in charges. Mongolia; Tsogtu Taiji is Mongolia’s first 1966 Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev visits successful feature film. Mongolia and signs alliance directed 1947 Ts. Damdinsüren’s modern adaption of the against China; Cultural Revolution Secret History of the Mongols published begins in China, and Inner Mongolian in Mongolia; Chinese Communists chairman Ulanfu is deposed. organize Inner Mongolian Autonomous 1968–1969 The manufactured “New Inner Mongolian Government under Ulanfu, with its cap- People’s Revolutionary Party” Case ital at Wang-un Süme (Ulanhot). kills tens of thousands in Inner 1949 Railway reaches Ulaanbaatar; Inner Mongolia. Mongolian Autonomous Government 1969 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region dis- made an Autonomous Region in the membered. new People’s Republic of China and its 1974 Construction begun on Erdenet city, built capital moved to Zhangjiakou. around the massive copper-molybde- 1950 Cyrillic-script Mongolian replaces the num mine, which becomes Mongolia’s Uighur-Mongolian script in Mongolia. major export enterprise. 1951–1955 The historical novel Üriin Tuyaa (Rays of 1979 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region the dawn) published by B. Rinchen in restored to its former boundaries and Mongolia. given a Mongol chairman. 1952 Marshal Choibalsang dies, and Yu. 1981–1982 Student demonstrations in Inner Mongolia Tsedenbal, his successor as prime minis- against Chinese policies. Chronology 637 1983–1985 Decollectivization of herds and pasture tion peaks in Mongolia at 325.5 per- land in Inner Mongolia. cent. 1984 Yu. Tsedenbal deposed while visiting 1992–1995 Mongolian pastoral economy decollec- Moscow; further agricultural coloniza- tivized. tion prohibited in Inner Mongolia. 1993 Kirsan N. Ilümzhinov elected president of 1987 Mongolia and the United States establish Kalmykia. diplomatic relations. 1996 The Democratic Coalition defeats the 1990 J. Batmönkh resigns in response to popular Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party demonstrations, and the Mongolian in parliamentary elections. People’s Revolutionary Party wins 1997 Apartments privatized in Mongolia. Mongolia’s first free elections; Buriat leg- 2000 Massive zud in Mongolia, drought in Inner islature protests the illegality of the Mongolia; the Mongolian People’s republic’s dismemberment and renaming. Revolutionary Party wins parliamentary 1991 Kalmyk language classes revived in elections. Kalmykia. 2002 Locust plague in central Inner Mongolia. 1991–1993 Privatization of most of the Mongolian 2003 Farming and residential land privatization industrial and service economy. implemented in Mongolia; 180 Mongo- 1992 Mongolia renamed the State of Mongolia in lian soldiers join U.S.-led forces in the new democratic constitution; infla- Iraq. BIBLIOGRAPHY Academy of Sciences, MPR. Information Mongolia: The Franke, Herbert, and Denis Twitchett, eds. Cambridge History Comprehensive Reference Source of the People’s Republic of of China. Vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, Mongolia (MPR). Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1990. 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Amitai-Preiss, Reuven, and David O. Morgan, eds. The Friters, Gerald H. Mongolia and Its International Position. Mongol Empire and Its Legacy. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1949. Badarch, Dendeviin, Raymond A. Zilinskas, and Peter J. Ganbold, Da. Facts about Mongolia. 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Ulaanbaatar: State Statistical Office of Sanders, Alan J. K. Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. 2d edi- the MPR, 1991. tion. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003. Storey, Robert, and Bradley Mayhew. Lonely Planet Mongolia. ———. Mongolia: Politics, Economics and Society. Boulder, Hawthorne: Lonely Planet, 2001. Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1987. Tserenchunt, Legdengiin, and Sharon Luethy with B. Bold- Saunders, J. J. History of the Mongol Conquests. New York: Erdene. Sain Baina uu? Mongolian Language Textbook. 3 Barnes and Nobles, 1971. vols., with cassettes. Ulaanbaatar: T and U Printing, Schwarz, Henry G. Bibliotheca Mongolica. Bellingham, 2002–03. Wash.: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Worden, Robert L., and Andree Matles Savada, eds. Mongolia: Washington University, 1978. A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress ———. Minorities of Northern China: A Survey. Bellingham, Federal Research Division, 1991. Wash.: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Zhukovskaia, N. L. Istoriko-kul’turnyi atlas Buriatii. Moscow: Washington University, 1984. Design, Information, Cartography, 2001. INDEX Page numbers in boldface indicate literature 337 Juu Uda 280 Ala-Qush 424 main entries in the encyclopedia; MPRP 382 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Alashan 7 page numbers in italics indicate revolutionary period 475 Area 576 Bayannuur league 39 illustrations; page numbers followed Byambyn Rinchen 476 World War II 587 camels 75, 76 by c indicate entries in the chronol- Bazaryn Shirendew 501 Yuan dynasty 611 climate 112 ogy; page numbers followed by m Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Agwaandondow, Sh. 382 Danzin-Rabjai 131 indicate maps. Entries beginning in United Nations 573 Agwang-Khaidub 147, 487 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 a year are filed according to the first achi qari’ulqu 101 Agwang-Lubsang-Choidan 260, environmental protection 167 letter of the entry. Adai 408 634c Gobi Desert 200 administration Ahmad, Il-Khan Sultan 633c Inner Mongolians 246 aimag 5 Il-Khanate 234 Khoshuds 310 A amban 11–12 Islam in the Mongol Empire 252 Mongolian language 373 Abagha Khan banners 30 Mamluk Egypt 341 Mongolian plateau 383 Ghazan Khan 199 Golden Horde 205 religious policy in the Mongol “New Inner Mongolian People’s Il-Khanate 231, 234 Hüle’ü 225–226 Empire 470 Revolutionary Party” Case keshig 298 Il-Khanate 233 Russia and the Mongol Empire 402 Lesser Armenia 331 Inner Mongolia Autonomous 481 New Schools movements 404 ordo 426 Region 243–245 Ta’achar 525 Qing dynasty 451 ortoq 430 Inner Mongolians 247 Ahmad Fanakati 4–5, 631c sheep 499 Qara’unas 447 jarghuchi 264 Jingim 278 sum 523 religious policy in the Mongol John of Plano Carpini 279 Lian Xixian 333 ‘Ala’ud-Din Muhammad Empire 470 Uighurs 564 Qubilai Khan 459 Compendium of Chronicles 117 Shams-ud-Din Muhammad 281 Ulaanbaatar 565, 567 Shii Tianze 500 India and the Mongols 238 South Seas 513 Yuan dynasty 605–606, 611 Yuan dynasty 607 Isma’ilis 255 Ta’achar 525 zasag 617–618 Ahura Mazda 532 Jebe 265 tammachi 527 Afghanistan 631c aimag 5 Khorazm 306–307 Toghus Khatun 542 Chaghatay Khanate 83, 85, 86 banners 32 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Turkey 555 Hazaras 215–216 1992 Constitution 120 Beg 339 Western Europe and the Mongol Il-Khanate 231 jewelry 265 Otrar Incident 431 Empire 583 Kashmir 293 Khalkha 300 Qara-Khitai 445 Abaoji 295, 315–317, 630c Khorazm 306 Khalkha jirum 301 Shams-ud-Din Muhammad 281 Abatai Khan 1, 633c Mogholi language and people Prince Khangdadorji 303 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Erdeni Zuu 169 359 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 yastuq 599 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Mongol Empire 365 Magsurjab 339 Alchi Noyan 456, 457 271 Afujiluo 478 naadam 396 Alchu-Bolod 280 Khalkha 299, 300 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3–4 oboo 414 Aleppo 341 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 Buriats 60 Oirats 421 Alexander I (czar of Russia) 289 1921 Revolution 472 environmental protection 167 Qing dynasty 452 Alexander III (czar of Russia) 289 Second Conversion 490, 491 Ewenkis 172 theocratic period 533 Alghu Tsogtu Taiji 550 flags 180 Tuvans 556 appanage system 18 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 1–2, 631c Mongolian plateau 384 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Ariq-Böke 22 Güyüg Khan 212 Onon River 425 Area 577 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Hüle’ü 225 sheep 499 ‘Ain Jalut, Battle of 6, 225, 231, 631c Golden Horde 202 Kurdistan 323 Soyombo symbol 519 Aju 6, 631c Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Möngke Khan 363–364 Agbari Jinong 171 Ariq-Qaya 22 Beg 340 Mongol Empire 365 agglutination 375–376 Bayan Chingsang 38 Qara’unas 447 Abdisho 107 agriculture. See also farming military of the Mongol Empire Algirdas 480 ‘Abd-ur-Rahman Altan Khan 10 351 Ali Ba‘atur 29, 430 Hazaras 215 Borotala 46 Qubilai Khan 459 ‘Ali-Padshah 419 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas‘ud Buriat Republic 59 Song dynasty 511 Ali-Shir Nawa’i 541 Beg 340 Central province 80 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Almaligh 85, 448 Ögedei Khan 418 Chakhar 88 Vietnam 579 almsgivers 558, 559 Töregene 544 Dörböds 150 Xiangyang, siege of 592 Alp-Qutlugh Bilge Qaghan 561 Yelü Chucai 600 market economy 158 Yuan dynasty 607 Altai 106 Abu-Sa‘id 632c modern economy 156 ‘Alam-Dar 332, 500 Altaic language family 7–8, 376, Chuban 109, 110 planned economy 157 Alan Gho’a 6 388 Il-Khanate 236 environmental protection 167 Borjigid 45 Altai Range 9 Lesser Armenia 331 Front Gorlos Mongol Mongol tribe 391 animal husbandry and Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 Autonomous County 189 social classes in the Mongol nomadism 15 Academy of Sciences 2–3 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Empire 505 Bayankhongor province 39 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 Region 242, 244 Timur 541 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Inner Mongolians 246 Alaqai Beki 6–7, 393, 424 Borjigid 45 640 Index 641 cattle 77 Amur 12–13 archaeology 19–20 Arshad-ud-Din 360 Chinggis Khan 98 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Awarga 26 Arslang 550 fossil record 188 Great Purge 210 funerary customs 189 Arslan Khan 445, 448 Gobi-Altai province 201 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 prehistory 440 art Great Lakes Basin 209 Amurlinggui, Prince 404 archery 20, 20–21 Aniga 13–14 jam 258 Amursanaa 13, 634c Buriats 69 Buddhist fine arts 50–53 Kalmyks 288 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102, Kalmyks 292 Danzin-Rabjai 131 Khowd city 311 103 military of the Mongol Empire Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Khowd province 311 Dambijantsan 126 349–350 273 Merkid 347 Oirats 423 naadam 396–397 Mongolian People’s Republic 380 mining 357 Qing dynasty 452 prehistory 440 revolutionary period 475–476 Mongolian plateau 383 Zünghars 624 Xiongnu 595 Russia and Mongolia 484 Naiman 397 Amur-Sanan, Anton 291 Arghun Aqa 21 theocratic period 534–535 Öchicher 415 Anagui 478 Georgia 197 throat singing 536–537 Qaidu Khan 445 Anandaa-Shir 400 Golden Horde 202 Ürjingiin Yadamsüren 598 Qara-Khitai 445 ancestor worship 389, 495–496 History of the World Conqueror Artana 555 Qipchaqs 455 anda 13 218 artisans in the Mongol Empire Qubilai Khan 459 Geser 198 Hüle’ü 226 24–25, 26, 506 Rouran 478 Jamugha 259 Il-Khanate 231 Arugtai 633c “stone men” 520 Mangghud 343 ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Türk Empires 553 Yisügei Ba’atur 601 281 taishi 526 Tutugh 556 Andreevich, Vladimir, of Serpukhov Möngke Khan 364 Three Guards 535 Tuvans 557 322 Nawroz 400 Asgan 299 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Andrew of Polatsk 322 Oirats 419 Ashikhai Darkhan Kung-Taiji 299 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 Andrews, Roy Chapman 19, 147, Ta’achar 525 Ashina 554 Kazakhs 294 148 Töregene 544 Ashing Lama 490 Khowd city 311 Aniga 13–14 Arghun Khan Asiatic Cavalry Division 573 theocratic period 534 Buddhist fine arts 52 Ghazan Khan 199 assembly, grand. See quriltai throat singing 536 medicine, traditional 345 Il-Khanate 234 Assyrian Church of the East Xinjiang Mongols 593 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Lesser Armenia 331 (Nestorians) Altan Khan 9–10, 633c 540 Marco Polo 438 siege of Baghdad 28 Abatai Khan 1 Yuan dynasty 609 Sa‘d al-Dawlah 486 Christianity in the Mongol bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 animal husbandry and nomadism Ariq-Böke 21–22, 631c Empire 107 Dalai Lama, Fourth 125 14–17, 15 Blue Horde 42 Il-Khanate 235 traditional education 159 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 Bolad Chingsang 43 Mar Yahbh-Allaha 598 Eight White Yurts 164 Buriat Republic 59 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Astrakhan 288, 289, 633c history 217 cattle 76–78 dating systems 75 astrology 25–26 Höhhot 219 collectivization and collective Hüle’ü 225 funerary customs 191 Jewel Translucent Sutra 267 herding 115–116 Il-Khanate 231 Hüle’ü 226 Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji Dukha 153 Lian Xixian 332 scapulimancy 490 312 modern economy 156 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas‘ud shamanism 494–495 medicine, traditional 345 Ewenkis 171, 172 Beg 340 Teb Tenggeri 531 Ming dynasty 356 Gobi Desert 201 Mongol Empire 368 twelve-animal cycle 557, 558 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 horses 224 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 weddings 581 Oirats 420 Inner Mongolians 246, 251 Oirats 420 Yelü Chucai 600 Russia and Mongolia 482 Juu Uda 280 Qaidu Khan 444 Asudai 22 Second Conversion 490, 491 Kalmyk Republic 286 Qara-Qorum 447 Ataa Ulaan Tenger. See Jealous Red Three Guards 536 Khentii province 304 Qubilai Khan 458–460 God Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 Khobogsair Mongol Autonomous Shangdu 497 Atsiz 306 Tümed 552 County 305–306 Shii Tianze 500 Attila the Hun 596 “Two Customs” 558, 559 Mongolian People’s Republic Siberia and the Mongol Empire Auruqchi, Prince 539 Altan Khan, Code of 10–11 378 502 Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic Altan-Ölgii 191 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 (ASSR) 56, 58, 60, 67–69, 635c Altan tobchi 11 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Tibet and the Mongol Empire autonomous system 243 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 328 Area 576 539 Awarga 26 Northern Yuan dynasty 408, 411 Yogur people 601 Tutugh 556 archaeology 19 quda 461 zud 621 Yuan dynasty 603, 605 Chinggis Khan 100 Secret History of the Mongols 493 animal skins 344–345 Ariq-Qaya 22 Eight White Yurts 163 17th-century chronicles 80, 81 animal style 17 Lian Xixian 333 Kherlen River 305 Altu 460 Noyon Uul 413 military of the Mongol Empire Mongol Empire 367 Amagaev, Matvei Innonkent’evich prehistory 440 354 Ayurbarwada, Emperor 383, 477 Türk Empires 554 Qubilai Khan 459 religious policy in the Mongol Amagaev, Nikolai 477 Xiongnu 595 Song dynasty 511 Empire 470 amban 11–12 anthem 17–18, 72 Uighurs 564 Temüder 531, 532 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Anyat Khan 397 Xiangyang, siege of 592 Yuan dynasty 608 banners 32 aphoristic quatrains 146 armed forces of Mongolia 22–24, Ayurvedic humors 345 traditional education 160 appanage system 18–19 126, 587–588 Ayushi Güüshi 562 Lifan yan zeli 334 aimag 5 Armenia Ayushiridara 407, 610 Lifan Yuan 333 Crimea 121 Chormaqan 106 Ayuuki Khan 27, 634c Qing dynasty 452 Yelü Chucai 600 Christian sources on the Mongol Flight of the Kalmyks 180 religion 467 Aq-Taghai 263, 513 Empire 108, 109 Kalmyks 288 1911 Restoration 470 Aqtan, B. 294 Georgia 196, 197 Oirats 421, 422 Tserindorji 549 Aramic script 561 Ögedei Khan 417 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Upper Mongols 574 Arana 95, 161, 634c armor 350 550 642 Index Ayyubid dynasty 340 Bai Yunti 348 otoq 430 Batu 36–37, 631c Azerbaijan 206, 231, 632c Bajan-Ölgij. See Bayan-Ölgii Qing dynasty 449 Blue Horde 41 province quda 461 Bulghars 53 B Bala religion 467 Central Europe and the Mongols baatar 168 Güyüg Khan 212, 213 1921 Revolution 472 79 Baatur Khung-Taiji 621, 622 Möngke Khan 363 Shiliin Gol 500 Eight White Yurts 163 Baatur Ubashi Tümen 290, 423 Oghul-Qaimish 418, 419 Subei Mongol Autonomous Georgia 197 Babasang 376 Baljuna Covenant 30 County 521 Golden Horde 201–203, 207 Babujab 503 Chinggis Khan 98 sum 523 Güyüg Khan 212 Bachman 455 Chinqai 103 taiji 526 jam 259 Bacon, Roger 587 Jabar Khoja 257 theocratic period 533 Jochi 279 Bactrian camel 75 nökör 406 Three Guards 536 Kiev, siege of 313 Badarakhu 383, 405, 515 religious policy in the Mongol Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Badgar Juu Monastery 327 Empire 469 Tibetan language and script 538 Beg 340 Badma, Boowan 147 Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 Tongliao municipality 543 Möngke Khan 362, 363 Badmadorji 28 Bandi 13 Tuvans 556 Muhi, Battle of 392 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Bandida Gegeen Monastery rebel- Üjümüchin 565 “New Inner Mongolian People’s 270 lion 47 Ulaanchab 569 Revolutionary Party” Case Shangdu 497 Banjuur 13 Upper Mongols 574 402 theocratic period 533 banner land 94 Zakhachin 617 Ögedei Khan 417, 418 Badmaev, Pëtr A. 345, 346, 404 “Banner of the Kalmyk Populists” La Bannière bleue (Leon Cahun) 619 Oghul-Qaimish 418, 419 Badr-ad-Din Lu’lu’ 323 291 Banzarov, Dorzhi Banzarovich 32, Oirats 420 Badrakh, Ö. 150, 196 banners 30–32, 31m 635c ordo 426 bag 120 aimag 5 Buriats 64 Qara’unas 447 Bagabandi, N. Alashan 7 New Schools movements 403 Qipchaqs 455, 456 1992 Constitution 121 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 oboo 414 Qonggirad 457 MPRP 382, 383 amban 12 Bao’an language and people 33–34 Russia and the Mongol Empire privatization 441 appanage system 19 Baotou 34, 552 479 Russia and Mongolia 485 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Baradiin, Bazar B. 619 social classes in the Mongol Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 621 Barga 34, 35 Baraq Khan 631c Empire 506 Baghdad 631c Bayad 37 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 1, 2 Borjigid 45 Il-Khanate 234 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Islam in the Mongol Empire 252 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Töregene 544 Ked-Buqa 295 Mongolia 71 Beg 340 Western Europe and the Mongol Sa‘d al-Dawlah 486 Chakhar 88 Qaidu Khan 444 Empire 583 Ta‘achar 525 Chifeng municipality 90 “Barefoot Flight” 294 William of Rubruck 587 Baghdad, siege of 28–29 Chinese colonization 94 Barga 34–35, 634c Batu-Bolod 408 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 Chinese trade and moneylend- Buriat language and scripts 54 Batuids 632c Christianity in the Mongol ing 97 Buriats 61 Batumöngke 337 Empire 108 Confucianism 118 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng Batuwachir 475 Hüle’ü 225 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 127 Bayad 37, 536 Kurdistan 323 General Danzin 129 Daur language 135 Bayan 37, 632c massacres and the Mongol Dariganga 132 Hulun Buir 226, 227 El-Temür 166 Conquest 343 decimal organization 140 kinship system 314 Merkid 347 military of the Mongol Empire Prince Demchungdongrub 141 lamas and monasticism 325 Qaidu Khan 445 352 Dörböds 150 Mangghud 342 Song dynasty 511 Baghdad Khatun 236 duguiland 152 Merkid 347 Toqto’a 543 Baha’ud-Din Muhammad 280 traditional education 159–160 military of the Mongol Empire Yuan dynasty 608–610 Baibaghas Baatur Noyan 490 Flight of the Kalmyks 180 352 Bayan Chingsang 37–38, 631c Baibaghas Khan 310 Front Gorlos Mongol Oirats 420 Aju 6 Baidu 253, 525 Autonomous County 189 Qing dynasty 452 Ariq-Qaya 22 Baiju 29, 631c funerary customs 191 shamanism 494 military of the Mongol Empire siege of Baghdad 28 Duke Gombojab 209 Siberia and the Mongol Empire 354 Chaghatay Khanate 85 Henan Mongol Autonomous 502 Qara-Qorum 447 Chormaqan 106 County 216 Sino-Mongolian War 503 Qubilai Khan 459, 460 Georgia 196 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Bar Hebraeus, Gregory Abu‘l-Faraj Shii Tianze 500 keshig 297 Region 243, 245 109 Song dynasty 511 Lesser Armenia 331 Juu Uda 279, 280 bariach 35–36, 344, 345, 372 Yuan dynasty 605 tammachi 527 Khalkha 299, 300 Barsbold, Rinchenii 476 Bayan-Chor 478, 560, 561 Turkey 555 Khalkha jirum 301 Barsu-Bolod 410 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Western Europe and the Mongol Khinggan league 305 barter 97 Prefecture 38–39, 167 Empire 583 Khobogsair Mongol Basanjab 547 Bayankhongor province 39 Baikal, Lake 29–30 Autonomous County 305 Bashkirs 203, 583 Öölöd 426 Buriat Republic 56 Khowd province 311 Basmil 560 sheep 499 Buriats 60 kinship system 314 Batbayar, B. 143 South Gobi province 512 environmental protection 167 lamas and monasticism 327 Batik Shan 573 Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Mongolian plateau 383, 384 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 Batmönkh, Jambyn 36, 637c Bayan Mongol 395 Selenge River 493 Lifan yan zeli 334 1990 Democratic Revolution Bayannuur league 39, 499, 569 Siberia and the Mongol Empire naadam 396 143 Bayan Oboo 34 502 New Policies 402 Dörböds 150 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 Tatars 529 North Khangai province 411 Mongolian People’s Republic Altai Uriyangkhai 9 water fauna 178 oboo 414 377 falconry 173 Baikal-Amur Railway (BAM) 59 Öölöd 426 MPRP 381, 382 Kazakhs 294 Bairam-Egechi 457, 460 Ordos 427 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 549 Khowd city 311 Index 643 Mongolian plateau 384 Önggüd 425 boqta 44, 82, 173, 265, 266 bsTan-’gyur 634c MPRP 382 Qaidu Khan 445 Boraldai 392 bubonic plague. See Black Death Tuvans 557 Qara-Khitai 446 Börbei the Fierce 502 Budashiri, Empress 609 Bayan Qaghan 478 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Borjigid 44–46, 633c Buddhism Bayantümen 105 503 Alan Gho’a 6 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 4 Bayanzag 147 Timur 541 Chinggis Khan 97 Dorzhi Banzarov 32 Bayaskhal 410, 536 Toqtamish 543 clan names 110 Bao’an language and people 34 Bay-Baligh 561 “blue register” 78 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan Buriats 64, 66, 69–70 Baybars, Sultan 331, 555 Blue Wolf 492 138 Ochirbatyn Dashbalbar 135 Baysonghur 541 Bo’al 393 falconry 173 Agwang Dorzhiev 151–152 Bazylhan, B. 294 Bodhicayavatara 632c family life 174 duguiland 152 beef 185 bodhisattva 237 folk poetry and tales 183 fishing 229 Beg-Arslan 408 Bodi Alag Khan 10, 565 funerary customs 190 flags 180 Begter 492, 499 Bodô 42–43, 635c Il-Khanate 236 funerary customs 190–191 Beijing. See Daidu Chinese fiction 95 Jalayir 257 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery Bela IV (king of Hungary) 79, Marshal Choibalsang 103–104 John of Plano Carpini 279 194–195 392 General Danzin 129, 130 Juu Uda 280 Gendün 196 Belgütei foreign relations 186 kinship system 313 history 217 Manchuria and the Mongol Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth lamas and monasticism 328 Jalkhanza Khutugtu Empire 342 271 matrilineal clans 344 Damdinbazar 258 Nayan’s Rebellion 401 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Mongol tribe 391 Jangjiya Khutugtu 260–261 Secret History of the Mongols League 385 Muqali 393 Kalmyks 289–291 493 MPRP 380 nökör 406 literature 336 Shiliin Gol 500 1921 Revolution 472, 473 patronymics 436 Third Mergen Gegeen Lubsang- wrestling 588 revolutionary period 473 Qonggirad 456 Dambi-Jalsan 346, 347 Beliakov, A. M. 69 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 quda 461 Mongolia, State of 373 Beltüt 448 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 shamanism 495 New Schools movements Berke 631c General Sükhebaatur 522 social classes in the Mongol 404–405 appanage system 18 Bodonchar 6, 391 Empire 505 oboo 414 Central Europe and the Mongols Bogda. See Jibzundamba Khutugtu taiji 526 Oirats 422 79 Bogda Khan Yisügei Ba’atur 601 Qing dynasty 454, 455 Georgia 197 1924 Constitution 119 yurt 615 religion 465, 466, 468 Golden Horde 202, 205, 207 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 269 zasag 617 shamanism 496 Hüle’ü 225 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Boroghul Tibetan culture in Mongolia Il-Khanate 231, 234 271 nökör 406 537 Islam in the Mongol Empire khan 303 Öchicher 415 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous 252 Qing dynasty 454 Ögedei Khan 416 Area 577 Mongol Empire 368 revolutionary period 474 Siberia and the Mongol Empire White Month 584–586 Noqai 406 theocratic period 533 502 White Old Man 586–587 Marco Polo 438 Bogdanov, Mikhail N. 66, 404 Borotala Mongol Autonomous Zakhachin 617 Qara’unas 447 Bogd Uul 166, 565 Prefecture 46 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu religious policy in the Mongol Bögö Chor 554 Borotologai 104 618 Empire 470 Bögü 560, 561, 630c Borovka, G. I. 412 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Berke-Buqa 543 Bökhe 251, 570 Börte Üjin 46, 162 Zünghars 622 Besh-Baligh 564, 630c, 631c Bolad Chingsang 43 Cha’adai 81 Buddhism, campaign against Besüd clan 265 Compendium of Chronicles 117 Chinggis Khan 98, 100, 101 46–48, 632c, 635c, 636c Bidiyadara Dandaron 358 Il-Khanate 235 Daur language 135 Buriats 68 Bi Guifang 324 paper currency in the Mongol Jochi 278 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery Bilge Qaghan 478, 554 Empire 435 marriage 173 194 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Bolai Taishi 408 Merkid 347 Golden Horde 207 Black Death 40–41, 632c Bolaji, Emir 359 Ögedei Khan 416 Mongolian People’s Republic Blue Horde 42 Boldonov, Iakov V. 634c–635c Qonggirad 456 377 Chaghatay Khanate 87 Bolkhu Jinong 342, 408 Shigi Qutuqu 464 religion 466 China and Mongolia 91 Bolor erikhe 43–44, 118, 634c Secret History of the Mongols Ulaanbaatar 568 Crimea 121 Bolsheviks/Bolshevik Party 635c 492 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Golden Horde 207, 208 Buriats 66, 67 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Area 577 Ibn Battuta 230 Mikhei Erbanov 168, 169 weddings 583 Buddhism in the Mongol Empire medicine, traditional 345 Ulan-Ude 572 Boshigt, G. 372 48–50, 49, 634c. See also Second Mongol Empire 369 Baron von Ungern-Sternberg Boshugtu Jinong 486 Conversion Qarluqs 448 573 Boskochaina 135 Abatai Khan 1 Western Europe and the Mongol Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Bosqur 135 Altan Khan 10 Empire 584 Area 577 Botu 460 astrology 25–26 Yuan dynasty 610 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Boxer movement 261, 454, 635c Bao’an language and people 33 “Black Jang” 612 bones, burnt 489 Brezhnev, Leonid 548, 636c Barga 35 Black Sea 121 Bo’orchu 44 Andrei Urupkheevich bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Blue Chronicle (Khökhe sudur) 239, Cha’adai 81 Modogoiev 358 Burma 71 635c Eight White Yurts 162 Sino-Soviet split 505 Chaghatay Khanate 87 Blue Horde 41–42 keshig 297 Soviet Union and Mongolia Confucianism 118 Golden Horde 201, 203, 208 Mongolian sources on the 515, 516 East Asian sources on the Kazakhs 293 Mongol Empire 386 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 549 Mongol Empire 155 Mangghud 343 Muqali 393 ‘Bri-gung-pa Monastery 632c traditional education 159–160 Mogholi language and people nökör 406 Bronze Age 165 Eight White Yurts 164 359 boots 114 bSod-nams rGya-mtsho, third Dalai epics 168 Naiman 398 Boowan Badma 291 Lama. See Dalai Lama, third Erdeni Zuu 169, 170 644 Index Buddhism in the Mongol Empire Buriatia 635c taishi 526 modern economy 157 (continued) Buriat language and scripts 54–56, theocratic period 535 goats 199–200 fire cult 178–179 635c Tibetan culture in Mongolia Inner Mongolians 251 Geser 198 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 4 537 Japan and the modern Mongols Ghazan Khan 199 Barga 34 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 263 Golden Horde 207 Buriat Republic 58 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Mongolia, State of 372 Törö-Baikhu Güüshi Khan 211 Buriats 60–61 Area 576–578 sheep 498 horses 223 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121, weddings 582 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 Hüle’ü 226 122 White Month 586 Casimir the Great 480 hunting 227, 228 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 yurt 614, 616 Caspian Sea 283 Il-Khanate 234, 235 Buriat-Mongolian Autonomous Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Catherine the Great 288 incarnate lama 237–238 Soviet Socialist Republic Buriats of Mongolia and Inner cattle 76–78, 77 Kashmir 293 (BMASSR) 635c, 636c Mongolia 70–71 animal husbandry and Mongol Empire 368 Buriat-Mongolian Republic 67–68 Bürinbekhi 337 nomadism 14, 16 Noqai 407 Buriat Republic 56–60, 57m, 58 Burma 71–72, 460, 605 Central province 80 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 aimag 5 Burni 88 Khentii province 304 Qubilai Khan 457–459 Lake Baikal 29 Burundai, Emir 447–448 Khorchin 308 religious policy in the Mongol Buriat script 55 Butha 136, 137 Khöwsgöl province 312 Empire 469, 470 desertification/pasture degrada- buuz 72 Lifan yan zeli 334 social classes in the Mongol tion 145, 146 Buyannemekhü 72–73 military of the Mongol Empire Empire 506 environmental protection 167 anthem 18 352 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Mikhei Erbanov 168–169 Chinese fiction 95 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 528 flags 180 literature 337 Mongol tribe 389 tenggeri 532 Mongolian plateau 383 Mongolian People’s Party, Third North Khangai province 411 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Selenge province 493 Congress of 376 ongghon 424 538, 540 Selenge River 493 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth petroglyphs 436 Uighur Empire 561 sheep 499 League 385 Selenge province 493 Uighurs 563, 564 Soyombo symbol 519 revolutionary period 475 sheep 498, 499 Xia dynasty 590 Ulan-Ude 571–572 Soviet Union and Mongolia social classes in the Qing period Yelü Chucai 600 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous 517 508 Yogur people 601 Area 576, 577 Buyan Sechen Khan 334 South Khangai province 512 Yuan dynasty 607, 609, 611 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Buyruq Khan 397, 398 Sükhebaatur province 523 Buddhist fine arts 50–53, 51 Buriats 60–70, 63, 65, 633c, 634c, Byambasüren, D. cavalry 348–350, 410 Aniga 13–14 635c, 637c Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Celestial Master 528 Il-Khanate 236 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area Mongolia 71 cemetery 191 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First 3–4 decollectivization 140 Cenozoic era 188 273 astrology 26 1990 Democratic Revolution census in the Mongol Empire Yuan dynasty 609 Dorzhi Banzarov 32 143, 144 78–79 Buddhist literature 65 Barga 34 Byang-chub rGyal-mtshan 539, 610 Central Asia 631c Buddhist music 395 Buriat language and scripts 54 Byzantium and Bulgaria 73, 202, Central Europe and the Mongols Buguo 424 clothing and dress 114 203, 205 79, 392 building materials. See construction dance 128 Central province 79–80, 498 materials dating systems 75 C Central Secretariat 442–443 Bukhara 631c Dauriia Station Movement 137 Caffa 121 Cha’adai 81 Bukharans 193 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Cahun, Leon 619 appanage system 18 Bulgan province 53 Ewenkis 172 cairn. See oboo Chaghatay Khanate 82, 83, 87 Bulgaria. See Byzantium and Geser 197, 198 calendars and dating systems Chinggis Khan 100 Bulgaria Great Purge 209, 210 74–75 Güyüg Khan 212 Bulghai 364 horses 223 astrology 25, 26 Islam in the Mongol Empire Bulghars 53 Hulun Buir 226, 227 Il-Khanate 235 252 Altaic language family 8 hunting and fishing 228 religion 468 Jalayir 258 Golden Horde 203, 205, 208 jewelry 266 twelve-animal cycle 557–558 jam 259 money in the Mongol Empire Khalkha 301 Cambodia 513 Jochi 278 361 Khorazm 308 “camel money” 361 Khorazm 307 Ögedei Khan 417 kinship system 314 camels 75–76 Körgüz 321 Qipchaqs 455 Kyakhta city 324 Alashan 7 Liegnitz, Battle of 333 bulls 76–77 Lhümbe Case 332 animal husbandry and Möngke Khan 362 Bül-Qaya 332 Mongolia, State of 369 nomadism 16 Mongol Empire 368 Bumin 553, 630c Mongolic language family 388 Bayankhongor province 39 Ögedei Khan 416, 418 Bunyashiri 408 names, personal 399 Kalymyk Republic 286 Qara’unas 447 Buqa 53–54 New Schools movements 403 sheep 499 Qarluqs 448 Il-Khanate 234 oboo 414 social classes in the Qing period quriltai 462 Jalayir 258 Oirats 420 509 religious policy in the Mongol Nawroz 401 ongghon 423 South Gobi province 512 Empire 469 Ta’achar 525 otoq 431 tribute system 546 Töregene 544 Buqa-Temür, Prince 539, 632c patronymics 436 Camels (D. Sengetsokhio) 392 Chabar 445 Büri quda 461 Camelus bactrianus 75 Chabui 82, 82 Möngke Khan 362, 363 religion 466 capital punishment 398 Ahmad Fanakati 4 Muhi, Battle of 392 1921 Revolution 472 cashmere 76 Jingim 278 Ögedei Khan 417, 418 revolutionary period 474 animal husbandry and ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 burial customs. See funerary cus- shamanism 494 nomadism 17 Qonggirad 457 toms Siberia and the Mongol Empire Bayankhongor province 39 Qubilai Khan 457, 458, 460 Buriat Autonomous Soviet Socialist 502 collectivization and collective Chadraa, B. 3 Republic (BASSR) 636c Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 herding 116 Chagdurjab 472, 473 Index 645 Chagha’an Shiliin Gol 500 Eight Banners 161 Chinese colonization 93–95, 635c massacres and the Mongol Six Tümens 505 flags 179 Baotou 34 Conquest 343 social classes in the Qing period foreign relations 186 Chakhar 88 Naiman 398 508 Höhhot 219–220 environmental protection 166 Töregene 544 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Inner Mongolians 245–247 Front Gorlos Mongol Chaghan teüke 82 Sükhebaatur province 523 Üjümüchin 565 Autonomous County 189 Eight White Yurts 163 Üjümüchin 565 Upper Mongols 576 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji weddings 581, 582 China and Mongolia viii, 90–95 Region 240 313 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Ahmad Fanakati 4, 5 Inner Mongolians 246 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 Chakhundorji, Tüshiyetü Khan Altan Khan 10 Japan and the modern Mongols Second Conversion 491 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 animal husbandry and 262 “Two Customs” 558 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First nomadism 16 Juu Uda 280 Chaghatay Khanate 82–88, 84m, 272 armed forces of Mongolia 22, Khorchin 308, 309 631c, 632c Khalkha 300 23 Ordos 427 appanage system 18 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 artisans in the Mongol Empire Qing dynasty 454 Ariq-Böke 21 Qing dynasty 451 25 Revocation of Autonomy 471 Buddhism in the Mongol Changa’an-Temür 609, 610 Badmadorji 28 Tümed 552 Empire 50 Changchun, Master 89–90, 631c banners 32 Wuhai 589 Golden Horde 205–207 Buddhism in the Mongol Bao’an language and people Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Hüle’ü 225 Empire 48 33–34 401, 487, 570 Il-Khanate 231 Chinggis Khan 100 Barga 35 Chinese Eastern Railway 172, 227, India and the Mongols 238, East Asian sources on the Bayan Chingsang 38 242, 635c 239 Mongol Empire 154 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Chinese fiction 95–96, 183, 239 inje 240 Jabar Khoja 257 Black Death 41 Chinese language 609 Islam in the Mongol Empire Khorazm 307 Bodô 43 Chinese medicine 345 253 religious policy in the Mongol Borotala 46 Chinese trade and moneylending Jalayir 258 Empire 469 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner 96, 96–97, 300, 429 Kashmir 293 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Mongolia 70 Chingai 363 keshig 298 528 cashmere 76 Chinggisids. See Borjigid khans and regents 626t Changshi 87 census in the Mongol Empire Chinggis khaghan-u altan tobchi 81 Khorazm 308 chanting 395 78 Chinggis Khan vii, ix, 97–101, 99, Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Charaqa Lingqum 530 market economy 158 162, 630c, 631c Beg 340 Chargil-Nudui 529 Ewenkis 172 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 1 massacres and the Mongol Chasun dumdakhi checheg (Flowers farming 176 Alan Gho’a 6 Conquest 344 in the Snow) 249–250 food and drink 184–185 Alaqai Beki 6, 7 Moghulistan 359, 360 Checheyiken 419, 502 foreign relations 185, 186 anda 13 money in the Mongol Empire cheese. See dairy products Front Gorlos Mongol appanage system 18 361–362 Chekü 448 Autonomous County Awarga 26 Qaidu Khan 444 Chen Lu 324 188–189 Baljuna Covenant 30 Qubilai Khan 459 Chen Yi 28, 471 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Batu 36 quda 461 chess 90, 165, 293 County 191–192 Bolad Chingsang 43 religious policy in the Mongol Chiang Kai-shek Duke Gombojab 209 Bolor erikhe 44 Empire 470 China and Mongolia 92 Höhhot 219 Bo’orchu 44 Timur 540 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 Hulun Buir 227 Borjigid 44, 45 Uighurs 564 foreign relations 186 Kaifeng, siege of 282 Börte Üjin 46 Yuan dynasty 603 Mongolian People’s Republic money, modern 361 Buddhism in the Mongol Chaing Kai-shek 514 377 Mongol Empire 365 Empire 48 Chakhar 88–89 plebiscite on independence 438 Mongolian People’s Republic Buriats 61, 62 banners 31 World War II 588 377 census in the Mongol Empire Barga 35 Chifeng municipality 90, 280 MPRP 380, 381 78 Borotala 46 children 159 Revocation of Autonomy 471 Cha’adai 81 Chinese fiction 95 China, People’s Republic of (PRC) 1921 Revolution 472–473 Chaghan teüke 82 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng 636c revolutionary period 473, 474 Chaghatay Khanate 82–83 128 Bao’an language and people Russia and Mongolia 483–484 Master Changchun 89 Dariganga 132 33–34 Sino-Soviet alliance 503–504 China and Mongolia 90 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 Barga 35 Sino-Soviet split 504–505 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Eight White Yurts 164 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous social classes in the Mongol Chinqai 103 family 174 Prefecture 39 Empire 507 Chormaqan 106 Inner Mongolians 246 China and Mongolia 92 Soviet Union and Mongolia Christianity in the Mongol keshig 298 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 513, 514 Empire 107 Lifan Yuan 333 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 122 theocratic period 533 Chuban 109 Ligdan Khan 334 Dongxiang 149 tribute system 546–547 Compendium of Chronicles 117 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Eight Banners 161 Uighurs 564 Confucianism 117 Ming dynasty 356 foreign relations 186 United Nations 573 darughachi 134 Mongolian language 373 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Xianbi 592 decimal organization 139 Mongolian plateau 384 Region 243 Xinjiang Mongols 593, 595 East Asian sources on the Mongolic language family 386 Inner Mongolians 248 Xiongnu 596 Mongol Empire 154 Naiman 398 Yogur people 602 Yelü Chucai 600 traditional education 159 New Policies 402 China, Republic of Yuan dynasty 603–611, 609 Eight White Yurts 161–165 New Schools movements 403 banners 32 Yunnan 612 food and drink 184 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 China and Mongolia 91 Zhang Rou 619–620 funerary customs 190 Qing dynasty 449 Chinese colonization 94 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Golden Horde 201 Saghang Sechen 486 Confucianism 119 Zünghars 622–623 Güyüg Khan 211 Second Conversion 490 Dongxiang 149 Chinese civil war 89, 136, 248 history 216, 218 646 Index Chinggis Khan (continued) New Schools movements 404 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Sino-Soviet alliance 503, 504 History of the World Conqueror nökör 406 Uighurs 563 Soviet Union and Mongolia 218 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 weddings 583 515–517 Huan’erzui, Battle of 224 noyan 412 Xia dynasty 590, 591 Soyombo symbol 519 incarnate lama 237 oboo 414 Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 General Sükhebaatur 523 India and the Mongols 238 Öchicher 415 Yelü Chucai 600 Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Islamic sources on the Mongol Ö’elün Üjin 415, 416 Yisügei Ba’atur 601 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 547 Empire 254 Ögedei Khan 416 Yuan dynasty 603, 606 White Month 586 Islam in the Mongol Empire Oghul-Qaimish 418 zasag 617 World War II 587 252 Oirats 419 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Ürjingiin Yadamsüren 598 Jabar Khoja 257 ongghon 424 Chinggis Khan controversy Choibalsang (Eastern Province) Jalayir 258 Önggüd 424 101–102, 380, 548 155 jam 258 Ong Khan 425 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102–103, Choidog, D. 518 Jamugha 259, 260 Onon River 425 634c Choijung Lama Temple 105, 534 jarghuchi 264 ordo 426 Amursanaa 13 Choinom, Rentsenni 105–106 jarliq 264 Ordos 427 Chinese trade and moneylend- Buriats of Mongolia and Inner jasaq 264, 265 ortoq 429 ing 96 Mongolia 71 Jebe 265 Otrar Incident 431 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 literature 337 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth paiza 433 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second Mongolian People’s Republic 269 Parwan, Battle of 436 273 378 Jin dynasty 275, 277 Qaidu Khan 444 Khalkha 300 Choir city 106, 155 Jochi 278 Qara-Khitai 445, 446 Khotoghoid 310 Chong’ur 556 Juyongguan Pass, battles of 281 Qarluqs 448 Qing dynasty 452 Chöökür, Oirat chief 306 Kazakhs 293 Qing dynasty 449 Chinqai 103 Chopiak 210 Kereyid 295, 296 Qipchaqs 455 artisans in the Mongol Empire Chormaqan 106 keshig 297 Qonggirad 456 25 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 khan 302 Qubilai Khan 457 Güyüg Khan 212, 213 Baiju 29 Khentii province 304, 305 quda 460, 461 jarghuchi 264 Georgia 196 Kherlen River 305 quriltai 462 Kereyid 296 Güyüg Khan 212 Khorazm 306–308 17th-century chronicles 80, 81 Ögedei Khan 417 keshig 297 Khorchin 308 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Oghul-Qaimish 418 Khorazm 308 Kiev, siege of 313 religion 466, 467 ortoq 429 Kurdistan 323 Kitans 318 religious policy in the Mongol Töregene 544 military of the Mongol Empire Korea and the Mongol Empire Empire 469 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 351 320 Russia and the Mongol Empire Uighurs 563 Mongol Empire 365 Körgüz 320 479 Chin-Temür 308, 320 Ögedei Khan 416, 417 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 328 scapulimancy 489 Chistikova, Nina 400 quda 461 Lian Xixian 332 Second Conversion 491 Ch’oe family 319 tammachi 527 Liegnitz, Battle of 333 Secret History of the Mongols Ch’oe U 319 Turkey 555 literature 335–337 492, 493 Chogchas-un Jirükhen 312 Choros clan Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud shamanism 495 Choibalsang, Marshal 103–105, Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 Beg 339 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 522, 636c Oirats 420 Manchuria and the Mongol Shiliin Gol 500 Amur 12 Zünghars 621, 622 Empire 341 Shimo Ming’an and Xiandebu armed forces of Mongolia 23 Chosgi-Odsir 106–107, 632c Mangghud 342 501 Bodô 43 Chaghatay Khanate 87 marriage 173 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Buddhism, campaign against traditional education 160 massacres and the Mongol 502 47, 48 literature 336 Conquest 343 Sino-Soviet split 504 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Uighurs 564 medicine, traditional 345 Six Tümens 505 Dashiin Damba 126 Chos-kyi dBang-phyug 547 Menggeser Noyan 346 social classes in the Mongol Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Christianity in modern Mongolia Mergen Gegeen, Third, Empire 505, 506 environmental protection 166 468 Lubsang-Dambi-Jalsan 346 social classes in the Qing period foreign relations 186 Christianity in the Mongol Empire Third Mergen Gegeen Lubsang- 507 funerary customs 191 107–108 Dambi-Jalsan 346 Song dynasty 509 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery Buriats 64 Merkid 347 Sorqaqtani Beki 511 194 Georgia 196, 197 military of the Mongol Empire square script 519 Great Purge 209, 210 Ghazan Khan 199 348–351 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 520 Kazakhs 294 Golden Horde 202, 207 money, modern 361 taiji 525, 526 Khafungga 299 Güyüg Khan 212 money in the Mongol Empire taishi 526 Mongolian People’s Party, Third history 217 361 tammachi 527 Congress of 376 Hüle’ü 226 Möngke Khan 362 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Mongolian People’s Republic Il-Khanate 236 Mongol Empire 365, 367, 368 528 377 Kereyid 296 Mongolia, State of 373 Tatars 529 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Khurdistan 323 Mongolian language 376 Tatar-Tong’a 530 League 385 Möngke Khan 362 Mongolian sources on the Tayichi’ud 530 MPRP 381 Mongol Empire 368 Mongol Empire 385, 386 Teb Tenggeri 530–531 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 Naiman 397 Mongol tribe 389–391 tenggeri 532 naadam 397 Önggüd 424 Mongol zurag 392 Three Guards 535 New Turn policy 406 religious policy in the Mongol Muhi, Battle of 392 Toghus Khatun 541 plebiscite on independence 438 Empire 470 Muqali 392–393 Tolui 542 1921 Revolution 472 Russia and the Mongol Empire music 395 Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 revolutionary period 474 480, 481 Naiman 397 Töregene 544 Byambyn Rinchen 476 social classes in the Mongol names, personal 398 tribute system 547 seal 490 Empire 506 Nayan’s Rebellion 401 Tuul River 556 Bazaryn Shirendew 501 Toghus Khatun 542 Index 647 Uighurs 563 Hulun Buir 226 Compendium of Chronicles (Rashid- Council of Mutual Economic Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Inner Mongolia Autonomous ud-Din) 117, 353, 463, 632c Assistance 186 Area 577 Region 244 Chinggis Khan 98 crafts colonies 25 Christians mining 358, 359 Ghazan Khan 199 credit 97 Ariq-Böke 21 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous History of the World Conqueror Cretaceous period 147, 148, 188 Hüle’ü 226 Area 576 219 Crimea 121, 632c Western Europe and the Mongol Wuhai 589 Islamic sources on the Mongol Ayuuki Khan 27 Empire 583 coinage Empire 254 Black Death 41 Mar Yahbh-Allaha 598 Chaghatay Khanate 85 Mongolian sources on the Golden Horde 202, 203, 208 Christian sources on the Mongol Golden Horde 205, 207 Mongol Empire 386 keshig 298 Empire 108–109 Il-Khanate 233 Mongol tribe 390 Khoo-Örlög 306 history 216 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 497 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Mangghud 343 John of Plano Carpini 279 collectivization and collective herd- Complete Realization 89, 528 money in the Mongol Empire William of Rubruck 587 ing 115–116, 635c, 636c. See Confucianism 117–119, 632c 362 Chuban 109–110, 632c also decollectivization Bayan 37 Ögedei Khan 417 Georgia 197 animal husbandry and traditional education 159 Özbeg Khan 432 Il-Khanate 235, 236 nomadism 15, 17 El-Temür 166 Qipchaqs 455 Mamluk Egypt 341 Buriat Republic 59 family 174 Toqtamish 543 Chübei 364 Buriats 68 Harghasun Darqan 215 Türk Empires 553 Ch’ungny_l, Prince 320 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Inner Mongolians 246 Western Europe and the Mongol Chunqin 317 five-year plans 179 Jalayir 257, 258 Empire 584 Church of the East 107–109 Inner Mongolians 249 Jin dynasty 275 Cui Li 282 cinema 636c leftist period 329, 330 Kitans 318 Cultural Revolution 636c Circassians 203 MPRP 381, 382 Lian Xixian 332–333 Alashan 7 civil rights 120 revolutionary period 474–475 Liu Bingzhong 338 Buddhist fine arts 53 civil war 458 Selenge province 493 Mongol Empire 368 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 Cixi, dowager empress 402 shamanism 496 Qubilai Khan 459 Eight White Yurts 165 clan administration 63–64 sum 523 religion 466 Henan Mongol Autonomous clan names 110 Upper Mongols 576 religious policy in the Mongol County 216 artisans in the Mongol Empire Columbus, Christopher 369 Empire 469 Hulun Buir 227 25 Comintern (Communist Sayyid Ajall 489 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Borjigid 45 International) 635c semuren 494 Region 245 Darkhad 132 Gendün 196 Song dynasty 511 Inner Mongolians 250 Kazakhs 294 MPRP 381 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Khafungga 299 lamas and monasticism 328 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 528 literature 337 Mogholi language and people 383 Xianbi 592 “New Inner Mongolian People’s 359 revolutionary period 474 Yelü Chucai 600 Revolutionary Party” Case names, personal 398 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 Yuan dynasty 607–609, 611 401, 402 Ordos 427 Soviet Union and Mongolia Constantine, Baron 321, 331 Na. Sainchogtu 487 patronymics 436 515 1924 Constitution 119 Sino-Soviet split 504, 505 quda 461 Ulanfu 570 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Ulanfu 570 Tuvans 557 Communist Manifesto 382 flags 179 culture 136, 373, 379–380 Zakhachin 617 Communist period revolutionary period 474 currency 632c. See also coinage clear script ix, 110–111 Alashan 7 Ulaanbaatar 568 hunting and fishing 228 folk poetry and tales 183 astrology 26 1940 Constitution 119 paper currency in the Mongol Kalmyk-Oirat language and bariach 36 flags 179 Empire 435 script 287 Jambyn Batmönkh 36 seal 490 Sangha 488 Kalmyks 291 Borotala 46 weddings 583 South Seas 513 Lifan Yuan 334 Chakhar 89 1960 Constitution 119–120, 378, yastuq 599 Mongolic language family 388 China and Mongolia 91–92 490 Yuan dynasty 606, 608, 610, Oirats 419, 421 Chinese colonization 94–95 1992 Constitution 120–121 611 Sutra of the Wise and Foolish 1960 Constitution 119–120 1990 Democratic Revolution 144 Cyrillic-script Mongolian ix, 524 Agwang Dorzhiev 152 flags 179 121–122, 634c–635c, 635c, 636c Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Eight White Yurts 164–165 history 217 Buriat 55 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Ewenkis 172 Mongolia, State of 369, 370 Marshal Choibalsang 105 Yogur language 602 flags 179 MPRP 382 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu funerary customs 191 privatization 441 dating systems 75 618 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 621 Daur people 137 clergy 78 County 192 construction materials 132–133, 157 Kalmyk-Oirat language and climate 111–112 Henan Mongol Autonomous Cossacks 633c, 635c script 287 cloth bolts 361 County 216 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 4 Khalkha 301 clothing and dress 112, 112–115, history 217 Dorzhi Banzarov 32 Mongolian language 376 113 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Buriat Republic 56 Mongolic language family 386 boqta 44 Region 244–245 Buriats 61, 62, 64 Secret History of the Mongols jewelry 265–267 Inner Mongolians 248–251 Ewenkis 171, 172 493 lamas and monasticism 326 Japan and the modern Mongols Kalmyk Republic 285 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 revolutionary period 476 263 Kalmyks 289–291 shamanism 496 Uighur-Mongolian script Khotoghoid 310 D coal 562–563 Russia and Mongolia 482, 483 Dahnyam, L. 337 Baotou 34 Ulanfu 570 Russia and the Mongol Empire Daidu 123–124, 631c, 632c Darkhan city 133 Upper Mongols 576 482 Ahmad Fanakati 4 modern economy 157 Xinjiang Mongols 593, 595 theocratic period 534 Buddhism in the Mongol Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Ürjingiin Yadamsüren 598 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Empire 49 County 191 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Area 577 Chosgi-Odsir 106 648 Index Daidu (continued) Japan and the modern Mongols Darkhad 132 family 174 Eight White Yurts 163 262 Eight White Yurts 164, 165 hunting and fishing 228, 229 funerary customs 190 literature 337 Great Shabi 211 Daurs 636c Harghasun Darqan 215 Mongolian People’s Party, Third Khalkha 301 Dawachi, prince of the Choros 623, battles of Juyongguan Pass 281 Congress of 376 Khöwsgöl province 312 634c “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 328 MPRP 381 Mongolian language 373 Dayan Khan, Batu-Möngke 138, Liu Bingzhong 338 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 religion 466 633c Ming dynasty 354 revolutionary period 474 scapulimancy 490 Bolor erikhe 44 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 shamanism 494 Borjigid 45 Öchicher 415 Dambijantsan 126–127 Tuvans 556 Chakhar 88 Ossetes 430 Dörböds 150 Darkhan city 132–133, 636c folk poetry and tales 183 provinces in the Mongol Empire Subei Mongol Autonomous modern economy 157 Khalkha 299 442 County 521 Mongolian People’s Republic Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Qubilai Khan 458 theocratic period 534 379 Ming dynasty 356 17th-century chronicles 80 Damdinsüren, B. 395 Selenge province 493 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Shangdu 497 Damdinsüren, Tsendiin 127, 635c, Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Oirats 420 sieges of See Zhongdu, sieges of 636c darqan 133–134 Ordos 427 Tibet and the Mongol Empire anthem 18 artisans in the Mongol Empire otoq 431 539 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 24 quda 461 Tutugh 556 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 17th-century chronicles 81 Yuan dynasty 605, 608 literature 337 Eight White Yurts 162 Six Tümens 505 daily life 136 Mongolian People’s Republic jarliq 264 taiji 525 dairy products 124, 124, 125 380 Köten 321 taishi 526 Chakhar 88 Byambyn Rinchen 476 Moghulistan 360 Three Guards 535, 536 family life 174 Secret History of the Mongols 493 nökör 406 Uighurs 564 food and drink 183–184 Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels 546 religious policy in the Mongol Upper Mongols 573 Khobogsair Mongol Damdinsürüng, Grand Duke Empire 469 Dayir Ba’atur 238 Autonomous County 306 127–128 Taoism in the Mongol Empire dBen-sa sPrul-sku 193 koumiss 321–322 Dambijantsan 126 528 death. See funerary customs medicine, traditional 344 Hulun Buir 227 darughachi 134 debt 97 religion 468 1911 Restoration 471 siege of Baghdad 29 Dechingalba Temple 434 sheep 498 Sino-Mongolian War 503 Bayan 37 decimal organization 139–140 White Month 584 theocratic period 534 Kashmir 293 census in the Mongol Empire Dalai Lama 634c Dam-pa Kun-dga’grags 459, 488 Khorazm 307 78 Kalmyks 292 Damrin, T. 337 Korea and the Mongol Empire Chinggis Khan 99 Khalkha 300 dance 128 319 Georgia 197 Prince Khangdadoriji 303 Dandaron, Bidiyadara D. 69 Körgüz 320 Golden Horde 205 Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji Daniel of Halych Kurdistan 323 Il-Khanate 233 312, 313 Central Europe and the Mongols Lesser Armenia 331 Jin dynasty 275 lamas and monasticism 328 79 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud military of the Mongol Empire Oirats 421, 422 Kalka River, Battle of 283 Beg 339 350 Qing dynasty 453, 454 Russia and the Mongol Empire military of the Mongol Empire Mongol Empire 367 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji 479–480 349, 354 Russia and the Mongol Empire 550 danshug 128, 396, 470 Mongol Empire 367 480 Tsogtu Taiji 550 “Danshug Games of the Seven Ögedei Khan 417 Six Tümens 505 “Two Customs” 559 Banners” 396 ortoq 430 Xiongnu 595 Dalai Lama, fifth 633c Danzin, General 129, 129–130, paiza 433 Yuan dynasty 607 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 635c Qara-Khitai 446 decollectivization 140–141, 637c Törö-Baikhu Güüshi Khan 211 Bodô 43 Sa’d al-Dawlah 486 animal husbandry and Jibzundamba Khutugtu 267 Marshal Choibalsang 104 Sayyid Ajall 489 nomadism 17 Qing dynasty 451 Dambadorji 126 semuren 494 market economy 158 Second Conversion 491 Lhümbe Case 332 Shimo Ming’an and Xiandebu modern economy 156 tsam 547 Mongolian People’s Party, Third 501 Inner Mongolians 251 “Two Customs” 557, 558 Congress of 376 social classes in the Mongol matrilineal clans 344 Upper Mongols 574 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Empire 507 privatization 441 Dalai Lama, 14th 69, 93, 269 League 385 South Seas 513 sum 523 Dalai Lama, fourth 125 MPRP 380 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 deel 112, 113–115 Jewel Translucent Sutra 267 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 tammachi 527 defense spending 23, 24 Second Conversion 491 General Sükhebaatur 522 Turkey 555 Degei 78, 406 Tu language and people 551 Tserindorji 550 Yuan dynasty 606 Deguang 630c Dalai Lama, sixth 550, 574, 634c Danzin-Dagba 160 Dashbalbar, Ochirbatyn 134–135, Dehui, Ye 493 Dalai Lama, third 312, 490, 491, Danzin-Rabjai 130–132, 131, 634c 337, 372 Delhi (India) 238 558, 633c East Gobi province 156 Dashitsering 216 Deli’ün Boldaq 97, 304 Dalai Lama, 13th 151 folk poetry and tales 182 Das Kapital (Karl Marx) 542 Demchungdongrub, Prince Dalai Taishi 150 Jangjiya Khutugtu 261 Dauriia Station Movement 137–138 141–142, 636c Da Lama Dahijab 324 literature 336 Buriats 66 Alashan 7 Da Lama Tserinchimed 470, 533 Khuulichi Sangdag 487 Merse 348 Chakhar 89 Dalbag 408 Daraisun Küdeng Khan 410 Revocation of Autonomy 471 dating systems 75 Dali, siege of 631c Dariganga 132, 635c Byambyn Rinchen 476 flags 179 Dali kingdom 612 Ochirbatyn Dashbalbar 135 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 Höhhot 220 Damba, Dashiin 125–126, 501, 548 Khalkha 301 Daur language and people 135–137 Inner Mongolians 247, 248 Dambadorji 126, 635c Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 Barga 35 Japan and the modern Mongols foreign relations 186 1911 Restoration 471 Buriats 61 262 Gendün 196 Sükhebaatur province 523 Ewenkis 172 money, modern 361 Index 649 Na. Sainchogtu 487 Dmitrii 480, 633c Dream of the Red Chamber (Hong lou Eastern province 155 Shiliin Gol 500–501 Dmitrii of Bryansk 322 meng) 95 five-year plans 179 Ulanfu 570 Dmitro 313 dromedaries 75 Kalmyk Republic 286 Demid, Marshal 142, 405 Dogsum (Dogsom, D.) drought 146, 251 Mongolia, State of 372 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Amur 12 Du’a Khan 631c Mongolian People’s Republic Marshal Choibalsang 104 Great Purge 210 Chaghatay Khanate 86 378–379 New Turn policy 405 1921 Revolution 472, 473 Qaidu Khan 444–445 revolutionary period 474–475 Democratic Army 23 General Sükhebaatur 522 Qara’unas 447 theocratic period 534 Democratic Coalition 370, 441, Doladai of the Tatars 525 Duan Xingzhi 612 Ulaanbaatar 569 637c Dolonnuur 52, 273 Dughlat 85, 632c Edgü-Temür 320 democratic Mongolia, leaders of Dolonnuur Assembly 148, 634c duguilang 152–153, 634c, 635c Edigü 629t Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Chinese colonization 94 Mangghud 342, 343 1990 Democratic Revolution 272 leftist period 330 Russia and the Mongol Empire 142–145 Khalkha 300 New Policies 403 481 1960 Constitution 120 Khalkha jirum 301 Ordos 427 Toqtamish 543 1992 Constitution 120 Qing dynasty 451 Qing dynasty 454 education 159–160, 635c history 217 Dondubdorji 273 Dukha 153, 312, 556 Buriats 66 Inner Mongolians 251 Dondug-Dashi Dulaji 632c Cyrillic-script Mongolian 122 Japan and the modern Mongols Kalmyks 288 Dulucha 293 Inner Mongolia Autonomous 263 lamas and monasticism 326 Dürlükin 390, 391 Region 243 Khalkha jirum 301 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 Duzong 511 Inner Mongolians 247, 249, Mongolia, State of 369 Dondug-Ombo 288 dynasties 216–217. See also specific 251 Mongolian People’s Republic Dongping, siege of 599 dynasties Japan and the modern Mongols 377 Dong Wenbing 459, 511 263 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Dongxiang language and people E Mongolia, State of 372 League 385 148–149 East Asia 611 Soviet Union and Mongolia MPRP 381 Donskoi, Dmitrii 322, 480, 481 East Asian calendars 74 516–517 naadam 397 Doqolqu Cherbi East Asian sources on the Mongol theocratic period 535 privatization 220 Jin dynasty 277 Empire 154–155 traditional 159–160 Russia and Mongolia 484 Mangghud 342 Eastern Hu 591–592 Ulan-Ude 571–572 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 549 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Eastern province 155 Upper Mongols 574, 576 Ulaanbaatar 565 Doqulqu 417 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 620–621 Dörbed Mongol Autonomous Mongolia 70 Area 577 democratization 3, 18 County 149–150 Marshal Choibalsang 105 Efremov, I. A. 147 demonstrations, student 250–251, Dörbei the Fierce 238 Dariganga 132 Eg River 160, 312 636c, 637c Dörben ündüsü. See Four Roots Lhümbe Case 332 Eight Banners 160–161, 634c Demotte Shahnama 145, 145, 236 Dörböds 150 Lian Xixian 332 amban 11–12 Deng Xiaoping 505, 570 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 mining 357 banners 30, 31 desertification and pasture degrada- banners 32 sheep 498 Barga 35 tion 145–146 Jambyn Batmönkh 36 Eastern Türks 630c Chakhar 88 environmental protection 167 Bayad 37 Eastern Xia 211 Daur people 136 flora 182 Chinese trade and moneylend- East Gobi province 156, 357 Dolonnuur Assembly 148 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan ing 97 Ebügen 319 Ewenkis 171 Autonomous Prefecture 214 Kalmyk Republic 285 economy Höhhot 219 Inner Mongolians 251 Kalmyks 288, 289 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 Hulun Buir 227 sheep 499 Khalkha 301 Alashan 7 Lifan Yuan 333 desert steppe 182 Khotong 311 animal husbandry and New Schools movements 403 de-Stalinization 105, 126, 636c Khowd province 311 nomadism 14–17 Qing dynasty 451 dGe-lugs-pa “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 Buriat Republic 59–60 Tümed 552 lamas and monasticism 326 Mongolian language 374 Chinese trade and moneylend- Uliastai 572 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 ing 96–97 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Qing dynasty 451 Oirats 420 Darkhan city 133 eightfold restraint 491 religion 465, 466 Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 decollectivization 140–141 Eight White Yurts 161–165, 162 Second Conversion 490 theocratic period 533 1990 Democratic Revolution Borjigid 45 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 547 144 Chaghan teüke 82 550 Uws province 578 desertification/pasture degrada- darqan 133 Tsogtu Taiji 550 Zünghars 621, 624 tion 146 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 “Two Customs” 558, 559 Dorgon 451 Dörböds 150 Ligdan Khan 335 Dharmatala, Damchoi-Jamsu 559 Dorji-Erdeni-Akhai 301 Erdenet city 169 literature 336 Dhyana Master Haiyun 338 Dorjitseden 357 foreign relations 186 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Dhyana (Zen) Buddhism 48 Dorjsüren, Ts. 412 Golden Horde 205 Northern Yuan dynasty 408, dictionary 209 Dor-ta Darqan 538 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan 410–411 Di culture 595 Dorzhiev, Agwang 151–152, 635c Autonomous Prefecture 214 Ordos 427 didactic poetry 146–147 Buriat 55 Inner Mongolia Autonomous religious policy in the Mongol traditional education 160 Buriats 66 Region 243–244 Empire 469 literature 336 Kalmyks 290 Inner Mongolians 251 Second Conversion 491 prosody 442 lamas and monasticism 328 Japan and the modern Mongols Six Tümens 505 Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels medicine, traditional 346 263 yurt 615 545–546 New Schools movements 404 Juu Uda 280 Elbeg 80, 420 Dindub, Dazin 472, 473 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 World War II 587 “elder’s religion” 466–467 dinosaurs 147–148, 188 Tibetan culture in Mongolia Yuan dynasty 606 elections 144 diplomacy 43 537 economy, modern 156–159 electricity 567 divination. See scapulimancy dowries. See inje collectivization and collective Elista 165, 285 divorce 175 drama. See theater herding 115–116 Elizabeth (czarina of Russia) 634c 650 Index Eljidei 416 erke’üd 107, 108 religion 466, 467 fur trade 228, 229 Eljigidei Erlig Khan 467 shamanism 495, 496 fur tribute 633c Güyüg Khan 212, 213 Esen 170–171 tenggeri 532 hunting and fishing 228 Möngke Khan 363 Khoshuds 310 weddings 582 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Qara’unas 447 Ming dynasty 355 fishing 121, 229 502 elk stones 165 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 “Five Appanages” 527 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous petroglyphs 436 Oirats 420 “Five Tigers” 211 Area 577 prehistory 440 taishi 526 five-year plans 179 Fushengge, Duke 137 “stone men” 520 Three Guards 535 collectivization and collective Fuxin Mongol Autonomous County Xiongnu 595 Tumu Incident 553 herding 116 45, 191–192, 308 El-Temür 166, 632c Esen-Buqa 86 planned economy 157 Bayan 37 Esen Taishi 633c Kalmyk Republic 285 G Qipchaqs 456 Esen-Temür 72, 543 Mongolian People’s Republic Gaadamba, Sh. 380, 477 Tutugh 556 Eshi Khatun 410 378 Gada Meiren 309 Yuan dynasty 608–610 “Eternal Heaven” 99, 100 MPRP 381 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193–194, Emegeljin, Mother 424, 496 ethnic geography 384 flags 179–180, 180, 519 633c, 634c emperor. See khan Etüken, Mother 467, 532 Flight of the Kalmyks 180 Buriats 62 empress. See khatun Ewenkis 171–172 Borotala 46 Dolonnuur Assembly 148 endangered species 167 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 Dörböds 150 Duke Gombojab 208 engagements 581–582 Barga 34, 35 Khoshuds 310 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 Engels, Friedrich 19 Buriat language and scripts 54 Qing dynasty 452 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First environmental protection 30, Buriat Republic 56 Xinjiang Mongols 593 272 166–168, 578. See also nature Buriats 61, 62 flora 180–182, 181, 201 Khalkha 300 preserves Daur language 135 flutes 394–395 Khoshuds 310 epics 168 Daur people 136 folklore 198, 619 Khotoghoid 310 archery 20 hunting and fishing 228, 229 folk music 395 Khowd city 311 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Mongolian plateau 384 folk poetry and tales 182–183 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 Chinese fiction 95 Shiwei 502 didactic poetry 146–147 Oirats 421, 423 clear script 111 exogamy 460, 461, 505 epics 168 Öölöd 426 folk poetry and tales 182 fire cult 178 Qing dynasty 451 Geser 197–198 F Jangghar 260 Byambyn Rinchen 476 horse racing 221 falconry 173 prosody 441–442 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji horses 222 hunting and fishing 228 yörööl and magtaal 602–603 550 Jangghar 260 Kazakhs 294 food and drink 183–185 “Two Customs” 559 religion 468 Manchuria and the Mongol buuz 72 Upper Mongols 574 Secret History of the Mongols 492 Empire 342 dairy products 124 Yogur people 601 yörööl and magtaal 603 family 173–175 koumiss 321–322 Zünghars 621 Erbanov, Mikhei Nikolaevich 67, appanage system 18–19 tea 530 Galdan-Tseren 194 68, 168–169, 577 boqta 44 White Month 584 Kazakhs 294 Erdene, S. 337 fire cult 178–179 foreign investment 93 Oirats 421, 422 Erdenet city 169, 636c inje 240 foreign relations 185–187 otoq 431 Bulgan province 53 Fang Guozhen 543 China and Mongolia 92–93 Qing dynasty 452 modern economy 157 Fan Wenhu 263, 592 Golden Horde 203, 205 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji mining 357 Far Eastern Republic Il-Khanate 231, 233 550 Mongolian People’s Republic Buriat Republic 60 Japan and the modern Mongols Zünghars 622, 623 379 Buriats 67 263 Galsang 522 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 Ulan-Ude 572 Mongolia, State of 370 Galsangdashi, Yegüzer Khutugtu Trans-Mongolian Railway 545 farming 175–176, 242. See also United Nations 573 534 Erdeni Baatur Khung-Taiji 389 agriculture foreign trade. See trade games 90, 396–397 Erdeni-yin tobchi 170, 633c modern economy 156 forestry 182 Gammala, Prince 415 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 328 Kalmyk Republic 286 forest steppe 181–182 Ganbold, D. 440 literature 336 Kharachin 304 fossil record 187–188 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery quda 461 Selenge province 493 four-class system 494 194–195, 195, 634c, 636c Saghang Sechen 486, 487 Three Guards 535 “four dogs” 265, 406, 521 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth 17th-century chronicles 80 Uighur Empire 561 four foundlings 406, 492 269 “Two Customs” 558 Fatima 544 “Four Oirats” 420 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Erdeni Zuu 169–170, 633c fauna 176–178 Four Roots 345, 346 273 Abatai Khan 1 Federation of Inner Mongolian “Four Steeds” 415 lamas and monasticism 328 Buddhist fine arts 52 Autonomy Movements (FIMAM) Franciscans 279 Mongolia, State of 373 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 570 Franks 583 Ulaanbaatar 567, 568 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First felt 498 Frederick II (Holy Roman Emperor) Ganjuurjab 262, 339 272 Feng Yuxiang 474, 514 79 Gansu 630c Khalkha 300 feudalism 218 Frinovskii, M. P. 104, 210 Ariq-Böke 22 Orkhon River 429 fiddles. See horse-head fiddle Front Gorlos Mongol Autonomous Bao’an language and people 33 Qara-Qorum 447 Filatova, Anastasia Ivanovna 548, County 188–189 Uighurs 563 Qing dynasty 452 549 Fumingtai 136, 347, 348 Upper Mongols 574 South Khangai province 512 film 636c funerary customs 189–191, 190 Xia dynasty 591 Sutra of the Wise and Foolish fine arts 50–53 elk stones 165 Xiongnu 596 524 fire cult 178–179 Il-Khanate 236 Gansu-Qinghai language subfamily Erdniev, Purvä M. 292 folk poetry and tales 183 Kitans 318 33 Ereen Kharganat 478, 630c funerary customs 189 Noyon Uul 412–413 Ganzhou 563 Erinchindorji 102, 273 horses 223 prehistory 440 Gao Heshang 5 Erinchin Jinong 486–487 literature 336 “stone men” 520 Gaozu 630c Erke-Qara 425 Mongol zurag 392 Türk Empires 554 garrison troops. See tammachi Index 651 Gegeen (title) 237 jarliq 264 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Gombojab, Duke 208–209 Geikhatu Khan keshig 298 Autonomous Prefecture bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Il-Khanate 234 Kurdistan 323 214 Confucianism 118 ordo 426 Lesser Armenia 331 Inner Mongolia Autonomous medicine, traditional 345 paper currency in the Mongol Mamluk Egypt 341 Region 244 Gonchigsumlaa, S. 395 Empire 435 Mangghud 342 Golden Horde 201–208, 203, Gorbachev, Mikhail Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 money in the Mongol Empire 204m, 207, 631c, 632c, 633c Jambyn Batmönkh 36 Ta’achar 525 362 Ariq-Böke 21 1990 Democratic Revolution 142 Geligbalsang 183 Mongolian sources on the Black Death 41 foreign relations 187 Gendün 195–196, 405 Mongol Empire 386 Blue Horde 41–42 Gorlos 189 Amur 12 Nawroz 401 Buddhism in the Mongol Gorodovikovsk 285 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Oirats 419 Empire 50 grain 156, 158 Marshal Demid 142 ordo 426 Bulghars 53 grammar 160 Great Purge 210 ortoq 430 Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 grave monuments 189 MPRP 381 paiza 433 census in the Mongol Empire grave sites MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 Qara’unas 447 78 Noyon Uul 412–413 New Turn policy 405, 406 Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 Chaghatay Khanate 83, 85 “stone men” 520 Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 religious policy in the Mongol Christianity in the Mongol Türk Empires 554 Gendün Daiching 310 Empire 470 Empire 108 Great Depression 262 Gendün-Demid Case 210 social classes in the Mongol Crimea 121 Greater Khinggan Range 209 Genghis Khan. See Chinggis Khan Empire 506 darughachi 134 Borjigid 45 Georgia 196–197 Ta’achar 525 decimal organization 139 Buriats 61 Chormaqan 106 Mar Yahbh-Allaha 598 funerary customs 189 environmental protection 166 Christian sources on the Mongol Ghiyas-ad-Din Kay-Khusrau of Rum Georgia 197 fauna 177 Empire 109 331, 555 Hüle’ü 225 flora 182 Golden Horde 202 Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad 236, Ibn Battuta 230 funerary customs 189 Hüle’ü 226 465 Il-Khanate 231 Hulun Buir 226 keshig 298 Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq 238–239 Islamic sources on the Mongol Inner Mongolia Autonomous Khorazm 308 Ghunan 406 Empire 254 Region 240 Köse Da_i, Battle of 321 Girdkuh 255, 256 Islam in the Mongol Empire Juu Uda 279 money in the Mongol Empire Glang Dar-ma 538 252, 253 Khorchin 308 361 glasnost’ 142 Jalayir 258 Kitans 317 Mongol Empire 365 goats 199–200 jam 259 Mongolian plateau 383 Ögedei Khan 417 animal husbandry and jarliq 264 Mongol tribe 389 Qipchaqs 455 nomadism 14 khan 302 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Bayankhongor province 39 khans and regents 626t Qonggirad 456 tea 530 cashmere 76 Khorazm 308 Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area Western Europe and the Mongol Chakhar 88 Mamluk Egypt 340 166 Empire 583 desertification/pasture degrada- Mangghud 342 Great Khural, Eighth 119 Geresenje Jaliar Khung-Taiji 299 tion 146 massacres and the Mongol Great Khural, First 71, 195 gerfalcons 502 fauna 177 Conquest 344 Great Lakes Basin 209 Germany 587, 636c Kalymyk Republic 286 money in the Mongol Empire climate 112 Geser 197–198 Khorchin 308 362 fossil record 188 Buriats 68, 70 Middle Gobi province 348 Mongol Empire 367, 369 Gobi-Altai province 201 folk poetry and tales 183 sheep 498, 499 Noqai 406 Khangai Range 303 horse racing 221 Shiliin Gol 500 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 Khowd province 311 literature 336 South Gobi province 512 ortoq 430 Mongolian plateau 383, 384 Mongolian People’s Republic Uws province 578 Ossetes 430 Lake Uws 578 380 Gobi-Altai province 201 Marco Polo 438 Uws province 578 oboo 415 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Qaidu Khan 444, 445 Zawkhan province 618 palaces of the Bodga Khan 435 sheep 499 Qipchaqs 455, 456 Great Leap Forward 636c tenggeri 532 South Gobi province 512 Qonggirad 456 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 Gobi Cashmere Factory 76 Qubilai Khan 459, 460 Prefecture 39 tsam 547 Gobi Desert 200, 200–201, 634c quda 461 Chinese colonization 95 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Bayankhongor province 39 Russia and Mongolia 482 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Area 577 Bayannuur league 39 Russia and the Mongol Empire Region 245 Ghabang-Sharab 290, 422 camels 75 480 Inner Mongolians 249 Ghabung-Sharab 289 cashmere 76 Saray and New Saray 488 Sino-Soviet alliance 503 Ghazan Khan 198–199, 632c climate 112 shamanism 495 Great Mongol Empire 603 artisans in the Mongol Empire environmental protection 166 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Great People’s Khural 25 fauna 177 503 1960 Constitution 120 Bolad Chingsang 43 flora 180, 182 social classes in the Mongol 1992 Constitution 120 Buddhism in the Mongol fossil record 188 Empire 506 1990 Democratic Revolution Empire 50 Kereyid 295 Tatars 529 143, 144 census in the Mongol Empire 78 Khangai Range 303 Timur 541 Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 621 Christianity in the Mongol Khowd province 311 Toqtamish 543 Great Purge 209–210, 636c Empire 108 matrilineal clans 344 Western Europe and the Mongol Amur 12 Chuban 109 Modun 358 Empire 584 armed forces of Mongolia Compendium of Chronicles 117 South Khangai province 512 yastuq 599 23–24 funerary customs 190 Ulaanchab 569 Yuan dynasty 603, 605 Jambyn Batmönkh 36 Georgia 197 Gobi-Sümber province 106 Golden Summary 346 Buriat Republic 60 Il-Khanate 233, 234, 236 gold Gold-Tooths 72, 612 Buriats 68 Islam in the Mongol Empire 253 Burma 71 Gömbö-Dorhi, Tüshiyetü khan Buriats of Mongolia and Inner jam 259 modern economy 157 300, 389 Mongolia 71 652 Index Great Purge (continued) Guo Shoujing 123 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan New Schools movements 403, Buyannemekhü 73 Gürbesü 397 Autonomous Prefecture 214, 404 China and Mongolia 93 Gürragchaa, J. 518 576 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 Marshal Choibalsang 104–105 Gü’ün-U’a 392–393 Haiyun 48 Önggüd 425 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Güüshi Chorjiwa 1 Hajji, Ötemish 41 Second Conversion 490 Mikhei Erbanov 169 Güüshi Khan, Törö-Baikhu 211, Hajji-Ali 420 Sino-Mongolian War 503 foreign relations 186 633c Hambaghai Khan Sino-Soviet alliance 504 Gendün 196 Kalmyks 288 Mongol tribe 389–391 Sutra of the Wise and Foolish 524 Japan and the modern Mongols Khoo-Örlög 306 Tatars 529 Three Guards 536 262 Khoshuds 310 Tayichi’ud 530 tribute system 546 Khalkha 301 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 Hami 564 Tümed 552 Mongolia, State of 369 Oirats 421 Han 90, 91 Ulanfu 570 Mongolian People’s Republic Torghuds 545 Hanafi 253 holidays 584–586 377, 380 Tsogtu Taiji 550 Han dynasty 595, 596, 630c Holuiqan 419 MPRP 381 “Two Customs” 557, 558 Han people 249 Hong Pogw˘on 320 New Turn policy 406 Upper Mongols 574 Han river 592 Hong Taiji 633c revolutionary period 474, 475 Zünghars 622 Hantum 459 banners 30 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 Güyüg Khan 211–213, 631c Hantum Noyan 459 Eight Banners 160 shamanism 496 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 Han Wudi 596, 630c Lifan Yuan 333 Ulaanbaatar 568 Arghun Aqa 21 Hao Jing 511 Ligdan Khan 335 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Baiju 29 Harghasun Darqan 215 Qing dynasty 449, 451 Great Shabi 210–211 Batu 36–37 darqan 133 Hordu Badmadorji 28 census in the Mongol Empire Islam in the Mongol Empire Blue Horde 41 Bodô 42 78 253 Central Europe and the Mongols Chinese trade and moneylend- Chaghatay Khanate 83 Öchicher 415 79 ing 97 Chinqai 103 Yuan dynasty 608 Golden Horde 202 danshug 128 Georgia 197 Hasan 25, 255 Güyüg Khan 212 Dariganga 132 Golden Horde 202 Hasan Buzurg (“Big” Hasan) Liegnitz, Battle of 333 Darkhad 132 History of the World Conqueror Il-Khanate 235, 236 Möngke Khan 362 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth 218 Jalayir 258 Oirats 420 271 Islam in the Mongol Empire Khurdistan 323 Qipchaqs 456 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First 252 Hasan-i Sabbah 255 Qonggirad 457 271 Isma‘ilis 255 Hasan Jalal-ud-Din 255 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Khalkha 300 jarghuchi 264 Hasan Kuchek (“Little” Hasan) 503 Khalkha jirum 301 Kashmir 293 236, 632c horse-head fiddle 220–221, 221, naadam 396 keshig 297 Hazaras 215–216 394, 536 otoq 431 Köten 321 healers 458, 494, 495 horse racing 221–222, 222 Qing dynasty 453 Kurdistan 323 health care 372, 379 Kalmyks 292 Revocation of Autonomy 471 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas‘ud Heart of the Assemblages. See Khalkha jirum 301 Shangdu 497 Beg 340 Chogchas-un Jirükhen naadam 396, 397 theocratic period 533 Manchuria and the Mongol Helan Prefecture Water Tatars Route horses 222–224, 223 Tserindorji 549 Empire 341 342 animal husbandry and Ulaanbaatar 566 Menggeser Noyan 346 Henan 277, 632c nomadism 14, 16 Great State Khural Merkid 347 Henan Mongol Autonomous Central province 80 1940 Constitution 119 military of the Mongol Empire County 216, 576 Ewenkis 171 1960 Constitution 120 349 Hendejin Qaghan 315 fauna 177 1992 Constitution 121 Möngke Khan 362, 363 Henry the Pious 333 India and the Mongols 238 Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 621 Mongol Empire 365, 368 heqin 546 Kalymyk Republic 286 Great Wall 94, 410, 633c Naiman 398 herding. See animal husbandry and Khentii province 304 Greek medicine 345 Ögedei Khan 417, 418 nomadism Khorazm 308 Green Standard 572 Oghul-Qaimish 418 Hetoum 506 Khöwsgöl province 312 Gregorian calendar 74 Önggüd 424 Het’um I 331 koumiss 321–322 Gregory IX (pope) 79 ortoq 429 Het’um II, King 331 military of the Mongol Empire gross domestic product 158 Ossetes 430 Hindu, Prince 263 349, 350 Grot, Victor von 483 Qipchaqs 455 Hindus 238 Ming dynasty 356 Güchü 406 Russia and the Mongol Empire Historia Mongolorum quos nos Northern Yuan dynasty 410 guest workers 93 479 Tartaros apellamus 279 North Khangai province 411 Guilichi, khan 408 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 history 216–218 petroglyphs 436 Guisui 570 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 History of the Mongolian People’s quriltai 462 Gunashiri 564 Töregene 544 Republic 101 religion 467 Güng, Prince 404 Turkey 555 History of the World Conqueror 117, seal 490 Gunggadejidling 434 Uighurs 564 218–219, 254, 281, 631c sheep 499 Güngsangnorbu 635c Western Europe and the Mongol Hizb-e Wahdat-e Islami (Islamic social classes in the Qing period Chinese colonization 94 Empire 583 Unity Party) 215–216 508 Inner Mongolians 246 Gyurgi 283 Höhhot 219–220, 220, 633c, 636c Sükhebaatur province 523 Japan and the modern Mongols gYu-thog Yon-tan mGon-po 345 Altan Khan 10 tenggeri 532 261 Chinese colonization 94 Three Guards 535 Kharachin 304 H Dalai Lama, Fourth 125 tribute system 546 New Schools movements 404 Haenisch, Eric 400, 493 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 Türk Empires 554 Qing dynasty 454 Haishan, Emperor 632c footwear 114 hot stones 344 Guomindang Chosgi-Odsir 106 Inner Mongolia Autonomous householders 507, 558 revolutionary period 474 El-Temür 166 Region 245 housing 613–616 Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 Harghasun Darqan 215 Inner Mongolians 249 Huan’erzui, Battle of 224–225, 393, Upper Mongols 576 Yuan dynasty 608 Khalkha 299 501 Index 653 Huang River 282, 632c New Policies 403 Christian sources on the Mongol Jangjiya Khutugtu 260–261 Hudu’ershi 596 New Schools movements 403, Empire 109 Jibzundamba Khutugtu Hügechi 612 404 Chuban 109–110 267–269 Huhanye 630c Northern Yuan dynasty 408 darughachi 134 Khalkha 300 Hui rebellion 574, 602 Öölöd 426 decimal organization 139 lamas and monasticism 327 Hüle’ü 225–226, 631c Qing dynasty 452 Demotte Shahnama 145 Lifan yan zeli 334 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 1911 Restoration 471 funerary customs 189, 190 Lifan Yuan 333 ‘Ain Jalut, Battle of 6 Russia and Mongolia 483 Georgia 197 medicine, traditional 345 Arghun Aqa 21 Shiwei 502 Ghazan Khan 199 Third Mergen Gegeen Lubsang- Ariq-Böke 22 Tatars 528 Golden Horde 202, 203, 207 Dambi-Jalsan 346 artisans in the Mongol Empire theocratic period 533, 534 Ibn Battuta 230 Mingghad 357 25 Ulanfu 570 inje 240 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 siege of Baghdad 28 World War II 588 Islamic sources on the Mongol naadam 396 Baiju 29 zasag 618 Empire 254 Qing dynasty 451 Batu 37 human rights 120, 143, 144 Islam in the Mongol Empire 253 Russia and Mongolia 483 Bayan Chingsang 38 humors 345 Jalayir 258 Second Conversion 491 Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 Hungary 631c jarghuchi 264 Shangdu 497 census in the Mongol Empire 78 Batu 36 jarliq 264 social classes in the Qing period Chaghatay Khanate 85 Central Europe and the Mongols khan 302 508 Christianity in the Mongol 79 khans and regents 625t theocratic period 533 Empire 108 Muhi, Battle of 392 Kurdistan 323 Tibetan culture in Mongolia Georgia 197 Hu’ng –Dao 579, 580 Lesser Armenia 331 537 Golden Horde 202 Huns 596 Mamluk Egypt 340, 341 Tu language and people 551 Il-Khanate 230–231, 233, 235, hunting and fishing 227–229 military of the Mongol Empire Upper Mongols 574 236 Husain 349 independence movements 92–93, India and the Mongols 238 Qara’unas 448 money in the Mongol Empire 588 Isma‘ilis 255, 256 Sayyid Ajall 489 361, 362 India and the Mongols 238–239 Jalayir 258 Timur 540 Mongol Empire 367, 369 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini Hu Sha 224 Noqai 406, 407 Ibn Battuta 230 281 Hushahu, Heshilie 277 Oirats 419 Khorazm 308 Kashmir 293 Hu Sihui 344 ordo 426 Sino-Soviet split 504 Ked-Buqa 295 hydroelectric power 160 Özbeg Khan 432 South Seas 513 Kereyid 296 paiza 433 tammachi 527 keshig 298 I Qaidu Khan 444 Indra 532 Kurdistan 322 Iaroslav 479 Qara’unas 447 Industrial Combine 565, 568 Lesser Armenia 331 Iarovoi, Denis 221 quda 461 industry Mamluk Egypt 340 Ibn ‘Abd-ul-Hamid 431, 432 religious policy in the Mongol Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 massacres and the Mongol Ibn al-Athir, ‘Iaa-ad-Din 254 Empire 470 Baotou 34 Conquest 343 Ibn ‘Alqami, Mu‘ayyid-ad-Din 28, Sa‘d al-Dawlah 486 Buriat Republic 59 military of the Mongol Empire 29 South Seas 513 Darkhan city 132–133 354 Ibn Bahr, Tamim 428 Timur 541 Eastern province 155 Möngke Khan 364 Ibn Battuta, Muhammad Abu Turkey 555 market economy 158 Mongol Empire 365, 368, 369 ‘Abdallah 230 Western Europe and the Mongol modern economy 156, 157 Oirats 419 Chaghatay Khanate 85, 87, 88 Empire 583, 584 planned economy 157 ordo 426 Crimea 121 Mar Yahbh-Allaha 598 Elista 165 ortoq 430 Golden Horde 205, 207 illustrated manuscripts 236 Erdenet city 169 Qara’unas 447 Islamic sources on the Mongol Ilqa Senggüm 296, 425 Höhhot 219 Qubilai Khan 458 Empire 254 Ilterish 478, 630c Inner Mongolia Autonomous Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Khorazm 308 Ilügei 416 Region 244 tammachi 527 Mongol Empire 369 Ilümzhinov, Kirsan N. 637c Ulaanbaatar 565–566, 568 Tibet and the Mongol Empire names, personal 398 Elista 165 Ulan-Ude 571, 572 539 paper currency in the Mongol Kalmyk Republic 285–286 inflation 637c Toghus Khatun 541–542 Empire 435 Kalmyks 293 decollectivization 141 Turkey 555 Qara’unas 448 Ilya 107 market economy 158 Western Europe and the Mongol Qipchaqs 456 Im Y_n 320 Yuan dynasty 610 Empire 583 Saray and New Saray 489 Inalchuq Qadir Khan 306, 307, 431 inheritance 174 Hulun Buir 226–227, 634c, 635c South Seas 513 Inancha Bilge Khan 397 Injannashi 239–240, 635c banners 31 Turkey 555 incarnate lama 237–238 Chinese fiction 95 Barga 34–35 Ibn Khaldun 369, 541 Altan Khan 10 Confucianism 118–119 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Iburai 408, 410 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Inner Mongolians 246 Mongolia 70, 71 Ighmish 513 Buddhist fine arts 52 New Schools movements 404 cattle 78 Il-Khanate 230–237, 232m, 631c, Chaghatay Khanate 87 inje (dowries) 240, 461 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng 128 632c Marshal Choibalsang 103 family 173 Daur people 136 appanage system 18 danshug 128 ordo 426 Ewenkis 171 artisans in the Mongol Empire Dolonnuur Assembly 148 quda 461 Inner Mongolians 246 25 East Asian sources on the social classes in the Qing period Kitans 316 astrology 25 Mongol Empire 155 508 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 Blue Horde 42 Eight White Yurts 164 taiji 526 Merse 347, 348 Borjigid 45 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 weddings 582 money, modern 361 census in the Mongol Empire Geser 198 Inner Mongolia 630c, 633c, 637c Mongolian plateau 383, 384 78 Great Shabi 210 aimag 5 “New Inner Mongolian People’s Chaghatay Khanate 83, 86 history 217 Alashan 7 Revolutionary Party” Case Christianity in the Mongol Jalkhanza Khutugtu Altaic language family 8 402 Empire 108 Damdinbazar 258 Altan Khan 10 654 Index Inner Mongolia (continued) Inner Mongolian People’s Congress Islam in the Mongol Empire Khorazm 307–308 animal husbandry and 244 252–254 Mongol Empire 365 nomadism 16, 17 Inner Mongolian People’s ‘Abbasid Caliphate 1, 2 Ögedei Khan 417 banners 31, 32 Government 243 artisans in the Mongol Empire Parwan, Battle of 436 Baotou 34 Inner Mongolian People’s 25 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Bayannuur league 39 Revolutionary Party (IMPRP) Bao’an language and people 33 Jalan-Aajaw, S. 549 Buddhist fine arts 52–53 635c Blue Horde 42 Jalayir 257–258, 632c Buriat language and scripts 54 Inner Mongolians 247, 248 Buddhism in the Mongol astrology 25 Buyannemekhü 72 Khafungga 299 Empire 50 Buqa 53 calendars 74 “New Inner Mongolian People’s Bulghars 53 Chaghatay Khanate 85 cashmere 76 Revolutionary Party” Case Chaghatay Khanate 87 Hüle’ü 225 cattle 78 401, 402 Christianity in the Mongol Il-Khanate 233 Chakhar 88 Ulanfu 570 Empire 108 Kazakhs 294 chess 90 Inner Mongolians 245–252, 248 Chuban 109 keshig 297 Chifeng municipality 90 Chinggis Khan controversy Dongxiang 149 Kurdistan 323 China and Mongolia 91–93 101, 102 Dongxiang language and people Menggeser Noyan 346 Chinese colonization 93–95 Japan and the modern Mongols 148 Mongol tribe 391 Chinese fiction 95 262 food and drink 183 Muqali 392 Chinese trade and moneylend- Khalkha 301 funerary customs 190 nökör 406 ing 97 kinship system 314 Georgia 197 Ögedei Khan 416 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 Ghazan Khan 199 Oirats 420 clothing and dress 114 Mongolian language 374 Golden Horde 202, 206, 207 Qubilai Khan 459 Confucianism 118–119 music 393 Hazaras 215–216 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng 128 New Schools movements 403 Hüle’ü 226 South Seas 513 dance 128 oboo 414 Il-Khanate 234–236 tammachi 527 dating systems 75 shamanism 494 India and the Mongols 238 Timur 540 Daur language and people 135 Sino-Soviet split 504 jasaq 265 Turkey 555 Daur people 137 Ulaanbaatar 565 Mongol Empire 368 Jalayirdai 319 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 Ulanfu 570 ortoq 430 Jalayirtai Qorchi 363 Prince Demchungdongrub 141, Inner Mongolian Yekhe Juu League Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 Jalin-Buqa 529 142 Cashmere Factory 76 religious policy in the Mongol Jalkhanza Khutugtu Damdinbazar desertification/pasture degrada- Innocent IV (pope) 583 Empire 469, 470 258–259 tion 145, 146 instruments, musical 394 Sayyid Ajall 489 Dambijantsan 126 Dolonnuur Assembly 148 interest 97 social classes in the Mongol General Danzin 130 Eight White Yurts 161 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Empire 506 1911 Restoration 471 epics 168 187 Uighurs 564 theocratic period 534 family 174 Iran 631c, 632c Western Europe and the Mongol jam 258–259 food and drink 185 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Empire 583 Buddhism in the Mongol Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Islam in the Mongol Empire 253 Mar Yahbh-Allaha 598 Empire 50 County 191–192 Ked-Buqa 295 Yuan dynasty 611 Lifan yan zeli 334 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 194 Khorazm 306 Islamization 632c military of the Mongol Empire goats 200 Möngke Khan 364 Isma‘ilis 255–256 349 Great Shabi 211 Mongol Empire 365, 368 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 Mongol Empire 367 Höhhot 219 Ögedei Khan 418 Islam in the Mongol Empire Ögedei Khan 418 horse-head fiddle 221 ordo 426 252 ortoq 429 Injannashi 239 paper currency in the Mongol Ked-Buqa 295 Marco Polo 438 Japan and the modern Mongols Empire 435 Möngke Khan 363 Siberia and the Mongol Empire 261, 262 Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 Mongol Empire 365, 368 503 jewelry 266 social classes in the Mongol religious policy in the Mongol social classes in the Mongol medicine, traditional 346 Empire 507 Empire 469 Empire 506 Mongolian language 373–374, Timur 541 Ismayil 408, 410 Temüder 531 376 Iraq 632c Italy 41 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Mongolic language family 388 Iraq War 24, 187 Ivan I 432 539 tea 530 Irinchindorji 501 Ivan III 481, 482, 633c Jamal-ud-Din Dastjerdani 525 weddings 581 Iron Age 165 Ivanov, Ivan Alekseevich 104, 547 Jamba, Tsagan 535 World War II 588 irrigation 175 Ivan the Terrible 482 Jambaldorj, B. 515 Xia dynasty 590, 591 Irzan 42 ‘Izz-ad-Din Kay-Kawus 555 ‘Jam-byangs bZhad-pa 422 yurt 614, 616 Ishi-Baljur 551 Jamtsu 422 zasag 617, 618 Ishi-Dambi-Jalsan 261 J Jamugha 259–260, 630c Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Ishidandzanwangjil 146, 336 Ja’a-Gambu anda 13 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Ishidorji 382 Kereyid 296 Merkid 347 Region 240–245, 241m, 242, Ishisambuu 487 Ong Khan 425 Mongolian sources on the 636c Ishtemi 553 Sorqaqtani Beki 511 Mongol Empire 385 Chakhar 89 Islam Jabar Khoja 257 Mongol tribe 391 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Kashmir 293 Master Changchun 89 Naiman 397 Eight White Yurts 164 Moghulistan 360 battles of Juyongguan Pass 281 Qonggirad 456 Höhhot 220 Nawroz 400–401 Shimo Ming’an and Xiandebu quriltai 462 Hulun Buir 227 Noqai 407 501 Secret History of the Mongols Inner Mongolians 248 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 492 Shiliin Gol 500 Oirats 420 Jadamba, N. 195 Tatars 529 sum 523 Özbeg Khan 431–432 Jagwaral, N. 156 Tayichi’ud 530 Ulanfu 570 Saray and New Saray 489 Jalal-ud-Din Mengüberdi Jamyang 475, 522 Inner Mongolian Autonomous Islamic sources on the Mongol Chormaqan 106 Jamyangdanzin, Shagja Lama 270, Government 636c Empire 117, 230, 254–255 India and the Mongols 238 271 Index 655 Jangghar 260, 636c jasaq 264–265 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Jebe 265 epics 168 Cha’adai 81 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 269 Juyongguan Pass, battles of 281 folk poetry and tales 183 Chaghatay Khanate 87 khan 303 Kaifeng, siege of 282 Kalmyks 292 Mongol Empire 367 New Policies 403 Kereyid 295 Jangjiya Khutugtu 260–261 Mongolian sources on the palaces of the Bodga Khan 434 keshig 297 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Mongol Empire 386 religion 466 Korea and the Mongol Empire Danzin-Rabjai 130 Qaidu Khan 444 1911 Restoration 470 319 Qing dynasty 452 Secret History of the Mongols 1921 Revolution 472 Köten 321 Tu language and people 551 492 revolutionary period 474 Liu Bingzhong 338 “Two Customs” 559 Jasrai, P. 370 Soyombo symbol 519 Manchuria and the Mongol Jangjiya Khutugtu, First 260, 634c Java 460 theocratic period 533 Empire 341 Jangjiya Khutugtu, Second 275, 452 Javhlant. See Uliastai “Two Customs” 559 massacres and the Mongol Janibeg 207, 208, 432, 632c Jaya Indravarman IV 513 Baron von Ungern-Sternberg Conquest 343 Jantsan 497 Jealous Red God 532 573 military of the Mongol Empire Japan and the modern Mongols Jebe 265, 631c Zünghars 622 348–349 261–263, 635c, 636c Baiju 29 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First 271, money in the Mongol Empire Barga 35 Bulghars 53 271–273, 272, 633c 361 Buriat Republic 60 Georgia 196 Abatai Khan 1 Möngke Khan 362 cashmere 76 battles of Juyongguan Pass 281 Buddhist fine arts 52 Mongol Empire 365 China and Mongolia 92 Kalka River, Battle of 283 clothing and dress 113 Mongol tribe 389, 390–391 Chinese colonization 94 military of the Mongol Empire danshug 128 Muqali 393 Chinese trade and moneylend- 351 Darkhad 132 music 395 ing 97 nökör 406 Dolonnuur Assembly 148 Ögedei Khan 416, 417 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Ossetes 430 Erdeni Zuu 169 Önggüd 424 Dauriia Station Movement 137 Qipchaqs 455 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 Ong Khan 425 Daur people 136 Russia and the Mongol Empire Great Shabi 210 ortoq 429 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 479 Jibzundamba Khutugtu Qing dynasty 449 Dörbed Mongol Autonomous Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 267–268 Qonggirad 456 County 150 Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 Khalkha 300 Shigi Qutuqu 464 flags 179 Jebke 406 lamas and monasticism 326 Shii Tianze 499 foreign relations 186, 187, 263 Jedei Noyan 342 Qing dynasty 451, 452 Shimo Ming’an and Xiandebu Front Gorlos Mongol Jeje’er Heights 98, 296 Soyombo script 518 501 Autonomous County 189 Jelme 406, 521 Soyombo symbol 518 Song dynasty 509 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Jerusalem 583 Tibetan culture in Mongolia Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 County 192 jewelry 44, 114, 265–267, 266 537 tammachi 527 Great Purge 210 Jewel Translucent Sutra 267, 633c Ulaanbaatar 566 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Höhhot 220 literature 336 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Fourth 268 528 Inner Mongolians 247–248 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Ninth 269 Tatars 529 Lhümbe Case 332 Second Conversion 491 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second Tolui 542 revolutionary period 474 “Two Customs” 558 273–275, 274 tribute system 547 Soviet Union and Mongolia Jews and the Mongol Empire. See Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102, Xia dynasty 590, 591 514, 515 Judaism 103 Yan Shi 599 World War II 587, 588 Jiajing emperor 356 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 Japan and the Mongol Empire Jiaqing 96, 453 194 Yelü Chucai 600 263–264, 631c Jia Sidao 511 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 Yuan dynasty 603, 606 Khalkhyn Gol, Battle of 302 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 267–269, Khalkha 300 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Qing dynasty 454 634c palaces of the Bodga Khan 434 Jingim 278 Qubilai Khan 460 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Qing dynasty 452 Ahmad Fanakati 5 Ulan-Ude 572 history 217 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Seventh Chabui 82 Yuan dynasty 607 incarnate lama 237, 238 268 Confucianism 117, 118 Japanese language 249, 263 Khalkha 300, 301 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Third 268, Lian Xixian 333 jarghuchi 264 Khalkha jirum 301 634c ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 Chinese trade and moneylend- khan 303 Jigjedjab 332 Qonggirad 457 ing 96 Khöwsgöl province 312 Jindandao insurrection 280, 309, Qubilai Khan 457, 459, 460 keshig 297 money, modern 360 635c quda 461 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas‘ud naadam 396 Jin dynasty 275–278, 276m, 630c, tammachi 527 Beg 340 New Policies 403 631c Taoism in the Mongol Empire Menggeser Noyan 346 otoq 431 Awarga 26 528 Möngke Khan 363 Qing dynasty 453, 454 Buddhism in the Mongol Yuan dynasty 607, 608 Mongol Empire 367 1911 Restoration 470 Empire 48 Jingshi dadian 612 Naiman 398 Revocation of Autonomy 471 cattle 77 Jiyaatai 92 Ögedei Khan 418 1921 Revolution 473 Master Changchun 89 Jizhu 358 Oghul-Qaimish 419 rulers 628t China and Mongolia 90 Jochi 278–279 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Shangdu 497 Chinggis Khan 98, 100 appanage system 18 Sayyid Ajall 489 “Busybody” Sharab 497–498 Chinqai 103 Batu 36 Secret History of the Mongols Soyombo script 518 Confucianism 118 Blue Horde 41 493 “Two Customs” 559 Daidu 123 Buriats 61 Tatars 529 Ulaanbaatar 565 darughachi 134 Cha’adai 81 jarliq 264 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth decimal organization 139 Chinggis Khan 98, 100, 101 keshig 298 269–271, 270, 635c East Asian sources on the Golden Horde 201, 207 Moghulistan 360 Badmadorji 28 Mongol Empire 154 Güyüg Khan 212 Mongolian sources on the Chinese fiction 95 Huan’erzui, Battle of 224, 225 Islam in the Mongol Empire Mongol Empire 386 Choijung Lama Temple 105 Jabar Khoja 257 252 paiza 433 1924 Constitution 119 jam 258 Kazakhs 293 656 Index Jochi (continued) Yelü Chucai 600 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 inje 240 Khorazm 306–308 Zhang Rou 620 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Jabar Khoja 257 Körgüz 320 Kaifu, Toshiki 263 272 Jamugha 260 Mongol Empire 368, 369 Kakhavnov, A. V. 289 Khalkha 300 Jochi 278 Ögedei Khan 416 Kalita, Ivan 480 Lifan Yuan 333 keshig 297 Oirats 419 Kalka River, Battle of 108, 265, Qing dynasty 451, 452, 455 Kitans 317 Qipchaqs 455 282–283, 631c Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Merkid 347 Qonggirad 456 Kalmyk Autonomous Region 635c 550 Möngke Khan 364 quriltai 462 Kalmyk Cyrillic script ix Upper Mongols 574 Mongol Empire 365 Russia and the Mongol Empire Kalmykia 636c, 637c Kanukov, Kharti Badievich 291 Naiman 397 479 camels 76 Karma Baqshi 539 names, personal 398 Siberia and the Mongol Empire desertification/pasture degrada- Kashmir 293 Ögedei Khan 417 502 tion 145, 146 India and the Mongols 238 Oirats 420 Jochids flags 180 Marco Polo 438 Ong Khan 425 Golden Horde 201, 202 Kalmyk-Oirat language and scripts Qara’unas 447 ordo 426 Güyüg Khan 212 ix, 110–111, 286–287 social classes in the Mongol Qubilai Khan 457 Hüle’ü 225 Kalmyk Republic 283–286, 284m Empire 507 religious policy in the Mongol Il-Khanate 231 chess 90 tammachi 527 Empire 469 Jochi “guest” 398 Elista 165 Tatars 529 Secret History of the Mongols 492 Jogaila of Lithuania, Grand Prince environmental protection 167 Kaspiyskiy 285 Siberia and the Mongol Empire 322 Kalmyks 292 Kawashima Naniwa 261 503 Jöge 407 Kalmyk-Oirat language and Kay-Khusrau 321 Sorqaqtani Beki 511 John of Plano Carpini 279, 631c script 286 Kazakhs 293–295 taishi 526 archery 20 Kalmyks 125, 288–293, 289, 290, Altai Uriyangkhai 9 tammachi 527 Golden Horde 205 633c, 634c, 635c, 636c Amursanaa 13 Tatars 529 Kiev, siege of 313 astrology 26 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 Toghus Khatun 541 military of the Mongol Empire Ayuuki Khan 27 China and Mongolia 92 Tolui 542 349 clan names 110 falconry 173 Torghuds 544 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 clear script 111 Flight of the Kalmyks 180 Tuul River 556 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 clothing and dress 114 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 Uighurs 563 Western Europe and the Mongol Dambijantsan 126 Great Purge 210 Xia dynasty 590 Empire 583 dance 128 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 journalism 73, 619 Dörböds 150 Autonomous Prefecture 214 keshig 297–298 Journey to the West 95, 634c Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Khobogsair Mongol Bayan 37 jud. See zud traditional education 160 Autonomous County 305 Bo’orchu 44 Judaism 235, 236, 368, 469 epics 168 Khowd city 311 Chabui 82 Jud-shi. See Four Roots fire cult 178 Khowd province 312 Chaghatay Khanate 85 Julian, Friar 79 fishing 229 Mangghud 343 Chinggis Khan 99 Jurchen people 224, 275, 630c Flight of the Kalmyks See Flight Moghulistan 360 El-Temür 166 Juu Uda 279–280, 633c of the Kalmyks Mongolia, State of 369 Harghasun Darqan 215 Chakhar 88 folk poetry and tales 183 Mongolian plateau 384 jarghuchi 264 Chifeng municipality 90 food and drink 184 music 394 Lian Xixian 332 Chinese colonization 93 history 218 Oirats 422 Mangghud 342 Inner Mongolians 246 Jangghar 260 Önggüd 425 military of the Mongol Empire Kitans 319 Kalmyk Republic 283 Qonggirad 457 351 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 Kalmyk-Oirat language and shamanism 495 Mongol Empire 367 Mongolian language 373 script 286 Subei Mongol Autonomous nökör 406 New Schools movements 404 Kazakhs 294 County 521 Öchicher 415 Qing dynasty 449 khans and regents 627t throat singing 536 Qara’unas 447 Three Guards 536 Khobogsair Mongol Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Qubilai Khan 459 Juvaini, ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Autonomous County 305 550 quda 461 280–281, 631c Khoshuds 310 Ulaanbaatar 566 quriltai 462 History of the World Conqueror koumiss 321 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 218–219 lamas and monasticism 325 Zünghars 623 Secret History of the Mongols 492 Islamic sources on the Mongol Mongol-Oirat Code 389 Kazakhstan 41–42, 630c social classes in the Mongol Empire 254 music 393 Kebeg Empire 506 Islam in the Mongol Empire New Schools movements 403, Chaghatay Khanate 86, 87 Ta’achar 525 252 404 Il-Khanate 235 Timur 541 Isma‘ilis 256 oboo 414 keshig 298 Tutugh 556 paiza 433 Oirats 419 money in the Mongol Empire Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 599 social classes in the Mongol ongghon 424 362 Khabchukov, Ekrem, Prince 288 Empire 505 1921 Revolution 473 Qara’unas 447 khadag 298 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 sheep 499 Ked-Buqa 295 funerary customs 191 Ta’achar 525 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 Battle of ‘Ain Jalut 6 horse-head fiddle 221 tenggeri 532 taiji 526 Hüle’ü 225 religion 467 Tolui 542 Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 Isma’ilis 255 seal 490 Juyongguan Pass, battles of 257, Torghuds 545 Naiman 398 weddings 581 281, 620 weddings 581 Keltegei Cliffs, Battle of 265, 630c wrestling 588 White Month 585–586 Kereyid 295–297, 630c Khafungga 299 K Xinjiang Mongols 593 Baljuna Covenant 30 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Kadlets, A. V. 17 yurt 614 Chinggis Khan 98, 99 Region 244 Kaifeng, siege of 282, 631c Kangxi 634c Christianity in the Mongol Inner Mongolians 248 massacres and the Mongol Dolonnuur Assembly 148 Empire 107 Japan and the modern Mongols Conquest 343 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 194 decimal organization 139 262 Index 657 khainag 77 Oirats 420 Khangai Range 303 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Khaisu-Labrang Palace 434 Qing dynasty 449 animal husbandry and Möngke Khan 363 Khalkha viii, 299–301, 633c, 634c Qonggirad 457 nomadism 15 Mongolian plateau 384 Abatai Khan 1 quda 461 Bayankhongor province 39 Northern Yuan dynasty 408, Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 religion 466 Bulgan province 53 410 aimag 5 1911 Restoration 470 cattle 77 Ögedei Khan 417 animal husbandry and Byambyn Rinchen 476 fossil record 188 Oghul-Qaimish 419 nomadism 15 Russia and Mongolia 482–483 Gobi-Altai province 201 Onon River 425 banners 31, 32 Second Conversion 490 Great Lakes Basin 209 Kheshigbatu 160, 427 Barga 34, 35 Selenge province 493 horses 224 Kheshingge 337 Bayankhongor province 39 17th-century chronicles 80 Mongolian plateau 383 Khinggan league 305, 309 Borjigid 45 shamanism 494 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Khion people 596 Bulgan province 53 Shiliin Gol 500 North Khangai province 411 Khizr Khan 632c Buriat language and scripts 54 Sino-Mongolian War 503 Orkhon River 428 Khobogsair Mongol Autonomous Buriats 61, 62 Six Tümens 505 Qaidu Khan 445 County 305–306 calendars 74 social classes in the Qing period Selenge River 493 Khoja 418, 419 Central province 80 508 South Khangai province 512 Khökhe sudur. See Blue Chronicle Chinese colonization 94 South Gobi province 512 Three Guards 536 Khomutnikov, Vasilii Alekseevich Chinese fiction 95 South Khangai province 512 Ulaanbaatar 566 291 Chinese trade and moneylend- Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 Uliastai 572 Khoo-Örlög 306, 633c ing 97 Soyombo script 518 Zawkhan province 618 Kalmyks 288 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102, Sükhebaatur province 523 Khangdadorji, Prince 303 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 103 sum 523 Amur 12 Oirats 421 clothing and dress 113–115 taiji 526 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng 127 Khooshai Tabunang 536 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng tea 530 foreign relations 185 Khorasan 128 theocratic period 533 1911 Restoration 470 Arghun Aqa 21 danshug 128 Three Guards 536 “Khan Kharankhui” 168 Chaghatay Khanate 86, 87 Dolonnuur Assembly 148 throat singing 536 Khapchukov, Ochirai Zanjin Ubashi Ghazan Khan 198–199 Eastern province 155 Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 289 Il-Khanate 231 East Gobi province 155 Tibetan language and script 538 Kharachin 303–304 ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini Erdeni Zuu 169 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Borjigid 45 280 Ewenkis 171 550 Khorchin 309 Khorazm 306–308 family 174, 175 Tsogtu Taiji 550 Merse 348 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 1 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193, Tu language and people 551 Mongolian language 373 Black Death 41 194 “Two Customs” 559 New Schools movements 404 Cha’adai 81 Galdan-Tseren 194 Ulaanbaatar 565 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Gobi-Altai province 201 Ulaanchab 569 Qing dynasty 449 Master Changchun 89 Great Shabi 211 Uws province 578 Qipchaqs 456 Chinggis Khan 100 history 217 weddings 582 quda 461 Chormaqan 106 horse-head fiddle 221 World War II 588 Second Conversion 490 darughachi 134 Jangghar 260 wrestling 588 Six Tümens 505 Golden Horde 201, 203, 205 jewelry 266 yurt 614 taiji 526 History of the World Conqueror Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 zasag 617, 618 Three Guards 536 218 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Zawkhan province 618 Khara-Khula 621 Islam in the Mongol Empire 272 Zünghars 621, 622 khasag-cart 162–163 252 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second Khalkha jirum 301, 634c khatun 302, 304 Jebe 265 273, 275 family 174 Khazar khanate 53 Jochi 278 Kalmyk-Oirat language and Great Shabi 211 Khentii province 304, 415 Körgüz 320 script 286 Lifan yan zeli 334 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Kereyid 296 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 Mongolia 70 Beg 339 Khentii province 304 Shangdu 497 Lhümbe Case 332 Mangghud 342 Khotoghoid 310 Khalkha language 121, 287 Merkid 347 massacres and the Mongol Khowd city 311 Khalkhyn Gol, Battle of 262, 302, Khentii range 304–305 Conquest 343 Khowd province 311 636c animal husbandry and military of the Mongol Empire Khöwsgöl province 312 Khal’mag ünn 287 nomadism 15 351 kinship system 314 Khamnaev, Sakhar 403–404, 635c Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mongol Empire 365 lamas and monasticism 325 Khamnigan 172 Mongolia 71 Muqali 393 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 khan 302–303, 627t Central province 80 names, personal 398 Lifan yan zeli 334 calendar 74 climate 112 nökör 406 Lifan Yuan 333 khatun 304 Eight White Yurts 163 Ögedei Khan 416 Ligdan Khan 334 Kitans 315 funerary customs 189 Önggüd 425 literature 336 Mongol Empire 365 Khentii province 304 ortoq 429 Mangghud 343 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 Kherlen River 305 Otrar Incident 431 Middle Gobi province 348 noyan 412 Mongolian plateau 383 Özbeg Khan 432 Mingghad 357 Ögedei Khan 417 Onon River 425 Parwan, Battle of 436 Mongolia, State of 369 Qing dynasty 449 Orkhon River 428 Qara-Khitai 445 Mongolian language 373, 374 quriltai 462 religion 467 Qarluqs 448 Mongolic language family 386 Secret History of the Mongols Selenge province 493 Qipchaqs 455 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 492 Tuul River 556 Qonggirad 457 music 393 shamanism 495 Ulaanbaatar 565, 566 Shigi Qutuqu 464 naadam 396 social classes in the Mongol Kherlen River 305 Timur 540 Naiman 398 Empire 505 Chinggis Khan 100 Toqtamish 543 North Khangai province 411 Timur 540 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 Uighurs 563 oboo 414 Türk Empires 553 Khentii province 304, 305 Xia dynasty 591 658 Index Khorchin 242, 308–309, 309, 633c Chinese trade and moneylend- Khuya, Valentin A. 522 Japan and the Mongol Empire Barga 35 ing 96 Ki, Madame 320 263 Borjigid 45 clear script 111 Kiev, siege of 313, 631c Möngke Khan 363 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 Dambijantsan 126 Kim Injun 320 Mongol Empire 365 environmental protection 167 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng king. See khan Mongolian People’s Republic 377 Hulun Buir 226 128 king lists 81 Ögedei Khan 417 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Galdan-Tseren 194 kinship system 13, 313–314 Qubilai Khan 459 Region 242 Jalkhanza Khutugtu Kirshna, King 336 Yuan dynasty 605, 607 Inner Mongolians 246 Damdinbazar 258 Kiselev, S. V. 428, 446 Körgis 424–425 Juu Uda 280 Kazakhs 294 Kitan language and script 314–315, Körgüz 320–321 keshig 298 Khotoghoid 310 630c Arghun Aqa 21 Khafungga 299 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 Kitans 315–319, 316, 318, 630c Chaghatay Khanate 85 Khinggan league 305 Magsurjab 339 animal husbandry and Ögedei Khan 418 lamas and monasticism 325 New Policies 403 nomadism 16 Töregene 544 Ligdan Khan 334 Öölöd 426 Buddhism in the Mongol Körgüz, Manager 320 literature 337 Qing dynasty 453 Empire 48 Köse Da_i, Battle of 321, 631c Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 1911 Restoration 471 China and Mongolia 90 Kötei 535 Mongolian language 373–374 Russia and Mongolia 483 Confucianism 117 Köten 321 New Schools movements 404 theocratic period 533 Daidu 123 Buddhism in the Mongol Northern Yuan dynasty 411 Zakhachin 617 Daur language and people 135 Empire 48 Qing dynasty 449 Khowd province 311–312 funerary customs 189 Central Europe and the Mongols quda 461 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Huan’erzui, Battle of 224, 225 79 religion 466 banners 32 Jin dynasty 275 Kalka River, Battle of 283 Second Conversion 490 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 Kereyid 295 Ögedei Khan 417 shamanism 496 Kazakhs 294 keshig 297 Qipchaqs 455–456 Sino-Mongolian War 503 Khowd city 311 khan 302 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Six Tümens 505 Mingghad 357 kinship system 314 538 social classes in the Qing period MPRP 382 Korea and the Mongol Empire Töregene 544 508 Naiman 397 319 Xia dynasty 591 Three Guards 535 names, personal 399 Manchuria and the Mongol koumiss 321–322 Tongliao municipality 543 Oirats 419, 423 Empire 341 animal husbandry and weddings 581, 582 Tuvans 557 military of the Mongol Empire nomadism 16 Khorchin revolt 94 Zakhachin 617 348 banners 32 Khori Buriat 54, 64 Khöwsgöl, Lake 312 money in the Mongol Empire dairy products 124 Khori dialect 55 Lake Baikal 29 361 food and drink 183 Khormusta 532 Eg River 160 Mongolic language family 388 funerary customs 189 Khoroli 7, 310 environmental protection 167 Mongol tribe 389 Golden Horde 207 khoroo 120 Khöwsgöl province 312 nökör 406 horse racing 222 Khoshud Khural 285, 289, 289, Mongolian plateau 384 ortoq 429 horses 222, 224 292 Selenge River 493 Qara-Khitai 445 medicine, traditional 344 Khoshuds 310 Khöwsgöl province 312 semuren 494 naadam 396 Alashan 7 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Shiwei 502 Ögedei Khan 418 Ayuuki Khan 27 Buriats 61 social classes in the Mongol Özbeg Khan 432 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Darkhad 132 Empire 507 Qaidu Khan 444 Prefecture 39 1990 Democratic Revolution Song dynasty 509 quriltai 462 Borjigid 45 144 Tatars 529 religion 467 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Dukha 153 Uighur Empire 561 Russia and the Mongol Empire Autonomous Prefecture 214 Khotoghoid 310 Uighurs 563 479 Henan Mongol Autonomous leftist period 330 Xianbi 592 Shangdu 497 County 216 Mingghad 357 yurt 615 tenggeri 532 Kalmyk Republic 285 1921 Revolution 473 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Tutugh 556 Kalmyks 289 Russia and Mongolia 483 Kiyad. See Borjigid Kozel’sk 36 khans and regents 627t Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Klements, D. A. 428 Kozin, S. A. 484 Khowd province 312 Tuvans 556 Köbeleg 445 Kozlov, P. K. 412 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 yurt 614, 615 Kobzon, Iosif 4 Kucherenko, M. 472 Oirats 420 Khrushchev, Nikita Köchü Küchülüg Subei Mongol Autonomous Marshal Choibalsang 105 Ögedei Khan 417 Jebe 265 County 521 Sino-Soviet alliance 503, 504 quda 460 Naiman 398 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 548 Töregene 544 Qara-Khitai 445, 446 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu khural 120. See also Great State Kögse’ü-Sabraq, General 397 Kuchum 503 618 Khural; Little State Khural Kökechü 531 Küdeng Khan 280 Khotoghoid 310, 634c Khüriye 96, 566–568, 572, 634c, Kökejin 427, 438 Kulikovo Pole, Battle of 108, 322, Altai Uriyangkhai 9 635c Kökenuur 573, 574 481, 633c Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji Kökö-Chos 406 Kül Tegin 478, 554 Khöwsgöl province 312 312–313, 633c Koloman 392 Kun-dga’ bZang-po 488 Mingghad 357 Chaghan teüke 82 Komatsubara Michitaro, General Kun-dga’ rGyal-mtshan 545 Russia and Mongolia 482 Erdeni-yin tobchi 170 302 Kurdistan 322–323 Tuvans 556 Oirats 420 Könchek 86, 432 siege of Baghdad 28 Zawkhan province 618 Ordos 427 Kong Fei 250 Khorazm 308 Khotong 310–311, 515 Saghang Sechen 486, 487 Kongmin, King 320 Mamluk Egypt 340 Khowd city 311, 634c Second Conversion 490, 491 Korea and the Mongol Empire military of the Mongol Empire Altai Uriyangkhai 9 “Two Customs” 558 319–320 351 amban 11, 12 Khutugtu (title) 237 East Asian sources on the ordo 426 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Khuuchid 565 Mongol Empire 155 tammachi 527 Index 659 Kurds 235 law. See also Khalkha jirum Lian Xixian 332–333 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Kushok Bakula Rinpoche 328 Altan Khan, Code of 10–11 Qubilai Khan 458, 460 Danzin-Rabjai 130–131 Kwantung Army 262 jasaq 264–265 Uighurs 564 Demotte Shahnama 145 Kyakhta Lifan yan zeli 334 Yuan dynasty 607 didactic poetry 146–147 Andrei Urupkheevich leagues 329 Liao dynasty folk poetry and tales 182–183 Modogoiev 358 aimag 5 Jin dynasty 275 Il-Khanate 236–237 New Policies 403 armed forces of Mongolia 23 keshig 297 Injannashi 239 New Schools movements 403 Chinese trade and moneylend- Kitans 315, 316 Inner Mongolians 247, 249 Byambyn Rinchen 476 ing 97 Merkid 347 Jangghar 260 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 Eight White Yurts 164 money in the Mongol Empire Jewel Translucent Sutra 267 Russia and Mongolia 483 Inner Mongolia Autonomous 361 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First General Sükhebaatur 522 Region 243, 245 ortoq 429 273 Ulan-Ude 572 Juu Uda 279–280 paiza 433 Natsugdorij 400 Kyakhta city 323–324 Khalkha 300 Qara-Khitai 445 Byambyn Rinchen 476 China and Mongolia 93 Lifan yan zeli 334 Uighurs 563 Li Ting 401 Chinese trade and moneylend- Qing dynasty 452 Xia dynasty 590 Li Tingzhi 511 ing 96 Six Tümens 505 Liegnitz, Battle of 333, 352 Little State Khural Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 theocratic period 533 Lifan yan zeli 31, 334, 453 Amur 12 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 “left hand” 41, 42, 202, 203, 205, Lifan Yuan 333–334 1990 Democratic Revolution MPRP 380 208 banners 30 144 Qing dynasty 452 leftist period 329–331, 330 Chinese trade and moneylend- Gendün 195, 196 1921 Revolution 472 Academy of Sciences 2 ing 96 liturgy, Mongolian 346, 347 Russia and Mongolia 483, 484 Amur 12 clear script 111 Liu Bingzhong 338 Selenge province 493 armed forces of Mongolia 22 Eight Banners 161 astrology 25 theocratic period 533 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second Buddhism in the Mongol Ulaanbaatar 567 Marshal Choibalsang 104 273 Empire 49 Kyakhta Treaty of 1727 54, 634c collectivization and collective “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 Confucianism 117 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324, 635c herding 115 Lifan yan zeli 334 Daidu 123 China and Mongolia 91 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 New Policies 402–403 paper currency in the Mongol Grand Duke Damdinsürüng Marshal Demid 142 Qing dynasty 451, 453 Empire 435 128 Gendün 196 Tibetan language and script 538 Qubilai Khan 457, 458 Dariganga 132 money, modern 361 zasag 617 Liu Bolin 406 foreign relations 186 Mongolian language 376 Li Fazhang 438 Liu Haoli 502 Revocation of Autonomy 471 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth life expectancy 372, 379 Liu Mingzhong 155 Russia and Mongolia 484 League 385 Ligdan Khan 334–335, 633c Liu Taiping 332 Sino-Mongolian War 503 MPRP 381 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Liu Zheng 631c theocratic period 533 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 Chakhar 88 Aju 6 Tserindorji 549 New Turn policy 405 Ming dynasty 356 Song dynasty 511 Kyren (Buriat Republic) 58 revolutionary period 474 Northern Yuan dynasty 410, 411 Xiangyang, siege of 592 Kyrgystan 108 Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 Ordos 427 Yuan dynasty 607 Kyrgyz 180 Ulaanbaatar 568 Qing dynasty 449, 455 Liu Zhonglu 89, 345 legal codes 10–11. See also law Saghang Sechen 486, 487 livestock L Lenin, Vladimir Shiliin Gol 500 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 labor unions 93 Buriats 67 Three Guards 536 Alashan 7 lady (title). See khatun China and Mongolia 92 Tsogtu Taiji 550 animal husbandry and Lagan 515 1960 Constitution 120 “Two Customs” 559 nomadism 14–17 Laikhur Khan 299, 310 “Busybody” Sharab 498 Üjümüchin 565 Barga 34 Lakshmanadeva 293 Soviet Union and Mongolia Upper Mongols 573 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 lamas and monasticism 325–328, 517 Li Keyong 424 Borotala 46 327 Lesser Armenia 331–332 Lin’an 631c Buddhism, campaign against 47 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Baiju 29 Lingsheng 248 Buriat Republic 56, 59 traditional education 159 Christian sources on the Mongol Li Quan 335 Buriats 63, 68 family 174 Empire 109 liquor 185 Chakhar 88 Gendün 196 Il-Khanate 231 Li Tan’s Rebellion 335 collectivization and collective Kalmyks 289 Köse Dag˘ i, Battle of 321 Qubilai Khan 458 herding 115, 116 medicine, traditional 345, 346 Mamluk Egypt 341 Shii Tianze 500 decollectivization 140–141 New Turn policy 405–406 Marco Polo 438 Song dynasty 511 desertification/pasture degrada- oboo 414 Western Europe and the Mongol literacy tion 146 Oirats 422 Empire 583 Academy of Sciences 2 Eastern province 155 social classes in the Qing period Levon I 331 traditional education 160 East Gobi province 156 507, 508 Levon II 331 Mongolian People’s Republic market economy 158 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Lhamsüren, B. 549 379 environmental protection 166 539, 540 Lhasa 151, 634c literature 335–338, 635c, 636c. See Ewenkis 171 “Two Customs” 558 Lhazang Khan 550, 574, 634c also poetry/poets Front Gorlos Mongol Lamdarja 623, 624 Lhümbe, J. 332, 405 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Autonomous County 189 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” Lhümbe Case 332, 635c Bodô 42–43 goats 199–200 328–329, 336 Amur 12 Bolor erikhe 43–44 Gobi-Altai province 201 Lanbasar 244, 256 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Buyannemekhü 72–73 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan land development 94 Mongolia 71 Chaghatay Khanate 87 Autonomous Prefecture 214 land privatization 441 Marshal Choibalsang 104 Chinese fiction 95 Henan Mongol Autonomous language. See Mongolian language Great Purge 210 Rentsenni Choinom 105–106 County 216 language education 243 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 Chosgi-Odsir 106–107 Hulun Buir 226 Latin script 287 Li Anquan 591 Christian sources on the Mongol inheritance 174 Lavdovskii, V. N. 470 Lian Xiaoyi 332 Empire 108–109 inje 240 660 Index livestock (continued) Güyüg Khan 212 Manggala Mengü-Temür 631c Inner Mongolia Autonomous Islam in the Mongol Empire Chabui 82 Christianity in the Mongol Region 244 252 Qubilai Khan 457 Empire 108 Inner Mongolians 249 Möngke Khan 364 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Golden Horde 202, 205, 206 Ulaanchab 569 Ögedei Khan 417, 418 539 Il-Khanate 234 Uws province 578 Qaidu Khan 444 Mangghud 342–343 Noqai 406–407 World War II 587 Qarluqs 448 Golden Horde 206, 208 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 zud 621 Qubilai Khan 458 keshig 298 Ossetes 430 Li Zhichang 90, 528 Töregene 544 Muqali 393 Qaidu Khan 444 Lizong 511 Majardai 543 Oirats 420 “Mengwu” 502 Li Zunxu 591 Makhtum Khanim 171 Russia and the Mongol Empire Menkejuev, Baaza-Bagshi 537 locusts 146, 251, 637c Ma Laichi 33 481 Mergen Gegeen, Third, Lubsang- Lodoidambas, Ch. 337 Malchinhüü 337 South Seas 512–513 Dambi-Jalsan 346–347 logging 166 Maleev, Valerii 578 tammachi 527 Danzin-Rabjai 131 Lookhuuz, Ts. 382, 549 Malik Kamil 323 Toqtamish 543 didactic poetry 147 Losal (D. Losol) 210, 472 Malik Khan 436 Mangghus Mergen Taiji 334 fire cult 178 Louis IX (king of France) Malik Nasir Yusuf 323 Manicheism 468, 561, 630c folk poetry and tales 182 Oghul-Qaimish 419 Malik Sa‘id 323 Manjushri Khutugtu 389, 491 literature 336 Western Europe and the Mongol Mamaq 208, 322 Mansur Khan 360, 564 oboo 414 Empire 583 Mamluk Egypt 340–341, 631c, manufacturing. See industry religion 466 William of Rubruck 587 632c Maoist Rectification Campaign 570 Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels Lubsang 88 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 Mao Zedong 545 Lubsang-Danzin 634c Battle of ‘Ain Jalut 6 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous White Old Man 587 Altan tobchi 11 Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 Prefecture 39 Merkid 347 lamas and monasticism 328 Christian sources on the Mongol China and Mongolia 92 Bayan 37 Qing dynasty 452 Empire 109 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Chinggis Khan 98, 100 Secret History of the Mongols Chuban 109 Inner Mongolians 249, 250 Jochi 278 493 Crimea 121 “New Inner Mongolian People’s Kereyid 295 17th-century chronicles 80, 81 Golden Horde 202 Revolutionary Party” Case Korea and the Mongol Empire Tu language and people 551 Hüle’ü 225 402 320 Upper Mongols 574 Ibn Battuta 230 Sino-Soviet alliance 503, 504 Ö’elün Üjin 415 Lubsangdondub 336 Il-Khanate 231 Sino-Soviet split 504 Ögedei Khan 416 Lubsangkhaidub 105 Islam in the Mongol Empire mare’s milk. See also koumiss Oghul-Qaimish 418 Lubsang-Perenlai 491 252 religion 466 Ong Khan 425 Lubsang-Rinchin Taiji 310, 389 Ked-Buqa 295 shamanism 495 ordo 426 Lubsang-Sharab Tepkin 291 Khurdistan 323 social classes in the Mongol Otrar Incident 431 Lubsang-Tsültim 545–546 Kurdistan 323 Empire 506 Qara-Khitai 445 Lubsansharab, D. 405 Lesser Armenia 331 tenggeri 532 Qipchaqs 455 Amur 12 military of the Mongol Empire Mar-Hasia 408 shamanism 495 Great Purge 210 349 Mar-Körgis, khan 408 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 New Turn policy 405 Nawroz 401 Marqus-Buyruq Khan 295, 317, 347 Töregene 544 Lubzang-Puntsog 422, 550 Noqai 406 marriage Merse 347–348 lunar months 74 Oirats 419 family 173, 174 Buyannemekhü 72 Lu Shiyong 488 Shams-ud-Din Muhammad 281 fire cult 178 Hulun Buir 227 lutes 394 Timur 541 Golden Horde 206 Khafungga 299 Lü Wende 509, 511 Turkey 555 inje 240 New Schools movements 404 Lu Xiufu 511 Western Europe and the Mongol kinship system 313–314 Mesozoic era 187–188 Lu Xun 337 Empire 583 quda 460–461 Me’üjin Se’ültü 529 Manchu 633c weddings 581–583 Michael of Chernihiv 313, 479 M Jin dynasty 275 Marx, Karl 475, 542 Michael VIII Palaeologus 73 Maamud 617 Qing dynasty 452 Marxism-Leninism 382, 542 Middle Gobi province 348 Ma Anliang 33 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Marxist analysis 217, 218 Milarepa 198 Magsurjab 339 Manchu Empire massacres and the Mongol Conquest military, modernization of 23, 142 Dambijantsan 126 Eight Banners 160–161 343–344 military of the Mongol Empire Grand Duke Damdinsürüng Erdeni-yin tobchi 170 Mas‘ud Beg 85, 87, 364. See also 348–354, 353 128 Ewenkis 171–172 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas‘ud Beg census in the Mongol Empire 1911 Restoration 471 Manchukuo 247, 262 matrilineal clans 344 78 1921 Revolution 472 Manchu language clan names 110 decimal organization 139 General Sükhebaatur 522, 523 Altaic language family 8 family 174 Eight Banners 160–161 theocratic period 534 Barga 35 kinship system 314 Golden Horde 205–206 Mahakalas 491 Eight Banners 161 lamas and monasticism 328 Huan’erzui, Battle of 224–225 Mahayana Buddhism 50, 52, 563 Manchu Qing dynasty 75 Mawarannahr 83, 85–88 Il-Khanate 233–234 Mahmud 408, 420 Manchuria and the Mongol Empire Ma Zhan’ao 33 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Mahmud al-Kashghari 135, 341–342, 588, 630c meat preparation 183–185 occupation 354 khan 303 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342, media, mass 372–373, 379–380 organization of 350–351 Tatars 529 633c medicinal plants 182 siege warfare 352–354 tenggeri 532 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 medicine, traditional 35–36, strategy of 351–352 Mahmud of the Oirats 408 Kalmyk-Oirat language and 344–346, 345, 372 tammachi 527 Mahmud Tarabi 252 script 287 A Meeting with Lenin (A. weaponry 349–350 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Beg literature 336 Sengetsokhio) 517 Yan Shi 599 339–340 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Menggeser Noyan 346 milk. See dairy products census in the Mongol Empire Önggüd 425 Jalayir 257 milk, fermented mare’s. See koumiss 78 Manduul Khan 342 Möngke Khan 363, 364 Miller, Aleksandr Iakovlevich 324 Chaghatay Khanate 83, 85 mangas 168 Oghul-Qaimish 419 millet 184, 185 Index 661 Ming dynasty 354–356, 632c, 633c theocratic period 534 jarghuchi 264 census 78–79 Altan Khan 10 Ulaanbaatar 567 jasaq 264 Chaghatay Khanate 82 Bao’an language and people 33 Ulaanchab 569 Kashmir 293 Chinggis Khan 99, 101 Buddhism in the Mongol Wuhai 589 Kereyid 296 Christianity in the Mongol Empire 49 Mi-nyag people 590, 591 Kiev, siege of 313 Empire 107–108 China and Mongolia 91 Mirz Haydar Dughlat 360 Lesser Armenia 331 Christian sources on the Mongol Daidu 123–124 modernization 635c Lian Xixian 332 Empire 108–109 East Asian sources on the Modogoiev, Andrei Urupkheevich Li Tan’s Rebellion 335 clothing and dress 113 Mongol Empire 154–155 69, 358, 577 Liu Bingzhong 338 darqan 133 Esen 170, 171 Modun 358, 595, 630c Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud darughachi 134 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Mö’etüken 83 Beg 340 East Asian sources on 154–155 County 191 Möge 544 Menggeser Noyan 346 traditional education 159 history 217 Mogholi language and people military of the Mongol Empire Eight White Yurts 163 Höhhot 219 358–359, 388 352 environmental protection 166 Inner Mongolians 246 Moghulistan 359–360 money in the Mongol Empire falconry 173 Kharachin 304 Altan Khan 10 361 family 173 Khorchin 308 Chaghatay Khanate 86 Mongol Empire 365, 367, 368 food and drink 183–184 Korea and the Mongol Empire Esen 170 Oghul-Qaimish 419 funerary customs 189 320 Islam in the Mongol Empire 253 ortoq 429, 430 Golden Horde 201 Manchuria and the Mongol Kazakhs 293 Ossetes 430 Güyüg Khan 211 Empire 342 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 paiza 433 history 216, 218 Moghulistan 360 Oirats 420 provinces in the Mongol Empire inje 240 Mongolic language family 388 Tibet and the Mongol Empire 442 Islamic sources on the Mongol Northern Yuan dynasty 407, 540 Qaidu Khan 444 Empire 254–255 408 Timur 540 Qara-Qorum 446 Jalayir 257 provinces in the Mongol Empire Uighurs 564 Qara’unas 447 jam 258–259 443 Yogur people 601 Qarluqs 448 jarliq 264 Qing dynasty 449 Mogusi. See Marqus-Buyruq Khan Qipchaqs 455 jasaq 264 Secret History of the Mongols Molomjamts, D. 549 Qubilai Khan 457, 458, 460 jewelry 265 493 Molotov, V. M. 515 quda 460 Juu Uda 280 17th-century chronicles 80 monasteries 220, 327, 633c, 636c. quriltai 462 Kalmyk-Oirat language and Shangdu 497 See also lamas and monasticism religious policy in the Mongol script 287 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 farming 176 Empire 469 Kazakhs 293 Three Guards 535 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery Sayyid Ajall 489 Kereyid 296 Tibet and the Mongol Empire 194–195 Shii Tianze 500 keshig 297 540 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Song dynasty 509 khans and regents 625t tribute system 546 272 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Kharachin 304 Tu language and people 551 Ulaanbaatar 566 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 khatun 304 Tumu Incident 553 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous tammachi 527 kinship system 313 Uighurs 564 Area 577 Taoism in the Mongol Empire koumiss 321 Yogur people 601 White Month 585 528 Manchuria and the Mongol Yuan dynasty 611 monasticism. See lamas and monas- Tibet and the Mongol Empire Empire 341 Yuan shi 612 ticism 539 medicine, traditional 345 Mingghad 357 money, modern 360–361 Tolui 542 Merkid 347 Khotoghoid 310 money in the Mongol Empire Tutugh 556 military of the Mongol Empire Khowd city 311 361–362, 368 Uighurs 564 348 Khowd province 311 Monggoljin banner 191–192 Western Europe and the Mongol money, modern 360 Öölöd 426 Möngke Khan 362–365, 631c Empire 583 money in the Mongol Empire mining 357–358, 636c ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 William of Rubruck 587 361 Alashan 7 appanage system 18 Yuan dynasty 603 Mongolian language 376 Baotou 34 Arghun Aqa 21 Yunnan 612 Mongolian sources on the Buriat Republic 59 Ariq-Böke 21 Möngke-Qalja 342 Mongol Empire 385 China and Mongolia 93 artisans in the Mongol Empire Möngke-Temür. See Mengü-Temür Mongolic language family 386 Eastern province 155 24 Möngke Tenggeri 532 music 395 East Gobi province 156 Baiju 29 Mongol-Buriat Autonomous Region Northern Yuan dynasty 410 market economy 158 Batu 37 67 noyan 412 modern economy 156, 157 Buddhism in the Mongol Mongol class 233 Oirats 419 environmental protection 167 Empire 48 Mongol conquest 307 ordo 427 Erdenet city 169 census in the Mongol Empire Mongol Empire 365–369, 366m Ossetes 430 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous 78 anda 13 otoq 430 County 191 Chaghatay Khanate 83 animal husbandry and Qubilai Khan 460 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Chinqai 103 nomadism 16 religion 465 Autonomous Prefecture 214 Eight White Yurts 163 appanage system 18 religious policy in the Mongol Inner Mongolia Autonomous Georgia 197 artisans in 24–25 Empire 470 Region 244 Golden Horde 202 astrology 25–26 Russia and Mongolia 482 Japan and the modern Mongols History of the World Conqueror Barga 34 Russia and the Mongol Empire 261 218 Black Death 40–41 480 Prince Khangdadorji 303 Hüle’ü 225 boqta 44 scapulimancy 489 Mongolia, State of 372 Il-Khanate 230, 231 Borjigid 45 shamanism 494 Mongolian People’s Republic India and the Mongols 238 Buddhism in 48–50 social classes in the Mongol 378 Islam in the Mongol Empire Buriats 61 Empire 505 Orkhon River 429 252 calendars 74 Song dynasty 509 Shiliin Gol 500 Isma‘ilis 255 calendars and dating systems Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Soviet Union and Mongolia 516 jam 259 74 “stone men” 520 662 Index Mongol Empire (continued) Xiongnu 595–596 leftist period 329 Jin dynasty 275, 277 taishi 526 Yogur 602 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Kereyid 295, 296 Tatars 529 Yogur language 602 Mongolian plateau 383–384, 630c Kherlen River 305 Tayichi’ud 530 Mongolian National Bank 484 animal husbandry and Mongol Empire 365 tenggeri 532 Mongolian National Democratic nomadism 14, 15 nökör 406 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Party 621 Buriat Republic 56 Ö’elün Üjin 415 540 Mongolian National Free Writers’ climate 111, 112 Onon River 425 twelve-animal cycle 558 Union 135 fauna 177 ordo 426 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Mongolian People’s Party 635c flora 180–181 Qonggirad 456 Uighurs 563–564 Buddhism, campaign against 46 food and drink 184 quriltai 462 White Month 584 Buyannemekhü 72 Greater Khinggan Range 209 shamanism 495 Xia dynasty 591 Marshal Choibalsang 104, 105 history 216, 390m tammachi 527 yastuq 599 Dambadorji 126 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Tatars 529 Yuan dynasty 603 Marshal Demid 142 Region 240 tribute system 547 Yuan shi 612 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Kalmyk Republic 283 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 yurt 614, 615 270, 271 Kazakhs 294 Yisügei Ba’atur 601 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 New Turn policy 405 Mangghud 343 Mongol zurag 391–392 Mongolia, State of 369–373, 373m, Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 medicine, traditional 344 horse-head fiddle 221 637c Soviet Union and Mongolia military of the Mongol Empire Mongolian People’s Republic calendars 74 514–515 349 380 cashmere 76 General Sükhebaatur 522 Mongol Empire 365 Ürjingiin Yadamsüren 598 1992 Constitution 120 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Naiman 397 monks. See lamas and monasticism history 217 Mongolian People’s Party, Third petroglyphs 436 monuments, archaeological 19 Khalkha 299 Congress of 376, 635c prehistory 440 Moon 74 Mongolian Democratic Association Dambadorji 126 quda 461 Mördorj, L. 395 (MDA) 143, 621 General Danzin 130 17th-century chronicles 80 Mordvins 203 Mongolian Democratic Party 143, Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 taishi 526 movable type 562, 563 144 Mongolian People’s Red Army 23 Tatars 529 movies 636c “Mongolian Internationale” 18 Mongolian People’s Republic (MPR) Tuvans 556 Mstislav of Chernihiv 283 Mongolian language 373–376, 377–380, 636c Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Mstislav the Daring of Halych 283, 375t, 389 China and Mongolia 92 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth 455 Alashan 7 Marshal Choibalsang 105 League 384–385 Mstislav the Old, of Kiev 283 Altaic language family 7–8, 8 Rentsenni Choinom 106 Buyannemekhü 72 Mubarak-Shah 83, 253 Bao’an 33 collectivization and collective Dashiin Damba 126 Mughan 553 Barga 35 herding 115–116 1990 Democratic Revolution Muhammad, Sultan 307 Bayan 37 1940 Constitution 119 144, 145 Muhammad Khoja Beg 407 Buddhism in the Mongol 1960 Constitution 119 family 175 Muhazzab-ud-Din 321 Empire 50 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121 MPRP 380 Muhi, Battle of 36, 392 Buriat language and scripts environmental protection 166 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 547 Mu‘in-ad-Din 555 54–56 flags 179 Ürjingiin Yadamsüren 598 Mujahid-ad-Din Abybeg 28 Buriats 67 history 217 Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 621 Mujahideen 216 Chaghatay Khanate 86 Khalkhyn Gol, Battle of 302 Mongolian script. See scripts of the Münglig 530 Chinggis Khan 99 Mongolia, State of 369 Mongolian language Muqali 392–393, 631c Confucianism 118 officers of 629t Mongolian sources on the Mongol Buddhism in the Mongol Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121, seal 490 Empire 385–386 Empire 48 122 Ulaanbaatar 568 Mongolian Stock Exchange 441 Chinggis Khan 100 Darkhad 132 United Nations 573 Mongolic language family 373, Eight White Yurts 162 Daur language 135–136 Mongolian People’s Revolutionary 386–388, 387m, 551 Huan’erzui, Battle of 224 didactic poetry 147 Party (MPRP) 380–383, 637c Mongol-Oirat Code 389, 633c, Jalayir 257 Dongxiang 148–149 armed forces of Mongolia 23 634c Jin dynasty 277 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Jambyn Batmönkh 36 cattle 77 keshig 297 traditional education 159 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 family 174 Kitans 318 Eight Banners 161 1924 Constitution 119 inje 240 Liu Bingzhong 338 Ewenkis 171, 172 1940 Constitution 119 Kalmyks 288, 289 Manchuria and the Mongol Golden Horde 206 1960 Constitution 120 Khalkha jirum 301 Empire 342 Il-Khanate 235 1990 Democratic Revolution Khoo-Örlög 306 Mangghud 342 Inner Mongolians 249–251 142–144 Oirats 421 Mongolian sources on the literature 336 Magsurjab 339 Qing dynasty 451 Mongol Empire 385 Mongolic language family See Merse 348 Second Conversion 491 nökör 406 Mongolic language family Mongolia, State of 370 Zünghars 622 provinces in the Mongol Empire names, personal 398 Mongolian People’s Republic Mongol-Oirat conflict 80, 81 442 New Schools movements 403 377 Mongol tribe 389–391, 390m Qonggirad 457 prosody 442 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 religious policy in the Mongol Byambyn Rinchen 476 League 385 Baljuna Covenant 30 Empire 469 square script 519 palaces of the Bodga Khan 434 Barga 34 Secret History of the Mongols Tatar-Tong’a 530 privatization 441 Borjigid 44–45 492, 493 Tibetan language and script 538 revolutionary period 474 Chinggis Khan 98 Shii Tianze 500 Uighur Empire 561 Bazaryn Shirendew 502 clan names 110 taishi 526 Uighur-Mongolian script Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Dörböds 150 tammachi 527 562–563 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 547 falconry 173 Xia dynasty 591 Ulanfu 570 Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Front Gorlos Mongol Yan Shi 599 Upper Mongols 576 Party, Seventh Congress of 383 Autonomous County 189 Yuan dynasty 605, 606 Xianbi 591–592 Dambadorji 126 Jalayir 257 Zhang Rou 619 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Gendün 196 Jamugha 259–260 Murav‘ev, Nikolai N. 480 Index 663 music 393–395, 394 nature preserves new year 584–586 Qubilai Khan 460 horse-head fiddle 220–221 environmental protection 166, Nhân Tông 579, 580 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Mongolia, State of 373 167 nianhao 75 Töregene 544 Mongolian People’s Republic fauna 177 Nianhe Zhongshan 406, 417 Xia dynasty 591 380 Gobi-Altai province 201 Ninghai 89 Xianbi 592 throat singing 536–537 Ulaanbaatar 565 Niru’un 390, 391 Yelü Chucai 600 Muslims 233, 257. See also Islam navy 607 Nishapur, city of 343, 344 Yuan dynasty 603, 610, 611 Musta‘sim b‘illah, al- 28 Nawroz 401, 632c Niva 553 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Muzaffar-ad-Din 323 Chaghatay Khanate 86 nobility 191, 240 Northern Alliance 216 Myalaan Tenger 532 Christianity in the Mongol nökör 406 Northern Yuan dynasty 407–411, Myanmar. See Burma Empire 108 Bayan Chingsang 37 409m Mysterious Teaching 528 Ghazan Khan 199 Bo’orchu 44 appanage system 19 Il-Khanate 234 Mongolian sources on the Barga 34 N Islam in the Mongol Empire Mongol Empire 385 Buriats 61 naadam 396–398 253 Mongol tribe 391 Chakhar 88 archery 20, 21 Qara’unas 447 Muqali 393 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 banners 32 Mar Yahbh-Allaha 598 Ö’elün Üjin 416 decimal organization 139 clothing and dress 115 Nayan’s Rebellion 401 Ögedei Khan 416 Eight White Yurts 164 danshug 128 Bayan Chingsang 38 Qubilai Khan 459 history 217 Eight White Yurts 164 Korea and the Mongol Empire Secret History of the Mongols Inner Mongolians 246 horse racing 221, 222 320 492 Jewel Translucent Sutra 267 koumiss 321 Manchuria and the Mongol Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 khans and regents 627t Mongolia, State of 373 Empire 342 social classes in the Mongol Qing dynasty 449 music 394 Ossetes 430 Empire 506 Three Guards 536 quriltai 462 Qaidu Khan 444–445 taishi 526 North Khangai province 411–412, wrestling 588–589 Qubilai Khan 460 nomads/nomadism 426 Nachighaj 424 Tutugh 556 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area novels 239, 337 Naghachu 342 Yuan dynasty 607 4 Novgorod 78 Naiman 397–398, 630c negdels 115–116 animal husbandry and noyan 412 Chinggis Khan 98–100 Negüder 359, 447 nomadism 15, 372 anda 13 Jamugha 260 Negüs clans 390–391 Buriats 63 Ligdan Khan 334 Ked-Buqa 295 Neichi Gegeen 137 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner military of the Mongol Empire Kereyid 295, 296 Neichi Toin Mongolia 71 350, 351 Khorazm 306 literature 336 China and Mongolia 90 Ming dynasty 355 Merkid 347 Second Conversion 490, 491 Dörböds 150 Mogholi language and people military of the Mongol Empire Tibetan culture in Mongolia Golden Horde 206 359 352 537 Hazaras 215 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Önggüd 424 Nerchinsk, Treaty of 194 history 217 ortoq 429 Ong Khan 425 Nestorians. See Assyrian Church of Il-Khanate 236 Qara’unas 447 ordo 426 the East Inner Mongolians 246 Qubilai Khan 458 Qara-Khitai 445 Nevskii, Alexander 480 White Month 584 Sa‘d al-Dawlah 486 semuren 494 “New Inner Mongolian People’s Xiongnu 595–596 social classes in the Mongol Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Revolutionary Party” Case 227, Yogur people 601 Empire 506 Tatar-Tong’a 530 250, 401–402, 636c yurt 615–616 Ta’achar 525 Töregene 544 New Policies 402–403, 635c Nom-un Yekhe Khüriye 634c Noyanchu Jünggen 10 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Chakhar 88–89 Nomuqan Noyon Uul 412, 412–413 Uighurs 563 China and Mongolia 91 Chabui 82 Nur-ad-Din 343 Xia dynasty 590 Chinese colonization 94 Qaidu Khan 444 Nurhachi 160, 411, 449 Nambaryn Enkhbayar 370 Daur people 136 Qubilai Khan 457, 459, 460 Nyambuu, B. 549 Nambui 459 Eight Banners 161 Tutugh 556 names, personal 398–400, 537 Hulun Buir 227 Noonukhu Üizeng 299 O Namkhai-Jamtsu. See Zaya Pandita Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Noqai 406–407, 632c oboo 414–415, 415 Namkhai-Jamstu 270 Buddhism in the Mongol banners 32 Namnangsürüng Khan 503, 533 New Schools movements 403 Empire 50 Buriats 69 Namo 293 Ordos 427 Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 Daur people 136 Namsarai 332 Qing dynasty 454 Central Europe and the Mongols Ewenkis 172 Namsarajev, Khotsa 337 1911 Restoration 470 79 funerary customs 189 Naqshbandi Sufis 149 “Two Customs” 559 clothing and dress 113 kinship system 314 Naqu 418, 419 Upper Mongols 574 Crimea 121 matrilineal clans 344 Narqiz-Tayang 397 New Schools movements 246, 337, Golden Horde 206 Mergen Gegeen, Third, Nasir-ad-Din 489 403–405 Hüle’ü 225 Lubsang-Dambi-Jalsan 346, an-Nasir li-dini’llah 1 New Turn policy 405, 405–406 Mangghud 343 347 an-Nasir Muhammad 341 Amur 12 Russia and the Mongol Empire Third Mergen Gegeen Lubsang- Nasun’arbijikhu, Duke 503 Buyannemekhü 73 480 Dambi-Jalsan 346, 347 “National Holiday Naadam” 396 Marshal Demid 142 North China 631c Mongol zurag 392 Nationalist Party 92 five-year plans 179 Chaghatay Khanate 83 naadam 396 nationalists 299 Gendün 196 Hüle’ü 225 religion 466 National Progress Party 143, 144 leftist period 331 Jin dynasty 277 shamanism 495 Natsugdorij 400, 635c Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud White Month 584 literature 337 League 385 Beg 339–340 Obuchi, Keizo 263 revolutionary period 475 MPRP 381 massacres and the Mongol Öchicher 415, 459, 488 Soviet Union and Mongolia 517 revolutionary period 475 Conquest 343 Ochirbat, P. 382 natural resources 155 Uighur-Mongolian script 563 Möngke Khan 364 Ochirtu Tsetsen Khan 310, 633c natural science 3 White Month 586 Ögedei Khan 417 Oddzar, A. 337 664 Index Ö’elün Üjin 415–416 music 395 banners 31, 32 Ökin-Barqaq 390, 529 Chinggis Khan 97, 98, 100, 101 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Barga 34 Old Believers 56, 68 Eight White Yurts 164 Oghul-Qaimish 418 Bayad 37 The Old Fiddler (Ü. Yadamsüren) Merkid 347 ordo 426 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous 221, 598 Qonggirad 456 ortoq 429 Prefecture 38 “Old Man Üsün” 469, 495 Shigi Qutuqu 464 paiza 433 Borjigid 45 “Old Order” 198 Secret History of the Mongols provinces in the Mongol Empire Buriats 61 Old Turkish. See runic script and 492, 493 442 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 inscriptions Tayichi’ud 530 Qaidu Khan 444 clan names 110 Oleg of Ryazan’, Prince 322 Teb Tenggeri 531 Qara-Qorum 446 clear script 110, 111 Öljei 281 Yisügei Ba’atur 601 Qara’unas 447 clothing and dress 114 Öljeitü, Il-Khan Sultan 632c “offering site” 558, 559 Qarluqs 448 dance 128 Chuban 109 Ögedeid Qaidu 631c, 632c Qipchaqs 455 Dörböds 150 Compendium of Chronicles 117 Ögedei Khan 416, 416–418, 631c Qubilai Khan 460 epics 168 Il-Khanate 234–236 appanage system 18 quda 460 Esen 171 Mamluk Egypt 341 artisans in the Mongol Empire quriltai 462 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 Qara’unas 448 25 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Geser 198 Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 Batu 36 religious policy in the Mongol Törö-Baikhu Güüshi Khan 211 Omen-Fork God 532 Buddhism in the Mongol Empire 469 Hüle’ü 225 ongghon 423–424, 496 Empire 48 Russia and the Mongol Empire Il-Khanate 233 Eight White Yurts 161 Bulghars 53 479 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 fire cult 178 census in the Mongol Empire 78 Sayyid Ajall 489 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First funerary customs 190 Cha’adai 81 Secret History of the Mongols 272 Mergen Gegeen, Third, Chaghatay Khanate 83 492 Kalmyk-Oirat language and Lubsang-Dambi-Jalsan 347 Chinggis Khan 100 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 script 286 Third Mergen Gegeen Lubsang- Chinqai 103 Shii Tianze 500 Kalmyk Republic 283 Dambi-Jalsan 347 Chormaqan 106 Shimo Ming’an and Xiandebu Kalmyks 288 religion 466, 467 clothing and dress 113 501 Kazakhs 294 scapulimancy 489 Confucianism 117 social classes in the Mongol Kereyid 296 Second Conversion 491 darughachi 134 Empire 506 keshig 298 shamanism 495 traditional education 159 Song dynasty 509 Khalkha 299, 300 White Month 584 Eight White Yurts 163 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Khobogsair Mongol yurt 615 family life 174 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Autonomous County 305 Önggüd 424–425 Golden Horde 202 tammachi 527 Khoo-Örlög 306 Alaqai Beki 6–7 Güyüg Khan 211, 212 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Khoshuds 310 Chinggis Khan 98 History of the World Conqueror 528 Khotoghoid 310 Christianity in the Mongol 218 Tatar-Tong’a 530 Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji Empire 107 Il-Khanate 231 Tolui 542 312 Confucianism 117 India and the Mongols 238 Töregene 544 kinship system 314 Kitans 316 Islam in the Mongol Empire Uighurs 564 koumiss 321 Köten 321 252 Western Europe and the Mongol Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun Isma‘ilis 255 Empire 583 Merkid 347 342 Jalayir 257 Yan Shi 599 Ming dynasty 355 names, personal 398 jam 258 Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 600 Möngke Khan 362 Ögedei Khan 418 jarghuchi 264 Yelü Chucai 600 Mongol-Oirat Code 389 ortoq 429 jasaq 264 Yuan dynasty 603, 606 music 393 quda 461 Jin dynasty 277, 278 Zhang Rou 620 Northern Yuan dynasty 407, religious policy in the Mongol Jochi 278 Oghul-Qaimish 418–419 408 Empire 469 Kaifeng, siege of 282 Güyüg Khan 211, 213 oboo 414 semuren 494 Kashmir 293 Merkid 347 ongghon 424 17th-century chronicles 80 Kereyid 296 Möngke Khan 363 Ordos 427 “stone men” 520 keshig 297 Mongol Empire 365 ortoq 430 tammachi 527 khan 302 names, personal 398 otoq 431 Tu language and people 551 Khorazm 307 Western Europe and the Mongol Qara-Qorum 447 Tümed 552 Korea and the Mongol Empire Empire 583 Qing dynasty 451 Ulaanchab 569 319 Oghul-Qoimish 362, 364 quda 461 Xia dynasty 590 Körgüz 320 oil Russia and Mongolia 482 Ong Khan 425 Köten 321 East Gobi province 156 Second Conversion 490 anda 13 Lian Xixian 332 Elista 165 Six Tümens 505 Baljuna Covenant 30 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Inner Mongolia Autonomous taiji 525 Börte Üjin 46 Beg 339, 340 Region 244 taishi 526 Chinggis Khan 98 Manchuria and the Mongol Kalmyk Republic 286 Three Guards 535 Jamugha 260 Empire 341–342 mining 358 tribute system 546 Kereyid 296 Mangghud 342 Oirat-Mongol wars 633c Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Merkid 347 massacres and the Mongol Oirats 419–423, 633c, 634c, 635c 550 Mongol Empire 365 Conquest 343 Abatai Khan 1 Tu language and people 551 Naiman 397 military of the Mongol Empire Alashan 7 Turkey 555 Qonggirad 456 349 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Secret History of the Mongols money in the Mongol Empire Altan Khan 10 Uighurs 564 492 361 Amursanaa 13 Upper Mongols 573 Sorqaqtani Beki 511 Möngke Khan 362, 364 animal husbandry and yurt 614 Tatars 529 Mongol Empire 365, 367, 368 nomadism 15 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu Toghus Khatun 541 Mongolian sources on the appanage system 19 618 Tolui 542 Mongol Empire 385 Ariq-Böke 22 Zünghars 621, 622 Torghuds 544 Index 665 Tuul River 556 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 names, personal 398 social classes in the Mongol Yisügei Ba’atur 601 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Noqai 407 Empire 506 Ongni’ud Left Banner 31m medicine, traditional 345 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 square script 519 Ong Qa’an 630c Merkid 347 Saray and New Saray 489 palaces Onon River 425 Ming dynasty 355 semuren 494 artisans in the Mongol Empire Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3 Mongolian language 373 Six Tümens 505 24–25 Chinggis Khan 98 music 395 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 of Bogda Khan 434, 434–435 Khentii province 304, 305 New Policies 402 Otochi 293 Daidu 123 Kherlen River 305 New Schools movements 404 otog 430–431 palace-tents. See ordo Möngke Khan 363 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 appanage system 19 paleontology 147–148 Mongolian plateau 384 ongghon 424 artisans in the Mongol Empire Paleozoic era 187 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Qing dynasty 449 25 Panchen Lama 271, 272, 574 quriltai 462 Qonggirad 457 Chakhar 88 pan-Mongolism 635c Three Guards 535 religion 466 darqan 133 Buriats 70 Öölöd 425–426 Saghang Sechen 486 Galdan-Tseren 194 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Hulun Buir 226 Second Conversion 490 Khalkha 299 Mongolia 71 Khowd city 311 sheep 499 Naiman 398 Inner Mongolians 246 Khowd province 311 Six Tümens 505 Oirats 421 Japan and the modern Mongols Mingghad 357 tenggeri 532 Qonggirad 457 262 North Khangai province 411 Tumu Incident 553 quriltai 462 paper currency in the Mongol scapulimancy 490 Uighurs 564 Six Tümens 505 Empire 435, 488, 513 Zünghars 624 Ulaanchab 569 Zakhachin 617 Parwan, Battle of 435–436 opera 95, 131, 634c, 636c Ulanfu 570 Zünghars 622 pastoralism 16–17 Opium War 453 Upper Mongols 573 Otrar Incident 306, 339, 431, 631c pasture degradation. See desertifica- ordo 426–427 weddings 581 Ottomans 27, 121 tion and pasture degradation animal husbandry and Xia dynasty 590 Outer Mongolia viii, 635c. See also pastures 182 nomadism 16 Xiongnu 595, 596 Mongolia, State of patriarchy 174 Awarga 26 Yogur people 601 amban 11 patrilineal clans 313–314, 460 Chaghatay Khanate 83 yurt 615 China and Mongolia 91, 92 patronymics 45, 110, 436 Christianity in the Mongol Ordu-Baligh 428, 428, 630c Chinggis Khan controversy 101 peace and intermarriage system. See Empire 107 Orkhon River 429 foreign relations 186 heqin Eight White Yurts 163 runic script and inscriptions Japan and the modern Mongols Pelliot, Paul 493, 499 funerary customs 189 478 261–262 People’s Army 23 Ghazan Khan 199 Uighur Empire 560 Uliastai 572 People’s Khural 285 Golden Horde 201 Ordu-Qaya 486, 525 Upper Mongols 576 People’s Party. See Mongolian inje 240 ore-dressing 169 Oyuun, s. 621 People’s Party Kereyid 296 Orghina 83, 85 Ozar 448 People’s Party of Outer Mongolia Kitans 317 Origin of Chinggis Khan. See Secret Özbeg Khan 431–432, 632c 43, 472 Körgüz 320 History of the Mongols appanage system 18 People’s Revolutionary Party. See Möngke Khan 362 Orkhon province 169 Buddhism in the Mongol Mongolian People’s Mongol Empire 367 Orkhon River 428–429 Empire 50 Revolutionary Party Oghul-Qaimish 418 Bulgan province 53 Bulghars 53 perestroika 143 Qonggirad 457 Khangai Range 303 Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 Perisan Gulf War 187 Qubilai Khan 457, 459 Merkid 347 Christianity in the Mongol Perlee, Kh. 428 quriltai 462 North Khangai province 411 Empire 108 Pershin, D. P. 484 Russia and the Mongol Empire Qara-Qorum 446 Golden Horde 201, 203, Persian language 479 Selenge province 493 205–207 Hazaras 215 Secret History of the Mongols Selenge River 493 Il-Khanate 235 History of the World Conqueror 493 Tuul River 556 Islam in the Mongol Empire 218 social classes in the Mongol ortoq 429–430 252 Islamic sources on the Mongol Empire 506 Ahmad Fanakati 4 Qipchaqs 456 Empire 254 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 jewelry 265 religious policy in the Mongol Peter the Great 288 Ta’achar 525 Möngke Khan 364 Empire 470 petroglyphs 436–437 Temüder 532 Mongol Empire 368 Russia and the Mongol Empire camels 75 Toghus Khatun 542 Ögedei Khan 417 480, 481 elk stones 165 Ordos 427–428, 633c, 634c, 635c ordo 426 Öz-Temür 401, 458–460, 488 prehistory 440 Chakhar 88 Otrar Incident 431 petroleum industry. See oil Chinese colonization 94 paiza 433 P ‘Phags-pa Lama 437–438, 631c Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Russia and the Mongol Empire Pacification Commissions 332 Aniga 14 17th-century chronicles 80 480 Pagan 71, 72 Buddhism in the Mongol dance 128 semuren 494 Pagmadulma 400 Empire 49 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 social classes in the Mongol painting. See also Mongol zurag Buddhist fine arts 52 duguiland 152–153 Empire 506 Danzin-Rabjai 131 funerary customs 190 traditional education 160 South Seas 513 Demotte Shahnama 145 Lian Xixian 333 Eight White Yurts 161, 164, Yuan dynasty 606 Injannashi 239 Ligdan Khan 335 165 Örüg-Temür 253 “Busybody” Sharab 497–498 Qing dynasty 449 environmental protection 167 Orus 445 paiza 433–434 Qubilai Khan 458, 459 Erdeni-yin tobchi 170 Ossetes 430, 632c Master Changchun 89 religious policy in the Mongol family 174 Central Europe and the Mongols jam 258, 259 Empire 470 Inner Mongolians 246 79 jarliq 264 Sangha 488 Kereyid 296 Christianity in the Mongol Mongol Empire 368 square script 519 Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji Empire 107 ortoq 429 Tibet and the Mongol Empire 312 Golden Horde 203 Marco Polo 438 540 koumiss 321 Möngke Khan 362 Shii Tianze 500 “Two Customs” 558 666 Index ‘Phags-pa Lama (continued) Ochirbatyn Dashbalbar 135 darughachi 134 Qazan Khan 87, 540 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 decollectivization 140 Islam in the Mongol Empire 252 Qianlong 634c Yuan dynasty 605, 609 Dukha 153 Kereyid 296 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Phyag-na rDo-rje 437, 539 market economy 158 Kitan language and script 315 Chinese trade and moneylend- Pir-Muhammad 420 five-year plans 179 Kitans 318 ing 96 plague. See Black Death Mongolia, State of 370 Lian Xixian 332 Geser 198 playwriting. See theater MPRP 382 Merkid 347 Qing dynasty 452, 453, 455 plebiscite on independence 186, Russia and Mongolia 484 Mongol Empire 365 Zünghars 624 438, 636c pronunciation, of Mongolian words Naiman 398 Qinde. See Hendejin Qaghan Pleistocene era 188 ix Ögedei Khan 418 Qing dynasty viii, 449–455, 450m, Pliev, I. A. 588 prosody 441–442 Otrar Incident 431 633c, 634c, 635c poetry, didactic 146–147. See also didactic poetry 147 Qarluqs 448 aimag 5 prosody music 394 religious policy in the Mongol Alashan 7 poetry/poets Natsugdorij 400 Empire 469 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Buriats 67, 69 Khuulichi Sangdag 487 Uighurs 563 amban 11 Buyannemekhü 72–73 Tibetan language and script 538 Qaraqata 632c Amursanaa 13 Rentsenni Choinom 105–106 prostitution 567 Qara-Qocho 564 appanage system 19 Chosgi-Odsir 106, 107 protest 152–153 Qara-Qorum 446, 446–447, 631c archery 20 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Protoceratops 147, 148 artisans in the Mongol Empire armed forces of Mongolia 23 Danzin-Rabjai 130–131 provinces in the Mongol Empire 24–25 astrology 26 Ochirbatyn Dashbalbar 134–135 442–443. See also specific provinces Confucianism 117 Badmadorji 28 folk poetry and tales 182–183 Puntsog 288 Erdeni Zuu 169 banners 30–32 Golden Horde 206 Puntsug-Osor 547 ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini Bao’an language and people 33 Injannashi 239 Putin, Vladimir 286, 485 281 Barga 34, 35 literature 336, 337 Puxian Wannu 341 Körgüz 321 Bayad 37 Natsugdorij 400 money in the Mongol Empire bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Na. Sainchogtu 487 Q 361 Borjigid 45 Khuulichi Sangdag 487 Qaban 520 Mongol Empire 367 Borotala 46 “Threes of the World” 536 Qabul Khan Naiman 397 buuz 72 Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels Mongol tribe 389, 390 Öchicher 415 calendars 74 545–546 Qonggirad 456 Ögedei Khan 418 Chakhar 88 Xianbi 592 religion 467 Orkhon River 429 China and Mongolia 90, 91 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu Tatars 529 Qaidu Khan 445 Chinese colonization 93, 94 618 Tayichi’ud 530 Qubilai Khan 458, 460 Chinese trade and moneylend- Poland 79, 333, 631c Qadan, Prince 79, 212, 417 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 ing 96, 97 Politburo Qadaq South Khangai province 512 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 Dashiin Damba 126 Güyüg Khan 212, 213 Taoism in the Mongol Empire clear script 111 Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Naiman 398 528 clothing and dress 113 1990 Democratic Revolution 143 Oghul-Qaimish 418 Yuan dynasty 603 Confucianism 118–119 political geography 384 Qadir-Berdi 543 Qara’unas 447–448, 632c Darkhad 132 pollution 244. See also environmen- Qai 592 Chaghatay Khanate 83, 85, 86 darqan 133 tal protection Qaidu Khan 444–445, 632c Hazaras 215 Daur people 136 Polo, Marco 438–439 Bayan Chingsang 38 India and the Mongols 238 decimal organization 140 Crimea 121 Blue Horde 42 Kashmir 293 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 mining 357 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Mangghud 342 Dörbed Mongol Autonomous Mongol Empire 369 Golden Horde 205, 206 Mogholi language and people County 150 Önggüd 424 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud 358–359 Dörböds 150 Ong Khan 425 Beg 340 Moghulistan 359 duguiland 152 paper currency in the Mongol Mongol tribe 391 Nawroz 401 Dukha 153 Empire 435 Nayan’s Rebellion 401 tammachi 527 traditional education 159–160 Qaidu Khan 444 Öchicher 415 Timur 540 Eight Banners 160, 161 Qara’unas 447 Önggüd 424 Qarluqs 448–449 Eight White Yurts 164 Qubilai Khan 457 Qara-Qorum 447 Chinggis Khan 100 emperors 628t South Seas 513 Qarluqs 448 Islam in the Mongol Empire Erdeni Zuu 169 Western Europe and the Mongol Qipchaqs 456 252 farming 176 Empire 584 Qubilai Khan 459, 460 Kazakhs 294 Flight of the Kalmyks 180 Polo, Niccolò 438 Siberia and the Mongol Empire quda 461 food and drink 184 population 379 502 semuren 494 Front Gorlos Mongol “Port Arthur Case” 105 Tutugh 556 Türk Empires 555 Autonomous County 189 portraiture 497–498, 598 Uighurs 564 Uighur Empire 560 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous postroad system 259 Yuan dynasty 605, 607 Qasar County 191 Potapov, Leonid V. 58 Qalaqaljid Sands Chinggis Khan 98, 99 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193, Potemkin, P. S. 288 Baljuna Covenant 30 Dörbed Mongol Autonomous 194 pottery 318 Chinggis Khan 98 County 150 Galdan-Tseren 194 prayer 228, 345 Mangghud 342 Front Gorlos Mongol Geser 198 prehistory 439–441 Ögedei Khan 416 Autonomous County 189 hairstyles and headgear 114 Prester John 425 Ong Khan 425 Khoshuds 310 history 217 prices 179 Qamar-ud-Din 359 Ö’elün Üjin 416 Höhhot 219 primogeniture 560 Qapaghan 478 Oirats 420, 421 Hulun Buir 226 printing press 562 Qarachar 530 Teb Tenggeri 531 incarnate lama 237–238 privatization 440–441, 637c Qara-Khitai 445–446, 630c Ulaanchab 570 inje 240 Buriat Republic 59 Buddhism in the Mongol Qashi 444, 544 Inner Mongolians 245, 246 cashmere 76 Empire 48 Qasim Khan 293 jam 259 1992 Constitution 120 Chinggis Khan 100 Qazaghan 87, 448, 632c Jangjiya Khutugtu 260 Index 667 Japan and the modern Mongols Mongol Empire 365 traditional education 159 Shii Tianze 500 261 Ögedei Khan 417 Eight White Yurts 163 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Jibzundamba Khutugtu 267 Russia and the Mongol Empire falconry 173 502 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth 479 Golden Horde 206 social classes in the Mongol 269 Saray and New Saray 489 Harghasun Darqan 215 Empire 506, 507 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second semuren 494 history 218 Song dynasty 509, 511 275 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Hüle’ü 225 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Juu Uda 280 Tutugh 556 hunting and fishing 227 South Seas 512, 513 Kazakhs 294 Qiyat 407 Il-Khanate 231 square script 519 Khalkha 300 Qodu 455 Islam in the Mongol Empire tammachi 527 khan 302 Qonggirad 456–457 253 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Kharachin 304 Börte Üjin 46 Jalayir 257 528 Khorchin 309 Buqa 54 jam 259 Tatar-Tong’a 530 Khoshuds 310 Cha’adai 81 Japan and the Mongol Empire Temüder 531 Khowd city 311 Chabui 82 263 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Khowd province 311 Chinggis Khan 98 jarghuchi 264 539 Lifan Yuan 333 Golden Horde 205 jarliq 264 tribute system 546 Moghulistan 360 Jochi 278 jasaq 265 Tutugh 556 money, modern 360 Juu Uda 280 Jin dynasty 278 “Two Customs” 558, 559 Mongolia, State of 369 battles of Juyongguan Pass 281 Jingim 278 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 New Policies 402 Khorazm 308 keshig 297 Uighurs 564 noyan 412 Mangghud 342 Kitans 319 Vietnam 579, 580 Oirats 421 Mongol tribe 389, 390 Korea and the Mongol Empire Xiangyang, siege of 592 Öölöd 425 Muqali 393 320 Yan Shi 599 Ordos 427 Noqai 407 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 328 Yuan dynasty 603, 605–607 otoq 430 Ö’elün Üjin 415 Lian Xixian 332, 333 Yuan shi 612 paiza 434 Qubilai Khan 457 Ligdan Khan 335 Yunnan 612 quda 461 quda 461 Li Tan’s Rebellion 335 Zhang Rou 620 religion 467 social classes in the Mongol Liu Bingzhong 338 Qubilai Noyan 1911 Restoration 470 Empire 506 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud nökör 406 Russia and Mongolia 482–483, “stone men” 520 Beg 340 Qarluqs 448 483, 484 Ta’achar 525 Manchuria and the Mongol Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Shangdu 497 tammachi 527 Empire 342 Quchar 495 Shiliin Gol 500 Temüder 531 massacres and the Mongol quda 460–463 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 Timur 540 Conquest 343–344 Altan Khan 10 social classes in the Qing period Toqtamish 543 medicine, traditional 345 anda 13 507 Yuan dynasty 608, 609 money in the Mongol Empire Chinggis Khan 98 sum 523 Qonichi 206, 445 361 Geser 198 taiji 526 Qorchi 502, 503 Möngke Khan 363, 364 Kereyid 296 tea 530 Qoridai 363, 539 Mongol Empire 368, 369 Mangghud 343 theocratic period 533 Qorqada’un 410 Mongolian sources on the Moghulistan 360 Torghuds 545 Qoshila 608 Mongol Empire 386 Mongol Empire 367 Tu language and people 551 Quang Khai, prince of Vietnam 579 music 395 Mongol tribe 390 Tuvans 556 Quan Jiu 511 Nayan’s Rebellion 401 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 “Two Customs” 559 Qubilai Khan 457–460, 458, 631c, Oirats 420 Oirats 419, 420 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 632c Önggüd 424 Önggüd 425 Üjümüchin 565 Ahmad Fanakati 4, 5 ortoq 429, 430 Qonggirad 456 Ulaanbaatar 567 Aju 6 Ossetes 430 social classes in the Mongol Ulaanchab 569–570 Aniga 14 paiza 433, 434 Empire 506 Uliastai 572 appanage system 18 paper currency in the Mongol taishi 526 Upper Mongols 573, 574 Ariq-Böke 21, 22 Empire 435 Three Guards 536 Uws province 578 Ariq-Qaya 22 ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Xinjiang Mongols 593 artisans in the Mongol Empire Marco Polo 438 550 Yogur people 601 25 provinces in the Mongol Empire Yuan dynasty 609 Yuan dynasty 611 Bayan Chingsang 38 442 Qudu 544 zasag 617–618 Blue Horde 42 Qaidu Khan 444 queen. See khatun Zawkhan province 618 Bolad Chingsang 43 Qara-Qorum 447 Qulan 320 Zünghars 622, 624 Buddhism in the Mongol Qarluqs 448 Quli 345 Qinghai 636c Empire 48, 49 Qing dynasty 449 Qulligh Boyla 560, 630c Qinghai-Gansu language subfamily Buqa 54 Qipchaqs 456 Qunchuqbal 486, 525 148 Chabui 82 Qonggirad 457 quriltai 462–464, 463, 630c Qinghai province 214 Chaghan teüke 82 quda 461 Batu 36, 37 Qipchaqs 455–456, 631c Chaghatay Khanate 83 quriltai 462 Chaghatay Khanate 83 Blue Horde 42 China and Mongolia 90 religion 466 Chinggis Khan 98 Central Europe and the Mongols Christianity in the Mongol religious policy in the Mongol clothing and dress 113 79 Empire 107 Empire 469, 470 dance 128 Crimea 121 Compendium of Chronicles 117 Byambyn Rinchen 476 darqan 133 Golden Horde 203, 207 Confucianism 117–118 Sangha 488 Eight White Yurts 163 Güyüg Khan 212 Daidu 123 Sayyid Ajall 489 Il-Khanate 233 Kalka River, Battle of 283 dance 128 Secret History of the Mongols Kitans 315 Kazakhs 294 darughachi 134 492–493 Köten 321 Mamluk Egypt 340 dating systems 75 semuren 494 Kurdistan 323 Merkid 347 East Asian sources on the Shangdu 497 military of the Mongol Empire Möngke Khan 362 Mongol Empire 154 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 350 668 Index quriltai (continued) East Asian sources on the Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous 1921 Revolution 471–473 Möngke Khan 362, 363 Mongol Empire 155 Area 577 Abatai Khan 1 Mongol Empire 365, 367 Eight White Yurts 163 Xiongnu 595 anthem 18 Mongol tribe 391 Ghazan Khan 199 Yuan dynasty 611 Bodô 43 naadam 396 Golden Horde 202 religion, freedom of 252 Buddhism, campaign against Ögedei Khan 417 History of the World Conqueror religious mandate 99–100 46 Oghul-Qaimish 419 219 religious policy in the Mongol Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Qubilai Khan 458 Il-Khanate 231 Empire 469–470 Mongolia 70 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Kereyid 295 1911 Restoration 470–471 China and Mongolia 91, 92 religion 467 keshig 298 aimag 5 Marshal Choibalsang 103–104 Shangdu 497 Mangghud 342 amban 12 clothing and dress 115 social classes in the Mongol medicine, traditional 345 anthem 17 Confucianism 119 Empire 505 Möngke Khan 363 Badmadorji 28 Daur people 136 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Mongol Empire 369 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 family 175 Timur 540 Mongolian sources on the Buriats of Mongolia and Inner flags 179 Töregene 544 Mongol Empire 386 Mongolia 70 foreign relations 186 Western Europe and the Mongol Naiman 397 China and Mongolia 92 Great Shabi 211 Empire 583 Noqai 407 Chinese trade and moneylend- history 217 White Month 584 Ö’elün Üjin 415 ing 97 horses 224 Yuan dynasty 603 paiza 433 Dambijantsan 126 incarnate lama 238 Qurjaqus-Buyruq Khan 295, 296 quriltai 462 Dariganga 132 Inner Mongolians 247 Qutlugh 554 Shigi Qutuqu 464 farming 176 Japan and the modern Mongols Qutlugh-Kelmish 320 Secret History of the Mongols flags 179 262 Qutlugh-Khoja 86 492 foreign relations 185 Kazakhs 294 Qutlughshah 298, 465 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 history 217 Khotong 311 Qutlugh-Temür 432 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 incarnate lama 238 Kyakhta city 324 Qutui-Khatun 426 Tatars 529 Inner Mongolians 245, 246 Lifan yan zeli 334 Qutula Khan 389, 462, 630c tenggeri 532 Japan and the modern Mongols literature 337 Qutulun 444, 588 Rashipungsug 634c 261 Merse 348 Qutuqa Beki Bolor erikhe 44 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Mongolia, State of 369 Möngke Khan 362 Confucianism 118 270 Mongolian People’s Republic Oirats 419 taiji 526 Khalkha 300 377 Siberia and the Mongol Empire rationing 158 Prince Khangdadorji 303 Mongol zurag 391 502 Ratnabhadra 634c Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 music 395 Qutuqu, Shigi 464 raw materials 157 Magsurjab 339 Natsugdorij 400 census in the Mongol Empire Red Army 635c Mongolia, State of 369 Revocation of Autonomy 471 78 armed forces of Mongolia 23 naadam 396 revolutionary period 473 Chinggis Khan 99 Buriat Republic 60 religion 467 Byambyn Rinchen 476 jarghuchi 264 China and Mongolia 91 revolutionary period 473 Russia and Mongolia 482 Khorazm 307 General Danzin 130 Russia and Mongolia 482, 483 Shangdu 497 Mongolian sources on the Marshal Demid 142 Sino-Mongolian War 503 “Busybody” Sharab 498 Mongol Empire 385 Great Purge 209 Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 Bazaryn Shirendew 502 nökör 406 Jalkhanza Khutugtu General Sükhebaatur 522 Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 Ögedei Khan 418 Damdinbazar 258 theocratic period 533 theocratic period 533 Parwan, Battle of 436 Japan and the modern Mongols Tuvans 557 “Two Customs” 559 Secret History of the Mongols 262 Ulaanbaatar 567 Ulaanbaatar 568 492, 493 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Uliastai 572 Uliastai 572 Tatars 529 271 Upper Mongols 576 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Kalmyks 291–292 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 revolutionary period 473–476 Qutuz Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 retail 158 Academy of Sciences 2–3 Battle of ‘Ain Jalut 6 Russia and Mongolia 484 revisionism 18 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Hüle’ü 225 Ulan-Ude 572 Revocation of Autonomy 471, Bodô 43 Ked-Buqa 295 Baron von Ungern-Sternberg 635c clan names 110 Mamluk Egypt 340 573 Amur 12 clothing and dress 115 Quyildar Sechen 342 World War II 587 Badmadorji 28 Confucianism 119 Red Chamber novels 239 Bodô 43 1924 Constitution 119 R “red foods” 183 China and Mongolia 91 Dambadorji 126 Radloff, W. W. 428 Red Guards 92, 250 Marshal Choibalsang 104 General Danzin 129–130 Radnajab 476 “Red Turbans” 543–544, 610 Grand Duke Damdinsürüng farming 176 railroads 636c reform 245, 246, 621 128 Gendün 196 Buriat Republic 59 reindeer 153, 177 General Danzin 129 Great Purge 209–211 modern economy 157 religion 465–469. See also specific Jalkhanza Khutugtu history 217 Inner Mongolia Autonomous religions Damdinbazar 258 Inner Mongolians 247 Region 242–243 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Mongolia, State of 369 Ulan-Ude 571, 572 Borjigid 45 270 Ulaanbaatar 568 Rashid-ud-Din Fazl-ullah 465, 632c Buriats 64–66 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 Revolutionary Youth League 475 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Christianity in the Mongol MPRP 380 rGyud bzhi. See Four Roots Baiju 29 Empire 107–108 1921 Revolution 472 rifles 229 Blue Horde 42 Daur people 136 Russia and Mongolia 484 “right hand” 41, 42, 202, 203 Bolad Chingsang 43 history 217 General Sükhebaatur 522 Rinchana 293 Chinggis Khan 97 Hüle’ü 226 theocratic period 533 Rinchen, Byambyn 476–477, 636c Chuban 109 hunting and fishing 228 Tserindorji 550 Geser 198 Compendium of Chronicles 117 Il-Khanate 236 1905 Revolution 55 lamas and monasticism 328 decimal organization 139 MPRP 381 1911 Revolution 91, 161 literature 337 Index 669 Mongolian People’s Republic Russian Civil War Tibet and the Mongol Empire Xia dynasty 590 378, 380 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 539 Xianbi 592 Soyombo symbol 519 Inner Mongolians 247 Yuan dynasty 607 sculpture 273 Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Japan and the modern Mongols Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho 345, 346, seal 490 Tsogtu Taiji 550 262 550, 634c ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 Rin-chen dPal-bzang-po 546 Russian Orthodox Church 64 Sanjib 550 Soyombo symbol 519 Rin-chen-rGyal-mtshan 437 Russian Revolution. See also Saran Khökhögen-ü Namtar (Tale of Tatar-Tong’a 530 Rinchinjamsu 299 Bolsheviks/Bolshevik Party the moon cuckoo) 634c “Two Customs” 559 Rinchinkhorlo 337, 404, 636c Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 4 Saray and New Saray 488–489, Sechen Beiji 313 Rinchino, Elbek-Dorzhi 129, Buriat 55 632c, 633c Second Conversion 490–492, 633c 477–478 Buriats 66 Sarayin gerel 634c Buddhist fine arts 52 Buriats 66 China and Mongolia 91 Saray Malik 540 funerary customs 190 1924 Constitution 119 Chinese trade and moneylend- Sarman history 217 Dambadorji 126 ing 97 Mongolian sources on the horses 223 General Danzin 130 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Mongol Empire 385 hunting and fishing 229 Dauriia Station Movement 137 Russian script 122 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 incarnate lama 237 Agwang Dorzhiev 151, 152 Russia-Qing treaty of 1727 96 square script 519 Khoshuds 310 Mongolian People’s Party, Third Russo-Asiatic Bank 483 Sartaq Khutugtai Sechen Khung-Taiji Congress of 376 Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Korea and the Mongol Empire 312–313 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Japan and the modern Mongols 319 literature 336 League 385 261 Ögedei Khan 417 medicine, traditional 345 MPRP 381 Qing dynasty 454 William of Rubruck 587 names, personal 399 1921 Revolution 472 Russia and Mongolia 483 Sasi-Buqa 42 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 revolutionary period 474 Rustichello 438 Sa-skya order 451, 558, 559 oboo 415 General Sükhebaatur 522 Ryskulov, Turar R. 477 Sa-skya Pandita Oirats 421 rodents 177 Köten 321 ongghon 424 Rolbidorji 260–261, 559 S ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 Ordos 427 Rol-pa’i rDo-rje 87 Sacha 495 Tibet and the Mongol Empire religion 466 Rong culture 595 sacrifices 539 shamanism 494 root plants 182 Eight White Yurts 162–163 Sayin-Tegin 529 Tibetan culture in Mongolia 537 Rouran 302, 478, 553, 630c funerary customs 189–190 Sayyid Ajall 489 “Two Customs” 558 Ruizhi 317 horses 222–223 Yunnan 612 Secret History of the Mongols Rukn-ad-Din Qilich-Arslan 555 oboo 414 Sayyid-Ali 360 492–493, 631c, 636c Rukn-ud-Din 364 Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani Sayyid Ata 432 Alan Gho’a 6 runic script and inscriptions paper currency in the Mongol scapulimancy 489–490 Altan tobchi 11 478–479, 554, 555 Empire 435 military of the Mongol Empire Awarga 26 Russia and Mongolia viii, 482–485, Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 349 Lake Baikal 29 631c Ta’achar 525 Möngke Khan 362 Baljuna Covenant 30 armed forces of Mongolia 22, 23 Sa‘d-ud-Dawla 486 shamanism 494–495 Bayad 37 Bodô 43 Buqa 54 tenggeri 532 census in the Mongol Empire Bulghars 53 Il-Khanate 234 Yelü Chucai 600 78 Buriat language and scripts 54 medicine, traditional 345 scarf, ceremonial silk. See khadag Chinggis Khan 97–100 Buriat Republic 58–60 Ta’achar 525 scholarship Tsendiin Damdinsüren 127 Buriats 62–64, 66, 67 Sa‘d-ud-Din Savaji 465 Academy of Sciences 2–3 darqan 133 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Saghang Sechen 486–497, 633c Dorzhi Banzarov 32 Daur people 136 Mongolia 70 17th-century chronicles 80, 81 Duke Gombojab 208–209 decimal organization 139 census in the Mongol Empire 78 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 328 history 217 Erdeni-yin tobchi 170 Christian sources on the Mongol Ordos 427 History of the World Conqueror Golden Horde 202 Empire 108, 109 twelve-animal cycle 558 218–219 Güyüg Khan 212 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Sai Dianchi. See Sayyid Ajall Ibn Battuta 230 jasaq 265 Ewenkis 171–172 Saif-ud-Din Ighraq 436 Inner Mongolians 249 Jochi 278 farming 176 Sainchogtu, Na 337, 487 Islamic sources on the Mongol literature 335, 336 Flight of the Kalmyks 180 Sainshand Empire 254–255 Mangghud 342 foreign relations 185–186 East Gobi province 156 William of Rubruck 587 Mongolian sources on the Golden Horde 203, 205, 207 Sakharov, Tsydeb-Jab 65 Yuan dynasty 609–610 Mongol Empire 385, 386 Hulun Buir 227 Salah-ad-Din 340 Yuan shi 612 Mongol tribe 390 Kalmyks 288–290 Salars 33 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu Mongol zurag 392 Khotoghoid 310 Sali 618 Naiman 397 Kulikovo Pole, Battle of 322 Kashmir 293 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 money, modern 360–361 Qara’unas 447 scribes Ö’elün Üjin 415 MPRP 380 tammachi 527 traditional education 159 Ögedei Khan 416 Qing dynasty 453, 454 Tatars 529 ‘Ala’ud-Din Ata-Malik Juvaini Ong Khan 425 1911 Restoration 470 Salih Najm-ad-Din Ayyub 340 281 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Revocation of Autonomy 471 Salji’udai 407 Uighurs 563, 564 religion 467 theocratic period 533, 534 Samarqand 631c scripts of the Mongolian language 17th-century chronicles 80, 81 Tuvans 557 Sandô 454 375t Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Ulaanbaatar 567 Sangdag, Khuulichi 336, 487–488 Buriat 55 social classes in the Mongol Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Sangha 488 Buriats 64, 67–68 Empire 505 Area 577 Buddhism in the Mongol Chinggis Khan 99 square script 519 Russia and the Mongol Empire Empire 49 Cyrillic-script Mongolian Sübe’etei Ba’atur 520 479–482, 634c Öchicher 415 121–122 tammachi 527 Kalka River, Battle of 283 paper currency in the Mongol Lifan Yuan 334 Tuul River 556 Kiev, siege of 313 Empire 435 Uighur-Mongolian script Tuvans 556 Möngke Khan 362 Qubilai Khan 459 561–563 twelve-animal cycle 558 670 Index Selenge province 493 Shagj, S. ongghon 424 Sholoi Ubashi Khung-Taiji, Prince China and Mongolia 93 New Turn policy 405 religion 467 Khalkha 299 farming 176 revolutionary period 475 Shiliin Gol 500 Khotoghoid 310 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 Uighur-Mongolian script 563 social classes in the Qing period Oirats 420, 421 Selenge River 493–494 Shahnama 145 508 shortages 158 Lake Baikal 29 Shahrukh 541 South Khangai province 512 Shuhu Gaoqi 281 Bulgan province 53 Shakyamuni Buddha 486, 524 Sükhebaatur province 523 Shumiatskii, B. Z. 385 Eg River 160 shamanism 494–497, 496 Uws province 578 Shuti 257 flora 182 Lake Baikal 29 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Kereyid 295 Dorzhi Banzarov 32 Chinggis Khan 97, 98 502–503, 633c, 634c Khangai Range 303 Buriats 61, 66, 69–70 Mongolian sources on the Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Khentii province 305 history 217 Mongol Empire 385 Ariq-Böke 22 Kyakhta city 323 medicine, traditional 344, 345 Secret History of the Mongols Bayad 37 Merkid 347 Mongolia, State of 369 492 Buriats 61, 62, 66 runic script and inscriptions Naiman 397 Yuan shi 612 clan names 110 478 oboo 414 Shevardnadze, Eduard 515 Jochi 278 Selenge province 493 Oirats 419 Shiban 392, 503 Khoo-Örlög 306 Selenge valley religion 465–468 Shibanids 42, 632c money in the Mongol Empire Buriat Republic 56 religious policy in the Mongol Shidebala 532, 632c 361 Buriats 62, 68 Empire 469 Shigeru, Tayama 218 Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 farming 176 scapulimancy 489–490 Shii Bingzhi 500 siege warfare 352–354 Seljüks 555, 631c Second Conversion 491 Shi‘ism/Shi‘ites 632c Silk Road 590 Semënov, Grigorii M. 635c Teb Tenggeri 530–531 ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 silver Buriats 66 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Hazaras 215 jewelry 267 Dauriia Station Movement 137 Area 577 Il-Khanate 235 money in the Mongol Empire Japan and the modern Mongols Shams-ud-Din Muhammad Islam in the Mongol Empire 362 262 280–281 252, 253 ortoq 429 Revocation of Autonomy 471 Shangdong 89 Isma‘ilis 255 paiza 433 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 Shangdu 497 Shii Tianze 48, 458–459, 499–501 Sangha 488 Baron von Ungern-Sternberg Bayan Chingsang 38 Shijiye 405 silver economy 97, 205 572 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” Shikür Daiching 288 Sima Qian 358 semuren 494 328 Shiliin Gol 500–501 Simukov, Andrei Dmitrievich 405, Ahmad Fanakati 4 Lian Xixian 333 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner 412 Bao’an language and people 33 ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 Mongolia 71 Sino-Japanese War 402, 427, 483 Christianity in the Mongol Qubilai Khan 458 Chakhar 88 Sino-Mongolian War 128, 503 Empire 107 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Dariganga 132 Sino-Soviet alliance 503–504 Islam in the Mongol Empire 528 Prince Demchungdongrub 141 armed forces of Mongolia 24 253 Shangdzodba, Erdeni 497 environmental protection 167 modern economy 157 Kitans 319 Badmadorji 28 Inner Mongolians 246 Mongolian People’s Republic Naiman 398 Bodô 42 Kitans 316 377 ortoq 430 Darkhad 132 Mongolian language 374 Sino-Soviet split 504 Marco Polo 438 Great Shabi 211 Mongolian plateau 383 Trans-Mongolian Railway 545 provinces in the Mongol Empire Jibzundamba Khutugtu 268 New Schools movements 404 Sino-Soviet split 504–505 442 Khalkha jirum 301 Önggüd 425 armed forces of Mongolia 24 religious policy in the Mongol money, modern 360 Qing dynasty 451 China and Mongolia 92 Empire 470 Soyombo script 518 Sino-Mongolian War 503 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 social classes in the Mongol theocratic period 533 Three Guards 536 Daur people 137 Empire 507 Ulaanbaatar 567 Üjümüchin 565 planned economy 157 Xia dynasty 591 Shangjing 630c Ulanfu 570 Hulun Buir 227 Yuan dynasty 603 Shanxi 596 Shilun 478, 630c Inner Mongolians 250 Sengetsokhio, D. 392 Shanyu 596 Shimo Ming’an 406, 501, 620 Mongolian People’s Republic 377 Serbe-Jab Tümen 289 Shao Yong 338 Shira Ordo 426, 462 Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 Setsen Khan Sharab, “Busybody” 497–498 Shiregetü Güüshi Chorjiwa 524 Ulaanbaatar 569 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 Buddhist fine arts 52 Shiregi 459 Sino-Soviet treaty Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 Mongol zurag 391 Shiremün Marshal Choibalsang 105 Khalkha jirum 301 revolutionary period 475 Ögedei Khan 418 foreign relations 186 Qing dynasty 452, 453 Soviet Union and Mongolia 517 Oghul-Qaimish 419 World War II 588 Russia and Mongolia 482 theocratic period 535 tammachi 527 Siqnaq Tegin 448 social classes in the Qing period Sharabpeljailing 434–435 Töregene 544 Sishmarëv, Ya P. 484 508 Shara Mören valley 279, 280 Shirendew, Bazaryn 501–502, 636c “six syllables” 491 Sevener Shi‘ites. See Isma‘ilis Sharba Khutugtu 335 Academy of Sciences 3 Six Tümens 505, 633c 17th-century chronicles 80–81 shari’a 87 Dashiin Damba 126 Chakhar 88 Altan tobchi 11 shashin 82 Soviet Union and Mongolia Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 Eight Banners 161 sheep 498–499 516 decimal organization 140 Eight White Yurts 163 animal husbandry and Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 548 Khalkha 299 Erdeni-yin tobchi 170 nomadism 14, 16 Shirin 362 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Injannashi 239 Central province 80 Shishmarëv, Yakov Parfen’evich 483 Oirats 420 literature 336 Chakhar 88 Shiwei 502 Ordos 427 Northern Yuan dynasty 411 fauna 177 Ewenkis 171 otoq 431 Oirats 420 Kalmyk Republic 286 funerary customs 189 Three Guards 535–536 social classes in the Qing period Khorchin 308 Mongol tribe 389 Tümed 552 507 Khöwsgöl province 312 Xianbi 592 slavery/slave trade Sevinch, Emir 465 Middle Gobi province 348 Sholoi Makhasamadi Setsen Khan Bulghars 53 sex 174–175 Mongol tribe 389 300 Chaghatay Khanate 87 Index 671 history 218 souls 495 Khalkhyn Gol, Battle of 302 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery India and the Mongols 238 soup 184 leftist period 330 194 social classes in the Mongol South China 611 Merse 348 Gendün 196 Empire 506 Southeast Asia 546 Mongolian People’s Republic Great Purge 209 Western Europe and the Mongol South Gobi province 512 377, 378, 380 Jangghar 260 Empire 584 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Mongolian Revolutionary Youth Kalmyk-Oirat language and Yuan dynasty 607 camels 76 League 385 script 287 smallpox 275 mining 358 MPRP 381, 382 leftist period 331 Smbat, Constable 331 Mongolian plateau 384 MPRP, Seventh Congress of Mongolian People’s Republic Sˇmeral, Bohumír 383 sheep 498–499 383 377 social change 379 South Khangai province 498, 512 New Turn policy 405 MPRP 382 social classes in the Mongol Empire South Manchurian Railway 261 1921 Revolution 471–473 New Turn policy 405, 406 87, 505–507 South Seas 429, 460, 512–513 revolutionary period 473, 474 revolutionary period 474 social classes in the Qing period Soviet Union, breakup of 157–158, Russia and Mongolia 484–482 seal 490 507–509 167 Sino-Soviet alliance 503–504 Bazaryn Shirendew 501 socialism 119, 120 Soviet Union and Mongolia Sino-Soviet split 504–505 Sino-Soviet alliance 503 sociopolitical unit. See banners 513–518, 517, 548 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 547–548 Soviet Union and Mongolia Sodu 513, 579 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 3, Tuvans 557 515–517 Sogdian 561 4 Ulaanbaatar 566, 569 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 547, Solon 34, 35, 593, 633c, 634c Amur 12 Ulan-Ude 572 548 Sonam 532 archaeology 19 Baron von Ungern-Sternberg World War II 588 Sonamtsering 391 armed forces of Mongolia 573 Stalinism 209–210 Song dynasty 509–511, 510m, 631c 22–24 United Nations 573 Starkov, Alexei G. 385 Alaqai Beki 7 Lake Baikal 30 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous steppes 177, 181–182 Ariq-Qaya 22 Jambyn Batmönkh 36 Area 577 “stone men” 520, 520 Bayan Chingsang 38 Buddhism, campaign against 46 White Month 586 funerary customs 189 Buddhism in the Mongol Buriat 55 World War II 587, 588 Önggüd 425 Empire 50 Buriat Republic 56–60 Xinjiang Mongols 593 runic script and inscriptions Master Changchun 89 Buriats 60, 61, 67–69 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 478 China and Mongolia 90 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Soyol Erdene 395 Türk Empires 554 Confucianism 118 Mongolia 71 Soyombo script 518 “Stone of Chinggis Khan” 386 Güyüg Khan 212 camels 76 flags 179 student demonstrations. See demon- Jin dynasty 275 China and Mongolia 91–92 funerary customs 191 strations, student Kitans 316 Chinggis Khan controversy Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Subakhai 536 money in the Mongol Empire 101, 102 273 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 520–521, 631c 361 Marshal Choibalsang 104, 105 Mongolian language 376 Bulghars 53 Möngke Khan 363, 364 Choir city 106 Soyombo symbol 518–519 Central Europe and the Mongols Mongol Empire 365 1960 Constitution 120 Buriat Republic 58 79 Muqali 393 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121 flags 179 Chinggis Khan 100 music 394 Dambadorji 126 horse racing 222 Georgia 196 Ögedei Khan 417 Dambijantsan 127 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Jin dynasty 277 Önggüd 424 Dauriia Station Movement 273 Jochi 278 paper currency in the Mongol 137–138 seal 490 Kaifeng, siege of 282 Empire 435 1990 Democratic Revolution Soyombo script 518 Kalka River, Battle of 283 Qara-Qorum 447 142 Soyots 56, 61 keshig 297 Qubilai Khan 459 Agwang Dorzhiev 151–152 space flight 518 Khorazm 306, 307 Shigi Qutuqu 464 duguiland 153 spelling conventions viii–ix Merkid 347 tea 530 Eastern province 155 Speransky, Michael 64, 634c, 635c military of the Mongol Empire Töregene 544 market economy 157–158 spirits 423–424, 495–496 351 Vietnam 579 modern economy 156, 157 sports Möngke Khan 363 Xia dynasty 590 planned economy 157 falconry 173 Mongolian sources on the Xiangyang, siege of 592 Elista 165 horse racing 221–222 Mongol Empire 385 Yan Shi 599 Mikhei Erbanov 168–169 wrestling 588–589 Muhi, Battle of 392 Yuan dynasty 605, 607, 610, Erdenet city 169 Spring and Autumn Period 595 nökör 406 611 farming 176 spy cases 516 Ögedei Khan 417 Zhang Rou 620 five-year plans 179 square script 519–520, 631c Ossetes 430 Song Lian 612 flags 180 Buddhism in the Mongol Qipchaqs 455 Songpan 33 foreign relations 186–187 Empire 49 quda 461 songs 393–394 Gandan-Tegchinling Monastery Chaghatay Khanate 87 Russia and the Mongol Empire Songzhou 82 194–195 Confucianism 118 479 Sorqaq 460 Gendün 196 traditional education 159 Yelü Chucai 600 Sorqaqtani Beki 511–512 Great Purge 209–211 Golden Horde 206 Yogur people 601 Arghun Aqa 21 Hazaras 215–216 Mongolian language 376 Subei Mongol Autonomous County Ariq-Böke 21 history 217 ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 127, 419, 521 Batu 37 Hulun Buir 227 Byambyn Rinchen 476 Sudak 121 Eight White Yurts 162 Inner Mongolians 247 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Sufism Hüle’ü 225, 226 Jangghar 260 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Bao’an language and people 33 Kereyid 296 Japan and the modern Mongols Stalin, Joseph 635c Dongxiang 149 Lian Xixian 332 262 Buddhism, campaign against 47 Golden Horde 206, 207 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 269 Buriat 55 Il-Khanate 236 Möngke Khan 362, 363 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Buriats 67 Islam in the Mongol Empire Northern Yuan dynasty 410 270 China and Mongolia 92 253–254 Qubilai Khan 457 Kalmyk Republic 285–286 Marshal Choibalsang 103, 105 Suhadeva 293 Tolui 542 Kalmyks 291–292 Elista 165 Suiyuan 219–220, 245, 636c 672 Index Sükhebaatur, General 522, 522–523 Kazakhs 294 Chinggis Khan 98 Tayichi’ud 530 General Danzin 129 Khalkha 300 Chinqai 103 Chinggis Khan 97 Kyakhta city 324 khatun 304 Golden Horde 208 Jebe 265 medicine, traditional 346 leftist period 330 history 216 Mongol tribe 391 money, modern 361 Northern Yuan dynasty 410 Jin dynasty 275 names, personal 398 MPRP 382 Oirats 421 Kashmir 293 nökör 406 music 394 Qing dynasty 453 Kereyid 295 Ö’elün Üjin 415 naadam 396, 397 social classes in the Qing period Kitans 317 tea 531, 532 Natsugdorij 400 507, 508 Kulikovo Pole, Battle of 322 Chinese trade and moneylend- 1921 Revolution 472 taishi 526 Mangghud 343 ing 96 “Busybody” Sharab 498 zasag 618 massacres and the Mongol food and drink 184 Soviet Union and Mongolia 517 Taiping 408 Conquest 343 money, modern 360 Sükhebaatur province 523 taishi 526–527 Merkid 347 sheep 498 Sükhebaatur province 523 Altan Khan 10 Ming dynasty 355 social classes in the Qing period Dariganga 132 Buriats 64 Mongol tribe 389, 391 509 Ochirbatyn Dashbalbar 135 Batu-Möngke Dayan Khan 138 Ong Khan 425 tenggeri 532 mining 357 Khoo-Örlög 306 Qara’unas 447 tribute system 546 names, personal 399 New Schools movements 403 Qipchaqs 456 White Month 584 Sükhebaatur Square (Ulaanbaatar) Northern Yuan dynasty 407 Russia and the Mongol Empire Yogur people 601 566, 569 Oirats 420 479 Teb Tenggeri 530–531 Sükirbay 294 Taiwan 186–187 South Seas 512 astrology 25 Sülchigei 415, 416 Taizong 315 Ta’achar 525 Chinggis Khan 99–100 Suldus 110, 233, 632c Tajiks 215 tammachi 527 Möngke Khan 362 Sultan-Mahmud Khan 360 Taj-ud-Din ‘Alishah 465 Western Europe and the Mongol Ö’elün Üjin 416 sum 523–524 Tale–ban 215–216 Empire 583 religious policy in the Mongol banners 30–32 Tamara, queen of Georgia 196 Yisügei Ba’atur 601 Empire 469 Bayad 37 tammachi 527, 631c Zhongdu, sieges of 620 Secret History of the Mongols 1992 Constitution 120 Il-Khanate 231 Zünghars 623 492 kinship system 314 Kitans 318 Tatar-Tong’a 530 shamanism 495 Kyakhta city 323 Köse Da_i, Battle of 321 Chinggis Khan 99 Tegüder 252 Mongolian language 374 Manchuria and the Mongol jarliq 264 Tekish, Sultan 306 Mongolian People’s Republic Empire 341 Naiman 397 television 373, 379 379 Mangghud 342 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 Telo Tulku Rinpoche 292 oboo 414 Muqali 393 Uighurs 563 Temgetü Öölöd 426 Qara’unas 447 taxation 631c Chinese fiction 95 otoq 430 Timur 541 Ahmad Fanakati 4 Inner Mongolians 247 social classes in the Qing period Tang dynasty 560, 561, 590, 630c Arghun Aqa 21 Uighur-Mongolian script 563 508 Tanggud 319 Buddhism, campaign against 47 temple 65, 195, 289 Tuvans 556 Tang Qing 282 Buddhism in the Mongol Erdeni Zuu 169–170 Zakhachin 617 Tanguts 591 Empire 50 Jangjiya Khutugtu 260 summer festival 396 Tanshihuai 592 census in the Mongol Empire Jibzundamba Khutugtu, First Sum-pa mKhan-po Ishi-Baljur 345, Tantric rituals 491 78 273 489 Taoism in the Mongol Empire 528, Chaghatay Khanate 85 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second Suqai’ud Baarin 447 631c Master Changchun 89 273 Sürenjaw, Ch. 548 Buddhism in the Mongol darqan 133 Ulaanbaatar 567 surgal shilüg 146–147 Empire 48, 50 Georgia 197 Uliastai 572 Surmaajaw, B. 549 Master Changchun 89–90 Ghazan Khan 199 Temüder 18, 531–532, 608 Su Tianjue 612 East Asian sources on the Golden Horde 205 Temüge Odchigin sutra doctors 345 Mongol Empire 154 Hüle’ü 226 Chinggis Khan 100 Sutra of the Wise and Foolish 151, Mongol Empire 368 Il-Khanate 233, 236 Güyüg Khan 212 336, 524 religious policy in the Mongol Islam in the Mongol Empire Juu Uda 280 Syr Dar’ya 42 Empire 469 253 Manchuria and the Mongol Syria 295, 323 social classes in the Mongol jam 259 Empire 342 Syriac-rite Church of the East 296 Empire 506 Möngke Khan 364 Möngke Khan 362 Szepiolka, Boleslaw 333 Yelü Chucai 600 Mongol Empire 367–368 Teb Tenggeri 531 Taraghai 540 Mongolian People’s Republic Töregene 544 T Taranatha 271 378–379 Temüjin 630c. See also Chinggis Ta-achar 525 Tardu 553 Ögedei Khan 418 Khan Ghazan Khan 199 Targi, Empress 457, 531, 532 ortoq 429, 430 Temülün 460 Il-Khanate 234 Tarim Basin 85, 86 religious policy in the Mongol Temürbagana 299 Qara’unas 447 Tarmashirin 447, 632c Empire 469, 470 Temür Öljeitü Khan 608 Sa’d al-Dawlah 486 Tarmashirin Khan revolutionary period 475 Harghasun Darqan 215 Song dynasty 509 Buddhism in the Mongol Russia and the Mongol Empire Jingim 278 Turkey 555 Empire 50 480, 482 Öchicher 415 Tabkhai-Boro 547 Chaghatay Khanate 87 Sa‘d al-Dawlah 486 ordo 427 tablet and tally system. See paiza Christianity in the Mongol social classes in the Mongol Qonggirad 457 Tabriz 632c Empire 108 Empire 507 Qubilai Khan 460 taiji 525–526 Islam in the Mongol Empire Taoism in the Mongol Empire quda 461 banners 30, 31 253 528 South Seas 513 Borjigid 45 Taspar Qaghan 553, 554 Temüder 531 Taoism in the Mongol Empire clan names 110 Tatars 528–530, 630c, 633c theocratic period 533 528 Eight White Yurts 162 Bulghars 53 Yelü Chucai 600 Temüder 531 inje 240 Central Europe and the Mongols Yuan dynasty 606, 607 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Kalmyks 288 79 Tayang Khan 397, 530 539 Index 673 Tutugh 556 Uighurs 564 Togtakhu Taiji 471, 503, 635c Ögedei Khan 416, 418 Vietnam 580 Xia dynasty 590 Togtoo-Bukha 170, 171, 355 Oghul-Qaimish 419 Yuan dynasty 607–608 Yuan dynasty 607, 609 Töle-Bugha 79, 407 Sorqaqtani Beki 512 Yunnan 612 Tibetan culture in Mongolia Tölöögen 535 Taoism in the Mongol Empire tenggeri 532 327–328, 537 Tolu 418 528 Eight White Yurts 163 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Tolui 542 Torghuds 544–545, 633c horses 223 538–540, 632c appanage system 18 Alashan 7 literature 336 astrology 26 Ariq-Böke 21 Ayuuki Khan 27 Mongol Empire 368 Bao’an language and people 33 Borjigid 45 banners 32 oboo 414 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Eight White Yurts 162 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous religion 466 Buddhism in the Mongol Isma’ilis 255 Prefecture 39 religious policy in the Mongol Empire 49 Khorazm 307 Henan Mongol Autonomous Empire 469 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 Menggeser Noyan 346 County 216 scapulimancy 489 Geser 198 Möngke Khan 362 Kalmyk Republic 285 shamanism 495, 496 incarnate lama 237 Mongol Empire 365 Kalmyks 289 Shangdu 497 Ögedei Khan 417 Muhi, Battle of 392 Kereyid 296 Teng Haiqing 250, 401, 402 Sangha 488 nökör 406 keshig 298 Teploukhov, S. A. 412 Tibetan language and script 538 Ögedei Khan 417 khans and regents 627t Terken Khatun 307 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 Qubilai Khan 457 Khoo-Örlög 306 Teutonic Knights 333 Kalmyk-Oirat language and quda 460 Khoshuds 310 Thailand 612 script 287 Shigi Qutuqu 464 Khowd province 312 thangka paintings 391 Oirats 422 shamanism 495 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 Thánh Tông, Trân 579 Tibetan medicine 345, 346 Sorqaqtani Beki 511–512 “New Inner Mongolian People’s theater 67, 68, 73, 95 Tibeto-Burman language family 590 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Revolutionary Party” Case theocratic period 180, 533–535, Timur 540–541, 632c, 633c Toghus Khatun 541 402 635c Blue Horde 42 Tömör-Ochir, Daramyn 542 Oirats 420 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Chaghatay Khanate 85, 88 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 Subei Mongol Autonomous banners 32 Golden Horde 208 Mongolian People’s Republic County 521 farming 176 India and the Mongols 239 378 Xinjiang Mongols 593 history 217 Islamic sources on the Mongol MPRP 382 törö 82 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 269 Empire 254 Soviet Union and Mongolia 515 torture 105 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Jalayir 258 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 549 Touman 358 269 Mogholi language and people Tongliao municipality 309, trade money, modern 360 359 542–543 Bao’an language and people 33 Mongolia, State of 369 Moghulistan 359 Tong Yabghu Qaghan 553 Black Death 41 rulers 628t Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Toñuquq 630c Bulghars 53 Shangdu 497 Qara’unas 448 topography 383–384 Chinese trade and moneylend- Uws province 578 quda 461 Toqa-Tëmur 293 ing 96–97 Theravada Buddhism 71 Russia and the Mongol Empire Toqtamish 543, 633c Crimea 121 “third neighbors” 187 481 Blue Horde 42 decollectivization 141 Three Guards 535–536, 633c Toqtamish 543 Golden Horde 208 market economy 158 Borjigid 45 Tinïbeg 432 Kulikovo Pole, Battle of 322 foreign relations 187 Esen 170, 171 To, Prince 537 Mangghud 343 Golden Horde 205 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous Toboev, Tugultur 65, 635c Russia and the Mongol Empire Il-Khanate 235 County 191 Tödechü jarghuchi 525 481 India and the Mongols 238 Inner Mongolians 246 Töde-Mengü 431 Timur 541 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Khoshuds 310 Toghanchuq 400 Toqto’a 347, 543–544, 632c Region 244 Ming dynasty 355, 356 Toghan-Temür Byzantium and Bulgaria 73 Islam in the Mongol Empire 252 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Blue Horde 41 Crimea 121 Russia and Mongolia 482, 483 Oirats 420 Korea and Mongol Empire 320 East Asian sources on the Soviet Union and Mongolia Qing dynasty 449 lamas and monasticism 328 Mongol Empire 154 515–516 tribute system 546 Ming dynasty 354, 355 Golden Horde 203, 205, 206 tribute system 546 three jewels 490, 491 Manchuria and the Mongol Islam in the Mongol Empire Ulaanbaatar 566–567 Three Kingdoms 95, 198 Empire 342 252 Western Europe and the Mongol “three manly games” 396–397 Northern Yuan dynasty 407 Jamugha 259 Empire 584 Three-Regions Revolution 593 17th-century chronicles 80 Merkid 347 Xia dynasty 590 Three Rivers cattle 78 Six Tümens 505 Noqai 407 trade deficit 157 “Threes of the World” 183, 434, Toqto’a 543 Ong Khan 425 Trân dynasty 579 536 Vietnam 579, 580 Özbeg Khan 431, 432 Transbaikal Buriats 634c throat singing 394, 536–537 Yuan dynasty 609, 610 Qaidu Khan 445 translations Tianni 500 Yuan shi 612 Töregene 544 Academy of Sciences 2 Tianshun 553 Toghoon Taishi 633c Yuan dynasty 609–611 Chinese fiction 95 Tianzhu 633c Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Töregene 544 Chosgi-Odsir 106, 107 Tibetan Buddhism Oirats 420 Arghun Aqa 21 didactic poetry 146 Buddhism in the Mongol taishi 526 Baiju 29 Xianbi 592 Empire 48 Toghrilcha 431 Chinqai 103 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu history 217 Toghril Khan Golden Horde 202 618 Il-Khanate 235 Chinggis Khan 98 Güyüg Khan 212 Trans-Mongolian Railway 545, Köten 321 Jamugha 259 Körgüz 321 636c ‘Phags-pa Lama 437 Kereyid 296 Köten 321 Choir city 106 Qing dynasty 454 Tatars 529 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud Darkhan city 133 religion 466 Toghus Khatun 225, 226, 296, Beg 340 East Gobi province 156 religious policy in the Mongol 541–542 Mongol Empire 365 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Empire 470 Toghus-Temür 407 Naiman 398 Region 242 674 Index Trans-Mongolian Railway Tsend, L. 382, 549 Tundutov, Erdeni 289 dating systems 75 (continued) Tsengde, Duke 136 Tundutov, Ölzätä 290 Il-Khanate 235 Kyakhta city 323 Tsenggünjab 12, 103 Tundutov, Tseren David 290 religion 468 Selenge province 493 Tseren, Prince 180, 623 Tuqtani 542 White Month 585 Shiliin Gol 501 Tseren-Dondug 288, 550 Tuq-Temür zud 621 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 Tseren Ubashi 311 Qipchaqs 456 Twelve Deeds of the Buddha 107 Yum-Jaagiin Tsedenbal 548 Tserindorji 549–550 Qonggirad 457 “Two Customs” 558–559 Trans-Siberian Railway 635c General Danzin 130 Yuan dynasty 608–609 Altan Khan, Code of 10 Buriats 66 Gendün 195 Türk Empires 553–555, 554, 630c Chaghan teüke 82 Ulan-Ude 571, 572 Great Purge 210 Buriats 61 Jewel Translucent Sutra 267 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Mongolian People’s Party, Third calendars 74 religion 466 Area 576, 577 Congress of 376 dating systems 75 Second Conversion 491 Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels 336, “Busybody” Sharab 498 North Khangai province 411 Tyang 445 545–546 General Sükhebaatur 522 Oirats 420 tribute system 546–547, 630c Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji 550, religion 467 U ‘Abbasid Caliphate 2 634c Rouran 478 Ubashi, Tsebeg 180, 288, 634c Altan Khan 10 Ayuuki Khan 27 tribute system 546 Uchirtai Gurwan Tolgoi 636c Buriats 61, 62 Galdan Boshogtu Khan 194 Tuvans 556 Udinsk 572 China and Mongolia 90 Kazakhs 294 twelve-animal cycle 558 Ugra River 633c Chinese trade and moneylend- Qing dynasty 451 Uighur Empire 560 Uighur Empire 560–561, 630c ing 96 Torghuds 545 yurt 615 Buddhism in the Mongol Esen 170 Upper Mongols 574 Turkestan 630c, 631c, 632c Empire 48 Ewenkis 172 Tsogtu Taiji 550 census in the Mongol Empire calendars 74 Golden Horde 203, 205 Törö-Baikhu Güüshi Khan 211 78 dating systems 75 hunting and fishing 228 Ligdan Khan 334–335 Khorazm 306 Kitans 315 Il-Khanate 235 Byambyn Rinchen 476 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud North Khangai province 411 Ming dynasty 355 Upper Mongols 573 Beg 339–340 Ordu-Baligh 428 Mongol tribe 390 Tsokhiotyn Am 165 Ögedei Khan 418 Orkhon River 429 Oirats 422 Tsong-kha-pa 466 Qara-Khitai 445 runic script and inscriptions Russia and Mongolia 482 Tsydenov, Samtan 66, 67 Turkey 555 478 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Tügeemel Amurjuulagchi 311 Baiju 29 Tuvans 556 502 Tughlugh-Temür 359, 360, 540 Georgia 196 twelve-animal cycle 558 social classes in the Mongol Tuhua 599–600 Hüle’ü 225–226 zud 621 Empire 506 Tu language and people 551–552 Il-Khanate 231 Uighuristan 85, 86 Uighur Empire 561 Bao’an language and people 33, Khorazm 308 Uighur-Mongolian script ix, Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous 34 Köse Da_i, Battle of 321 561–563, 630c, 635c, 636c Area 577 Black Death 41 Lesser Armenia 331 Altaic language family 8 Xia dynasty 591 medicine, traditional 345 Mongol Empire 365 Arghun Aqa 21 Yogur people 601 Tümed 552–553, 633c Ögedei Khan 417 Ariq-Qaya 22 Zünghars 622, 623 Altan Khan 10 Turkic languages 7–8, 602 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 trumpets 395 banners 31 Turpan 563, 564 Buriat 55 Tsaghan Nom-un Khan 490 Baotou 34 Tüshiyetu Khan Buriat Republic 58 tsam 547, 634c Confucianism 118 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 Buriats 64 dance 128 Fuxin Mongol Autonomous East Gobi province 156 Chinggis Khan 99 Danzin-Rabjai 131 County 191 Tutugh 556 clear script 111 literature 336 Höhhot 219 Qaidu Khan 445 1940 Constitution 119 Qing dynasty 453 Khowd city 311 Qipchaqs 456 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 121, Tibetan culture in Mongolia Mandukhai Sechen Khatun 342 Qubilai Khan 459, 460 122 537 Ming dynasty 356 Siberia and the Mongol Empire Agwang Dorzhiev 151 White Month 585 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 502 traditional education 159, 160 Tsebegjab 332 Qonggirad 457 Yuan dynasty 607 folk poetry and tales 183 Tsedenbal, Yumjaagiin 547–549, Second Conversion 490 Tuul River 556 funerary customs 191 548, 636c, 637c Six Tümens 505 Central province 80 Kalmyk-Oirat language and Academy of Sciences 3 Three Guards 536 Kereyid 295 script 287 armed forces of Mongolia 24 throat singing 536 Khalkha 300 Körgüz 320 Jambyn Batmönkh 36 Tu language and people 551 Khentii province 305 leftist period 329 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 Ulaanchab 569 Orkhon River 428 literature 335 Marshal Choibalsang 105 Ulanfu 570 palaces of the Bodga Khan 434 Mongol Empire 367 Cyrillic-script Mongolian 122 Upper Mongols 573 Ulaanbaatar 565 Mongolian language 374 Dashiin Damba 126 Yogur people 601 Tuvans 556–557 Mongolian People’s Republic 1990 Democratic Revolution tümen 19, 41, 139 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 379 142 Tümen, S.-D. 290 Buriats 61 Mongolic language family 386 Dörböds 150 Tümen Jasagtu Khan 411, 490, 536 Darkhad 132 New Turn policy 405 foreign relations 186 Tümugen, princess 521 Dukha 153 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Great Purge 210 Tumu Incident 553 hunting and fishing 228 Oirats 421 Mongolian People’s Republic China and Mongolia 91 Khöwsgöl province 312 prosody 441 377, 380 Chinese colonization 93 Mongolian plateau 384 Qing dynasty 449 MPRP 381 Eight White Yurts 163 music 394 Byambyn Rinchen 476 Bazaryn Shirendew 501 Esen 170 Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 Secret History of the Mongols Sino-Soviet alliance 504 Inner Mongolians 246 throat singing 536 493 Sino-Soviet split 504–505 Ming dynasty 355 twelve-animal cycle 557–558 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 Soviet Union and Mongolia Ordos 427 astrology 26 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 515, 516, 518 Tun Bagha Tarqan 560 calendars 74 square script 519 Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Tundutov, Chüchei 289 17th-century chronicles 80 Tibetan language and script 538 Index 675 Upper Mongols 574 literature 337 Andrei Urupkheevich Subei Mongol Autonomous Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Merse 348 Modogoiev 358 County 521 Area 577 mining 357 naadam 397 Tibetan culture in Mongolia Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu Mongolia, State of 370, 372 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 537 618 Mongolian language 374 Selenge River 494 Torghuds 545 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Mongolian People’s Party, Third Bazaryn Shirendew 501 Tu language and people 551 Uighurs 563–565 Congress of 376 Soviet Union and Mongolia yurt 613 Chinggis Khan 100 Mongolian People’s Republic 516 urbanization Christianity in the Mongol 378 Trans-Mongolian Railway 545 Golden Horde 208 Empire 107 MPRP 382 Uliastai 572 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Kereyid 296 MPRP, Seventh Congress of 383 amban 11, 12 Region 242 Kitans 315 music 394 Chinese trade and moneylend- Mongolian People’s Republic Köse Da_i, Battle of 321 naadam 396 ing 96 379 money in the Mongol Empire names, personal 399 Kyakhta Trilateral Treaty 324 urban planning 616 361 New Policies 403 Magsurjab 339 Uriankhai, D. 337 Möngke Khan 364 Noyon Uul 412 New Policies 403 Ürin Tuyaa (B. Rinchen) 636c names, personal 398 palaces of the Bodga Khan 434 Qing dynasty 453 Uriyangkhai 9 nökör 406 religion 466 1911 Restoration 471 Uriyangqadai Oirats 420 1921 Revolution 472 Russia and Mongolia 483 Aju 6 ortoq 429 revolutionary period 474, 476 theocratic period 533 Möngke Khan 363 Qara-Khitai 445 Russia and Mongolia 483 Tuvans 556 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 quda 461 Na. Sainchogtu 487 Zakhachin 617 Vietnam 579 semuren 494 “Busybody” Sharab 497 Zawkhan province 618 Yunnan 612 social classes in the Mongol Sino-Mongolian War 503 Ulugh-Beg 541 Urus Khan 293, 543 Empire 507 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 ulugh ev 83 Uru’udai 499 square script 520 Sino-Soviet split 504 Ulugh-Muhammad 481 Ust’-Orda Buriat Autonomous Area tea 530 social classes in the Qing period Unashiri 564 180, 576–578 tenggeri 532 508 unemployment 106, 155, 169 Üsün 406 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Soviet Union and Mongolia Ungern-Sternberg, Baron Roman Utai, Prince 471, 503 539 514, 515, 517 Fëdorovich von 572–573 Uuba 449 twelve-animal cycle 558 General Sükhebaatur 522 armed forces of Mongolia 23 Üüshin 153 Xia dynasty 590 theocratic period 533 Bodô 43 Uways, Sheikh 258, 632c Yogur people 601 Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 542 Jalkhanza Khutugtu Uws, Lake 578 Üizeng banner 195 Trans-Mongolian Railway 545 Damdinbazar 258 climate 111 Üjümüchin 565, 582 Tserindorji 549 Japan and the modern Mongols environmental protection 166 clothing and dress 114 Tuul River 556 262 Great Lakes Basin 209 lamas and monasticism 325 Ürjingiin Yadamsüren 598 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 269 Khöwsgöl, Lake 312 Ligdan Khan 335 yurt 616 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Mongolian plateau 384 Mongolian language 373 Ulaanbagana 402 270 Uws province 578 Shiliin Gol 500 Ulaanchab 569–570 Magsurjab 339 Bayad 37 Ulaanbaatar 565–569, 566, 568, Baotou 34 1921 Revolution 472, 473 Bayan-Ölgii province 39 585, 634c Bayannuur league 39 theocratic period 533 Khotong 311 Amur 12 Chakhar 88 Uliastai 572 Khowd city 311 animal husbandry and Eight White Yurts 164 United Nations (UN) 573, 636c Mingghad 357 nomadism 16 Mongolian language 373 foreign relations 186, 187 MPRP 382 astrology 26 Mongolian plateau 383 Japan and the modern Mongols Oirats 419, 423 bariach 36 “New Inner Mongolian People’s 263 Zünghars 624 Buddhist fine arts 52 Revolutionary Party” Case Mongolian People’s Republic buuz 72 402 377 V cashmere 76 New Policies 402 World War II 588 Vajradjara (sculpture) 272 Central province 80 New Schools movements 404 United States (U.S.) 637c Vajrapani 237, 414 China and Mongolia 93 Önggüd 425 Chinese trade and moneylend- Vajravarmi, Prince 612 Chinggis Khan controversy 102 Sino-Mongolian War 503 ing 97 Valdimirtsov, Boris 217, 218 Chinggünjab’s Rebellion 102 Ulaankhot 305 market economy 158 Vasilii I, Grand Prince 481, 633c Marshal Choibalsang 103 Ulanfu 570, 636c foreign relations 186 Veritable Records 612 climate 112 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Mongolian People’s Republic Veritable Records 385–386, 519 1992 Constitution 120 Daur people 137 377 Vietnam 579–580, 632c Dashiin Damba 126 Eight White Yurts 164 universities 571–572 East Asian sources on the Darkhan city 133 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Upper Mongols 573–576, 575m, Mongol Empire 155 1990 Democratic Revolution Region 244, 245 634c Qubilai Khan 460 144 Inner Mongolians 248, 250, amban 11 South Seas 513 Agwang Dorzhiev 151 251 food and drink 184 Yuan dynasty 605 modern economy 157 Khafungga 299 Haixi Mongol and Tibetan virginity 581 funerary customs 191 “New Inner Mongolian People’s Autonomous Prefecture 214 “Virgin Lands” agricultural cam- Great Purge 210 Revolutionary Party” Case Henan Mongol Autonomous paign 176 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 267 401 County 216 Vladislav 548, 549 Kalmyks 290 Shiliin Gol 501 Kalmyk-Oirat language and Volga river 180, 633c, 636c Kazakhs 294 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 script 286 Volga Tatars 208 Khalkha 300 Trans-Mongolian Railway 545 khans and regents 627t Voroshilov, Kliment 210 Khentii province 305 Tümed 552 Khoshuds 310 Kyakhta city 323 Ulan-Ude 571, 571–572 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 W lamas and monasticism 328 Buriat Republic 56 oboo 414 Wachir Tümei 312 leftist period 330 Buriats 62 Oirats 419 Wallace, Henry 186 Lhümbe Case 332 Kyakhta city 323 Qing dynasty 451 wall building 356 676 Index Wan’angong 446–447 clothing and dress 113, 115 wool trade 17th-century chronicles 80 Wandanov 339 Daur people 136 Chinese trade and moneylend- Song dynasty 509 Wang Cho˘n 320, 459 fire cult 178 ing 97 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Wang Chonggu 356 food and drink 184 Hulun Buir 227 Tibet and the Mongol Empire Wang E 338 Il-Khanate 235 World Trade Organization (WTO) 538 Wang Guowei 499 jewelry 265 187 Tolui 542 Wang Shixian 321 khadag 298 World War I “Two Customs” 558 Wang Sim 320 Mongolia, State of 373 China and Mongolia 91 Uighurs 563 Wang Sun naadam 396 Japan and the modern Mongols Yogur people 601 Korea and Mongol Empire 320 quriltai 462 262 Xia Gui 38 Korea and the Mongol Empire religion 467 Russia and Mongolia 484 Xianbi 591–592, 630c 319 sheep 498 World War II 587–588 China and Mongolia 90 Wang Tongchun 94 social classes in the Qing period animal husbandry and Confucianism 117 Wang-un Süme 101, 636c 507 nomadism 16 khan 302 Wang Wentong General Sükhebaatur 523 armed forces of Mongolia 23–24 khatun 304 Confucianism 118 tea 530 Buriats 68 Kitans 315 Li Tan’s Rebellion 335 tenggeri 532 cashmere 76 medicine, traditional 344 paper currency in the Mongol White Old Man 586, 586–587 China and Mongolia 92 Modun 358 Empire 435 bariach 36 Chinggis Khan controversy 101 Rouran 478 Wang Yi 612 Mergen Gegeen, Third, Marshal Choibalsang 105 Tu language and people 551 Wang Zhe 89 Lubsang-Dambi-Jalsan 346 modern economy 156, 157 Xiandebu 501 Wang Zhen 553 Third Mergen Gegeen Lubsang- farming 176 Xiangyang, siege of 592, 631c Wang Zhu 5 Dambi-Jalsan 346 flags 179 Aju 6 Wanyan 318 religion 466 foreign relations 186 Ariq-Qaya 22 Wanyan Aguda 275, 630c shamanism 496 Inner Mongolians 248 Yuan dynasty 607 Wanyan Eke 282 tsam 547 Japan and the modern Mongols Xiao Daheng 525 Wanyan Fuxing 620 White Month 585 262–263 Xiaowendi 592 Wanyan Hada White Pagoda (Beijing) 49 Kalmyks 291 Xiaozhuang 451 Jin dynasty 277 White Russians 635c mining 357 Xia Yan 356 Kaifeng, siege of 282 Bodô 43 Mongolia, State of 369 Xieli Qaghan 553, 630c Wanyan Jing 275 Buriats of Mongolia and Inner Mongolian People’s Republic 377 Xie Qia 511 Wanyan Shouxu 282 Mongolia 70 Soviet Union and Mongolia Xinjiang 630c, 634c, 636c Wanyan Xiang Marshal Choibalsang 104 514, 516 Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Jin dynasty 275 Dambijantsan 127 Trans-Mongolian Railway 545 Prefecture 38 Tatars 529 Jibzundamba Khutugtu 269 Tuvans 557 Borotala 46 Wanyan Xun 277 Magsurjab 339 Ulan-Ude 572 Yuan dynasty 605 Wanyan Yongji 275, 277 money, modern 361 United Nations 573 Xinjiang Mongols 593–595, 594m Water Tatars 341–342 Revocation of Autonomy 471 White Month 586 Oirats 419 Ways Khan 1921 Revolution 472 worship 414–415 White Month 586 Esen 170 Elbek-Dorzhi Rinchino 477 wrestling 588, 588–589 Xiongnu 595–597, 630c Moghulistan 360 Russia and Mongolia 484 Kalmyks 292 animal husbandry and weaponry Soviet Union and Mongolia 514 naadam 396–397 nomadism 16 armed forces of Mongolia 23, theocratic period 533 Teb Tenggeri 531 decimal organization 139 24 Baron von Ungern-Sternberg “Writers’ Circle” military of the Mongol Empire artisans in the Mongol Empire 572 revolutionary period 475 348 25 Tsyben Zhamtsarano 619 Byambyn Rinchen 476 Modun 358 hunting and fishing 229 White Tatars 529 Wuhai 589 music 395 military of the Mongol Empire “White Tatars” 424 Wu Heling 141 Noyon Uul 412 349–350 wildlife Wu Quanjie 528 Ordos 427 Oirats 422 fauna 177 Wu Tao 402 Orkhon River 429 weather magic 495 food and drink 183–184 Wu Xian 500 prehistory 440 weddings 581–583, 582 William of Rubruck 587 Rouran 478 inje 240 Ariq-Böke 21 X tenggeri 532 social classes in the Qing period artisans in the Mongol Empire Xanadu (Samuel Taylor Coleridge) tribute system 546 507 24 497 Türk Empires 553 week, days of 74–75 Golden Horde 203 Xia dynasty 590–591, 630c, 631c Xianbi 591 Wenceslas, King of Bohemia 333 koumiss 322 Alashan 7 yurt 615 Weng Wanda 356 Möngke Khan 362–364 Buddhism in the Mongol Xuantong emperor 454 Wen Tianxiang 511 Naiman 397 Empire 48 Xuanzang 209 Western Europe and the Mongol Oghul-Qaimish 419 China and Mongolia 90 Xu Da 610 Empire 583–584 ordo 426 Chinggis Khan 100 Xu Shuzheng William of Rubruck 587 Qara-Qorum 446 Chinqai 103 China and Mongolia 91 Western medicine 345, 346 shamanism 495 Eight White Yurts 163 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Eighth Western Türks 630c Western Europe and the Mongol Kereyid 295, 296 270 Wheel of Samsara 51 Empire 583 Kitans 316 Revocation of Autonomy 471 “white foods” 183 yurt 615 Köten 321 Xu Ting 100 The White History. See Chaghan wine 184 military of the Mongol Empire teüke Wise Empress Mandukhai. See 352 Y White Khan 482 Mandukhai Sechen Khatun Mongol Empire 365 Yadamsüren, Ürjingiin 221, 598 White Month 584–586, 585 witchcraft 495 music 395 Yahbh-Allaha, Mar 598 Buriats 69 women’s issues 379 names, personal 398 Christianity in the Mongol buuz 72 family 175 Ong Khan 425 Empire 108 calendars 74 family life 173–174 Ordos 427 Ghazan Khan 199 Marshal Choibalsang 105 Wo˘njong 320 Qara-Qorum 446 Rashid ad-Din Fazl-ullah 465 Index 677 Yailaq 407 Secret History of the Mongols Ligdan Khan 334–335 Yumsunov, Wandan 65 yaks 14, 76, 77 492 Manchuria and the Mongol Yunli, Prince 452 Yalta Conference 92, 588 social classes in the Mongol Empire 342 Yunnan 613, 631c Yamantaka 491 Empire 505 Merkid 347 Black Death 41 Yampildorji Tatars 529 military of the Mongol Empire military of the Mongol Empire Chinqai 102 Tayichi’ud 530 349 351 Yan’an 570 Yisüi (empress) 416, 529 Ming dynasty 354, 355 Ming dynasty 355 Yang Huaizhong 340 Yisülün 529 money in the Mongol Empire Möngke Khan 363 Yangjima 522 Yisü-Möngke 83, 419 361 Marco Polo 438 Yanjing. See Daidu Yisüngge 20 Mongol Empire 369 provinces in the Mongol Empire Yan Shi 282, 393, 599 Yisün-Temür 632c Mongolian sources on the 442 Yao Shu 335 El-Temür 166 Mongol Empire 386 Qubilai Khan 457 Yasa’ur 448 Islam in the Mongol Empire 253 Naiman 398 Sangha 488 yastuq 368, 435, 599 Jingim 278 Noqai 407 Sayyid Ajall 489 years, cycles of 75 ortoq 430 Northern Yuan dynasty 408 Vietnam 579 Yekhe Juu league 164 Ossetes 430 Öchicher 415 Yunus Khan 360 Yekü, Prince 319 Temüder 532 Oirats 420 yurt 125, 613–616, 614, 615 Yellow Uighurs 601, 602 Yogur languages and people ordo 426 Abatai Khan 1 Yeltsin, Boris 286 601–602 Ossetes 430 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 4 Yelü Ahai 599–600 Yongle 408 paper currency in the Mongol animal husbandry and Yelü Chucai 600–601, 631c Yongzheng 333, 452 Empire 435 nomadism 15, 16 appanage system 18 Yonzin Khambo 105 provinces in the Mongol Empire artisans in the Mongol Empire astrology 25 yörööl and magtaal 602–603 442 24 Buddhism in the Mongol horse racing 222 Qaidu Khan 444 Buriats 63 Empire 48 weddings 582 Qing dynasty 449 camels 75 calendars 74 wrestling 589 Qonggirad 456 Darkhad 132 census in the Mongol Empire You Taizhong 250 Qubilai Khan 459 Eight White Yurts 161–165 78 Youth League 195 quda 461 funerary customs 189, 191 Master Changchun 89 Ysyk Köl, Lake 632c quriltai 462 Golden Horde 206 Chinqai 103 Yuan 320 religion 466 Kitans 318 Confucianism 117 Yuan dynasty 603–612, 604m, 608, religious policy in the Mongol koumiss 321 East Asian sources on the 609, 631c, 632c, 633c Empire 469 matrilineal clans 344 Mongol Empire 154 appanage system 18 Russia and the Mongol Empire military of the Mongol Empire Jin dynasty 277, 278 Ariq-Böke 22 480 350 Kaifeng, siege of 282 artisans in the Mongol Empire Second Conversion 490 Mogholi language and people Kitans 319 25 Secret History of the Mongols 359 Mahmud Yalavach and Mas’ud astrology 25 493 Mongolia, State of 372 Beg 340 bKa’-’gyur and bsTan-’gyur 40 semuren 494 Mongolian People’s Republic massacres and the Mongol Bolor erikhe 44 shamanism 495 379 Conquest 343 Buddhism in the Mongol Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 nökör 406 Ögedei Khan 417, 418 Empire 48, 49 Siberia and the Mongol Empire ongghon 423, 424 Qara-Qorum 446 census in the Mongol Empire 502 ordo 426 scapulimancy 489 78 social classes in the Qing period Ordu-Baligh 428 Shimo Ming’an and Xiandebu Chaghatay Khanate 86 507 privatization 441 501 China and Mongolia 90, 91 Song dynasty 511 religion 467 Sübe’etei Ba’atur 521 Christianity in the Mongol South Seas 513 1911 Restoration 470 Taoism in the Mongol Empire Empire 107 taishi 526 Saray and New Saray 489 528 Chuban 109 tammachi 527 Second Conversion 491 Yelü Ahai and Tuhua 600 Confucianism 118 Tibet and the Mongol Empire shamanism 496 Yelü Dashi 445, 630c darqan 133 540 sheep 498 Yëlü Diela 314 darughachi 134 Tibetan language and script 538 Shiliin Gol 500 Yelü Liuge 341 decimal organization 139 tribute system 546 tenggeri 532 Yelü Zhilugu 445 East Asian sources on the Tu language and people 551 White Month 586 Yergeni Highlands 283, 285, 286 Mongol Empire 154, 155 Uighur-Mongolian script 562 yörööl and magtaal 603 Yigu 402, 403 El-Temür 166 Uighurs 564 yurt carts Yi In-im 320 funerary customs 190 Upper Mongols 573 camels 75 Yila Dashi 318 Golden Horde 205, 206 Xia dynasty 591 cattle 77 Yila Yixin 318 history 216–217 yastuq 599 yurt 615, 616 yisak. See fur tribute Ibn Battuta 230 Yelü Chucai 600 Yu Zijun 356, 633c Yi So˘ng-gye 320 Il-Khanate 231, 233 Yuan shi 612 Yisüder 234, 407, 633c Injannashi 239 Yuan shi 612 Z Yisügei Ba’atur 601, 630c Inner Mongolians 246 Chosgi-Odsir 106 Zabel 331 Borjigid 45 Islam in the Mongol Empire Compendium of Chronicles 117 Zahir-ud-Din Babur 541 Börte Üjin 46 253 Confucianism 118 Zakhachin 617 Chinggis Khan 97, 98 Jalayir 257 East Asian sources on the Khowd province 312 Eight White Yurts 163 jam 259 Mongol Empire 155 scapulimancy 490 Jalayir 257 jarghuchi 264 Möngke Khan 364 Zünghars 622 Kereyid 296 Jin dynasty 278 Mongolian sources on the Zanzabar 52, 179, 300, 633c Menggeser Noyan 346 Kereyid 296 Mongol Empire 386 Zardyhan, Q. 294 Merkid 347 keshig 297 Shengwu qinzheng lu 499 zasag 617–618 Mongol tribe 391 khans and regents 625t Sübe’etei Ba’atur 520 banners 30–32 Ö’elün Üjin 415 Kitans 319 Yuan dynasty 603, 610 Chinese colonization 94 Ong Khan 425 Korea and the Mongol Empire Yuan Shikai 246, 247, 454 Khalkha 300 Qonggirad 456 320 Yuezhi tribe 358 “Lament of Toghan-Temür” 329 678 Index zasag (continued) Gendün 196 massacres and the Mongol Qing dynasty 452 Magsurjab 339 Geser 198 Conquest 343 Byambyn Rinchen 476 Qing dynasty 451 lamas and monasticism 328 Zhongtong currency 435 World War II 587 social classes in the Qing period literature 337 Zhongxing 591 Zünghars 624 507 MPRP 380 Zhou Daguan 513 Züngharia taiji 526 New Schools movements 404 Zhou Enlai Flight of the Kalmyks 180 Zasagtu Khan New Turn policy 405 “New Inner Mongolian People’s Galdan Boshogtu Khan 193 Khalkha 300 1921 Revolution 472 Revolutionary Party” Case Törö-Baikhu Güüshi Khan 211 Khalkha jirum 301 revolutionary period 475 402 Khotoghoid 310 theocratic period 533, 535 Sino-Soviet alliance 504 Zünghars 621–624, 623, 634c Zasagtu Khan Subadai 389 Zhang Dehui 458 Sino-Soviet split 504 Altai Uriyangkhai 9 Zasagtu Khan Tsenggün 451 Zhangjiakou 249, 636c Zhou Hui 250 Amursanaa 13 Zasagtu Khan Tsewangjab 452 Zhang Juzheng 356 Zhu Di 355 appanage system 19 Zawkhan province 618 Zhang Liusun 528 Zhu Xi 118, 470 Ayuuki Khan 27 Khotoghoid 310 Zhang Rong 352 Zhu Yaunzhang Borotala 46 sheep 498 Zhang Rou 619–620 China and Mongolia 91 Dariganga 132 Uliastai 572 Güyüg Khan 212 Ming dynasty 354, 355 Dörböds 150 Zaya Pandita Namkhai-Jamstu Kaifeng, siege of 282 Yuan dynasty 610, 611 Galdan-Tseren 194 618–619, 633c, 634c Muqali 393 Yuan shi 612 Jibzundamba Khutugtu, Second clear script 110, 111 Töregene 544 Zhu Yuanzhang 528 273 Oirats 421, 422 Zhang Shicheng 544 Zinzili Decress 634c Khalkha 300 Sutra of the Wise and Foolish 524 Zhang Shijie 509, 511 zithers 395 Khontong 310 Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels 545 Zhanibekov, Vladimir A. 518 Zoljargal, N. 441 Khowd province 311 Zen Buddhism 48 Zhao Bi 340, 457–459 Zorig 548, 549 Oirats 421 Zeng Xian 356 Zhao Gong 390, 529 Zorig, Sanjaasürengiin 143, 144, rulers 628t Zhamsuev, Bayr B. 4 Zhengdong 320, 633c 370, 620–621 Russia and Mongolia 482 Zhamtsarano, Tsyben Zheng He 369 Zoroastrians and the Mongol Torghuds 545 Zhamtsaranovich 619 Zhizheng currency 435, 632c Empire 368, 469 Tsewang-Rabtan Khung-Taiji Academy of Sciences 2 Zhongdu. See Daidu Zubus 295 550 Aga Buriat Autonomous Area 4 Zhongdu, sieges of 620, 631c zud 621, 630c, 637c Upper Mongols 574 Bodô 42 Daidu 123 horses 224 Xinjiang Mongols 593 Buriats 66 Jabar Khoja 257 MPRP 383 zurag. See Mongol zurag

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