Tetanus

Safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of GSK Biologicals' hexavalent DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine (Infanrix)hexa) was assessed when used for primary vaccination at 3, 4 and 5 months of age (N = 2163), compared to the separate administration of DTPa-IPV/Hib and HBV vaccines (N = 720). A similar safety and reactogenicity profile was demonstrated for both vaccine regimens, as well as a good immune response for all antigen components. By offering protection against six diseases in a series of single injections, the hexavalent DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccine was shown to be a safe, well tolerated and immunogenic alternative to primary immunization with licensed separately administered vaccines.

Introduction: Nigeria remains among the few countries that are yet to achieve eradication of neonatal tetanus in the world despite the availability of an effective vaccine. This study investigated immunity against tetanus in primiparous mothers and neonates at birth, and identified associated factors. Methods: this cross-sectional study involved consecutive selection of 244 primiparous mother-neonate pairs (119 from rural areas, 125 from urban areas, 137 male neonates and 107 female neonates) delivered at primary healthcare facilities in Ibadan, Nigeria. Socio-demographic characteristics, obstetric history, immunisation and birthweight were obtained from mothers by interview. A validated immunochromatographic rapid diagnostic test kit was used to test for immunity against tetanus. Positive and negative results were interpreted as protective immunity against tetanus (PIaT) and non-protective immunity against tetanus (NPIaT), respectively. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square and logistic regression at p = 0.05. Results: the mean age of mothers was 27.9±3.4 years (range: 20-33) and median birthweight was 2700g (range: 1760-3300). Of the 244 mothers, 198 (81.1%) received at least two doses of tetanus toxoid injection during pregnancy and prevalence of NPIaT and PIaT was 28.7% and 71.3%, respectively. The prevalence of PIaT was significantly higher among mothers in urban areas (n= 96; 80.7%) than rural (n=78; 62.4%), p<0.001.The prevalence of NPIaT among neonates was 36.5% (n= 89). Predictors of NPIaT among neonates were residence in rural LGA (OR = 2.22; 95% CI = 1.23-3.99) and maternal tetanus immunisation <2 doses (OR = 11.68; 95% CI = 4.05-21.75). Conclusion: lack of protective immunity against tetanus among neonates of primiparous women in Ibadan is prevalent and a more conscientious enforcement of routine tetanus prevention practices is needed.

Clostridium tetani, the etiologic agent of tetanus, produces a toxin that causes spastic paralysis in humans and other vertebrates. This study was aimed for isolation, identification, and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility of C. tetani from clinically diagnosed tetanus patients. Isolation was done from deep-punctured tissues of the foot and arm injuries of 80 clinically diagnosed tetanus patients from the Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences hospital. We successfully screened out five C. tetani isolates out of 80 samples based on the strain-specific characteristics confirmed through biochemical testing and toxin production. A disc diffusion method was used for antimicrobial susceptibilities and C. tetani isolates showed susceptibility to cefoperazone, chloramphenicol, metronidazole, penicillin G, and tetracycline, but were found to be resistant to erythromycin and ofloxacin. During animal testing, all the infected mice developed symptoms of tetanus. The results showed t...

Introduction: tetanus is a disease caused by a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium tetani. It is characterized clinically by generalized stiffness and muscle spasms capable of causing respiratory arrest and death. The high-risk population includes older adults, diabetics, injection drug users, and the unvaccinated. The diagnosis of tetanus is increasingly rare, with the implementation of compulsory vaccination programs it has been possible to reduce the incidence of this disease worldwide; however, it continues to have significant morbidity and mortality.
Objective: to describe the case of a male patient with generalized tetanus in order to reinforce the relevance of vaccination, prophylaxis, early diagnosis and timely treatment.
Clinic case: 18-year-old male patient admitted to the emergency department of a primary care center 10 days after wounding his lower right limb, which progressed to fever, trismus, hypertonia and generalized muscle contractions. His immunization schedule was unknown and he lacked tetanus prophylaxis; Therefore, based on the history and the clinical picture, a diagnosis of accidental generalized tetanus was made, treatment was instituted, and the patient was admitted to the Intensive Care Unit. The neurological manifestations were graves; however, he progressed satisfactorily until complete resolution of the condition and was subsequently discharged.
Conclusions: despite the fact that tetanus is a pathology that doctors do not usually see in their clinical practice, it is a serious infection that still represents an important diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. The disease can be completely prevented by vaccination and proper wound care.

RESUMEN
Introducción: el tétanos es una enfermedad causada por una toxina producida por la bacteria Clostridium tetani. Se caracteriza clínicamente por rigidez generalizada y espasmos musculares capaces de causar paro respiratorio y muerte. La población de alto riesgo incluye a los adultos mayores, los diabéticos, los usuarios de drogas inyectables y las personas no vacunadas. El diagnóstico de tétanos es cada vez más raro, con la implementación de programas de vacunación obligatoria se ha logrado disminuir la incidencia de esta enfermedad a nivel mundial; no obstante, sigue teniendo una morbimortalidad significativa.
Objetivo: describir el caso de un paciente masculino con tétanos generalizado con el fin de reforzar la relevancia de la vacunación, profilaxis, su diagnóstico precoz y tratamiento oportuno.
Caso clínico: paciente masculino de 18 años de edad que ingresa al servicio de urgencias remitido centro de atención primaria 10 días después de hacerse herida en miembro inferior derecho, que evolucionó hasta presentar fiebre, trismo, hipertonía y contracciones musculares generalizadas. Su esquema de inmunizaciones era desconocido y carecía de profilaxis antitetánica; por lo tanto, con base a los antecedentes y el cuadro clínico se hizo diagnóstico de tétanos generalizado accidental, se instauró tratamiento y se trasladó a la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos. Las manifestaciones neurológicas fueron graves; sin embargo, evolucionó satisfactoriamente hasta la resolución completa del cuadro y fue dado de alta posteriormente.
Conclusión: a pesar de que el tétanos es una patología que los médicos no ven usualmente en su práctica clínica, es una infección grave que todavía representa un importante desafío diagnóstico y terapéutico. La enfermedad se puede prevenir completamente mediante la vacunación y el cuidado adecuado de las heridas.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence and correlates of diphtheria and tetanus in Edirne, Turkey. Tetanus and diphtheria antitoxin levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Among 99 participants, a diphtheria antitoxin level of &gt;or=0.1 IU/mL was found in 97 (98%), while 2 (2%) had antitoxin levels of 0.011-0.099 IU/mL. The geometric mean titres (GMTs) in men were statistically higher. Among 295 participants, a tetanus antitoxin level of &gt;or=0.1 IU/mL was found in 291 (98.6%), while 4 (1.4%) had antitoxin levels of 0.011-0.099 IU/mL. Participants who had completed secondary school or higher education showed higher GMT values. Additionally, participants vaccinated within the previous 5 years had higher GMT values and the percentage of participants who had completed secondary school or higher education was higher among them. GMTs decrease with increasing age and increase as the poverty index increases. The average socioeconomic status index o...

Public health initiatives to immunize children and adults have effectively reduced the number of tetanus cases in the USA. However, in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), immigrants from Mexico had a 67% non-protective anti-tetanus antibody (ATA) level. Less work has been conducted among other immigrant populations to determine the extent of this observation. Objective To measure ATA levels among the Korean-American immigrant population. Methods A convenience sample of 50 Korean Americans born outside the USA was recruited to determine the levels of ATA. A non-protective level of ATA was defined as below 0.15 IU/ml. Results The mean age was 59.5 years and 82% were female. There were 43/50 (86% (95% confidence limits 76, 96)) patients with a non-protective ATA level. Those between the ages of 50-59 years (94% were seronegative) and 60 years-highest age (92% were seronegative) were among the least likely to be protected. Neither gender nor a self-reported history of past tetanus immunization or military service predicted protection to tetanus. Discussion In this pilot study we found that 86% of Korean immigrants did not have protective ATA levels, with patients in the 50-59 year age range as unlikely to be protected as the older subjects. Patient reported history was unreliable in determining whether an individual had protective levels. Conclusion The vast majority of sampled Korean American immigrants lack protective ATA levels and are in need of immunization. Additional study is needed to determine the risk of other immigrant groups to tetanus.

To determine the proficiency of the Austrian childhood vaccination schedule to induce long lasting seroprotection against vaccine preventable diseases a seroepidemiological study in 348 children between four and eight years of age was conducted. Antibodies against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, measles, mumps and rubella antigens were assessed in children, who had been vaccinated with hexavalent DTaP-HBV-IPV/Hib vaccines at three, four, five months and in the second year of life and/or MMR vaccines in the second year of life at least once, but mostly twice.

A. Pengertian Tetanus adalah penyakit dengan tanda utama kekakuan otot (spasme) tanpa disertai gangguan kesadaran. Gejala ini bukan disebabkan kuman secara langsung, tetapi sebagai dampak eksotoksin (tetanoplasmin) yang dihasilkan oleh kuman pada sinaps ganglion sambungan sumsum tulang belakang, sambungan neuro muscular (neuro muscular jungtion) dan saraf autonom. (Smarmo 2002) Penyakit infeksi yang disebabkan oleh toksin kuman clostridium tetani, bermanifestasi dengan kejang otot secara paroksisimal dan diikuti oleh kekakuan otot seluruh badan, khususnya otot-otot massester dan otot rangka. Klasifikasi tetanus berdasarkan bentuk klinis yaitu: (Sudoyo Aru, 2009) 1. Tetanus local: Biasanya ditandai dengan otot terasa sakit, lalu timbul rebiditas dan spasme pada bagian proksimal luar. Gejala itu dapat menetap dalam beberapa minggu dan menghilang. 2. Tetanus sefalik: Varian tetanus local yang jarang terjadi. Masa inkubasi 1-2 hari terjadi sesudah otitis media atau luka kepala dan muka. Paling menonjol adalah disfungsi saraf III, IV, VII, IX, dan XI tersering saraf otak VII diikuti tetanus umum. 3. Tetanus general: yang merupakan bentuk paling sering. Spasme otot, kaku kuduk, nyeri tenggorokan, kesulitan membuka mulut, rahang terkunci (trismus), disfagia. Timbul kejang menimbulkan aduksi lengan dan ekstensi ekstremitas bagian bawah. Pada mulanya, spasme berlangsung beberapa detik sampai beberapa menit dan terpisah oleh periode relaksasi. 4. Tetanus neonatorum: biasa terjadi dalam bentuk general dan fatal apabila tidak ditanggani, terjadi pada anak-anak yang dilahirkan dari ibu yang tidak imunisasi secara adekuat, rigiditas, sulit menelan ASI, iritabilitas, spasme. Klasifikasi beratnya tetanus oleh albert (Sudoyo Aru, 2009): 1. Derajat I (ringan): trismus (kekakuan otot mengunyah) ringan sampai sedang, spasitas general, tanpa gangguan pernafasan, tanpa spasme, sedikit atau tanpa disfagia 2. Derajat II (sedang): trismus sedang, rigiditas yang nampak jelas, spasme singkat ringan sampai sedang, gangguan pernapasan sedang RR ≥ 30x/ menit, disfagia ringan. 3. Derajat III (berat): trismus berat, spastisitas generaisata, spasme reflek berkepanjangan, RR ≥ 40x/ menit, serangan apnea, disfagia berat, takikardia ≥ 120. 4. Derajat IV (sangat berat): derajat tiga dengan otomik berat melibatkan sistem kardiovaskuler. Hipotensi berat dan takikardia terjadi perselingan dengan hipotensi dan bradikardia, salah satunya dapat menetap. B. Penyebab Spora bacterium clostridium tetani (C. Tetani). Kuman ini mengeluarkan toxin yang bersifat neurotoksik (tetanospasmin) yang menyebabkan kejang otot dan saraf perifer setempat. Termasuk bakteri gram positif. Bentuk: batang. Terdapat: di tanah, kotoran manusia dan binatang (khususnya kuda) sebagai spora, debu, instrument lain. Spora bersifat dorman dapat bertahan bertahun-tahun (> 40 tahun) C. Tanda dan gejala Periode inkubasi (rentang waktu antara trauma dengan gejala pertama) rata-rata 7-10 hari dengan rentang 1-60 hari. Onset (rentang waktu antara gejala pertama dengan spasme pertama) bervariasi antara 1-7 hari. Minggu pertama: regiditas, spasme otot. Gangguan ototnomik

Background: Cigarette smoking has been linked with the suppression of immune responses and increased susceptibility to numerous infections in humans. Tetanus is also a major public health problem in many countries. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the serum levels of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies in c igarette smoking and healthy non-smoking people .

  Materials and Methods: A total of 100 c igarette smokers and 100 age-matched healthy non-smoker individuals were enrolled in this descriptive study. A blood sample was collected from each participant. The samples were tested for the levels of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies b y use of enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.

  Results: The seroprotective rate of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies in non-smoking group (99%) was significantly higher than that observed in c igarette smoking group (78%, P<0.0001). The mean titer of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies in non-smoking group ( 5.32± 0.26 IU/ml) was also significantly higher than that in smoker subjects ( 1.03 ± 0.16 IU/ml P<0.0001). The mean titer of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies in individuals with smoking duration >10 years was significantly lower than that among smokers with smoking duration ≤10 years (0.59 ± 0.12 IU/ml vs 1.98 ± 0.41 IU/ml P<0.001). The seroprotection rate was also significantly lower in persons with smoking duration >10 years in comparison to smokers with smoking duration ≤10 years (72.1% vs 90.6% P=0.037). The mean titer of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies in individuals with daily smoking >10 cigarettes was also significantly lower in comparison to smokers with daily smoking ≤10 cigarettes (0.68 ± 0.15 IU/ml vs 1.63 ± 0.36 IU/ml P<0.001).

  Conclusion: These results showed lower levels of anti-tetanus toxin antibodies in cigarette smokers which represents c igarette smoking as a risk factor for susceptibility to tetanus. A negative association was also observed between the immunity to tetanus and smoking burden.

Objectives To compare the persistence of measles, mumps, rubella, diphtheria and tetanus antibodies between patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) and healthy controls. Methods Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) and diphtheria-tetanus toxoid (DT)-specifi c immunoglobulin G antibody concentrations were compared between 400 patients with JIA and 2176 healthy controls aged 1-19 years. Stored patient samples from the period 1997-2006 were obtained from one Dutch centre for paediatric rheumatology. Healthy control samples had been evaluated previously in a nationwide cohort. Participants had been vaccinated according to the Dutch immunisation programme. Antibody concentrations were measured by ELISA (MMR) or multiplex immunoassay (DT). Results Corrected for age and the number of vaccinations, lower vaccine-specifi c geometric mean antibody concentrations (GMC) were found in patients with JIA against mumps, rubella, diphtheria and tetanus (p≤0.001). Measles-specifi c GMC were higher (p<0.001) compared with healthy controls. The prevalence of protective antibody concentrations was signifi cantly lower in patients for mumps (OR 0.4; 95% CI 0.3 to 0.6), rubella (OR 0.4; 0.3 to 0.7), diphtheria (OR 0.1; 0.06 to 0.2) and tetanus (OR 0.1; 0.05 to 0.3). Seroprotection rates against measles did not differ between patients and healthy controls (OR 1.4; 0.8 to 2.5). Methotrexate and glucocorticosteroid use did not affect pathogen-specifi c GMC or seroprotection rates. Conclusions Patients with JIA had lower antibody concentrations and seroprotection rates than healthy controls against mumps, rubella, diphtheria and tetanus, but not measles. In these patients, regular assessment of antibody concentrations and further research on responses to other (booster) vaccines are warranted.

A case of Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD) is presented with clinical signs and symptoms on admission resembling neonatal tetanus. Diagnosis had to be differentiated between MSUD and other metabolic disorders and neonatal infections (especially neonatal tetanus because of severe opisthotonos) and generalized seizures of the patient. Early diagnosis of the MSUD patient is very important for effective therapy and better long-term prognosis as well as genetic counselling and prenatal diagnosis for future pregnancies.

Clostridium tetani is the etiologic agent of the muscle-spasming disease tetanus. Despite an effective vaccine, tetanus is an ongoing problem in some developing countries. Diagnosis by bacterial culture is not done because it is generally unnecessary and the entry of route of the bacteria can be inapparent. We attempted to isolate and evaluate C. tetani from the wounds of 84 patients with tetanus. We effectively isolated C. tetani from 45 patients. All strains tested positive by polymerase chain reaction for the gene encoding tetanus neurotoxin. Antimicrobial susceptibilities were determined by disc diffusion and E-test. All C. tetani isolates were susceptible to penicillin and metronidazole but resistant to cotrimoxazole. Despite treatment with high doses of penicillin, C. tetani was isolated after 16 days of intravenous penicillin in two cases. These data show that the intravenous route for penicillin may be inadequate for clearing the infection and emphasizes wound debridement in the treatment of tetanus.

Protection to tetanus is often not optimal in developing countries due to incomplete vaccination schemes, or decreased efficacy of vaccination. In this study we investigated the immunological response to tetanus booster vaccination in school children living in a semi-urban or in a rural area of Gabon. Tetanus-specific total IgG as well as antibody subclasses of the IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4 isotype and the avidity of the dominating IgG1 subclass were determined both before and 1 month after the booster vaccination. In addition, tetanus-specific cytokine responses were determined. We found a polarization towards a T helper 1 (Th1) profile in the semi-urban children, whereas the cytokine responses of the rural children showed a T helper 2 (Th2) skewed response. Furthermore, tetanus-specific antibodies of the different IgG subclasses were all increased upon a tetanus booster vaccination and levels of IgG1 and IgG3 were higher in the rural children. In conclusion, a tetanus booster vaccination induced a stronger Th2 over Th1 cytokine profile to tetanus toxoid (TT) in rural children who showed the highest levels of IgG1 and IgG3 anti-TT antibody responses.

Recent advances in the development of conjugate polysaccharide vaccines for human use have stimulated interest in the use of assays detecting antibody-secreting cells (AbSC) with specificity for bacterial antigens. Here we present improved haemolytic plaque-forming cell (PFC) assays detecting AbSC with specificity for tetanus and diphtheria toxoid as well as for Haemophilus influenzae type b and pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides. These assays were found to be less time consuming, more economical and yielded 1.9-3.4-fold higher plaque numbers than traditional Jerne-type PFC assays. In the case of anti-polysaccharide AbSC of the lgG isotype, the increase was as high as 7.4-11.8 times. Evidence is presented that the pronounced improvement in the detection of the latter is due to the presence of aggregating anti-lgG antibody from the beginning of the assay. It is proposed that in the case of low affinity of anti-polysaccharide antibodies aggregation of secreted monomeric antibody (lgG) is critical for plaque formation and increases the avidity of binding to target cells.

We report a case of trismus caused by tetanus in an 80-yrold woman who developed severe and painful masseter spasms during which she violently bit the tip of her tongue with her dentures. Bilateral mandibular blocks were performed to remove the dentures. The patient fully recovered. We suggest that mandibular blocks are a useful tool in the management of oral events during trismus in conscious patients.

Papers ini berisikan tentang Sistem Otot pada Manusia, Sesuai dengan Tugas Siswa yang diberikan guru berdasarkan pada Buku Biologi Semester 1 Kurikulum 2013 :
1) Otot sebagai Alat Gerak Aktif,
  1a) Perbedaan Otot Lurik, Jantung, Polos,
  1b) Mekanisme Kerja Otot Lurik,
  1c) Tetanus,
2) Pergeseran Filamen,
3) Sumber Energi Gerak Otot,
  3a) ATP,
  3b) Penyakit Sistem Otot (Muscle Disorder)

Background In late 2005, Nepal demonstrated through surveys that it had reached the World Health Organization criterion for having eliminated neonatal tetanus (NT), i.e. NT cases occurred at a rate of less than 1 per 1000 live births in every district. This paper summarizes how a combination of strategies contributed to this success. Methods For each of the 4 strategies (clean delivery, routine immunization, supplemental immunization campaigns, and surveillance) activities before and after 2000 are described and achievements are summarized using published and unpublished data. Results Through routine immunization of pregnant women with tetanus toxoid (TT), NT cases had decreased substantially by 1999, but the final push was provided through the national TT supplemental immunization activities in 2000-2004, which raised the proportion of children protected at birth against tetanus to above 80%. Fewer than 20% of deliveries take place with trained assistance. Although NT surveillance has improved since the extensive Acute Flaccid Paralysis/Polio surveillance infrastructure in Nepal was made available for the NT elimination initiative, it is likely that a number of cases still occur without being reported, particularly in rural areas. Conclusions NT elimination was achieved in 2005 in Nepal, but activities must continue and be strengthened to ensure that NT incidence will not increase in the future. The introduction and further expansion of school-based immunization will, in combination with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine given in infancy, reduce the need for future cohorts of childbearing age women to be immunized at every pregnancy. However, booster doses will still need to be given in early adulthood to ensure ongoing protection.

This article explores the hypothesis that formal education of women influences the use of maternal health-care services in Peru, net of the mother's childhood place of residence, household socioeconomic status and access to health-care services. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis; both cross-sectional and fixed-effects logit models yield quantitatively important and statistically reliable estimates of the positive effect of maternal schooling on the use of prenatal care and delivery assistance. In addition, large differentials were found in the utilization of maternal health-care services by place of residence, suggesting that much greater efforts on the part of the government are required if modern maternal health-care services are to reach women in rural areas.

Neonatal tetanus is a severe, often fatal disease caused by the toxin Clostridium tetani. Neonatal tetanus is a generalized tetanus, which occurs in a neonate between 3-28 days of life. The findings indicated that tetanus in a newborn of an unvaccinated mother occurred after the application of non-sterile clay to the umbilical cord. This case was a seven-day-old male baby with progressive difficulty in feeding, trismus, hypertonicity, opisthotonos, and heart murmur. The patient was afebrile and eupneic, and had a history of non-sterile home delivery. In the past, the area of Bujanovac, Medvedja and Presevo had been exposed to mass immigration (especially due to the war in the territory of former Yugoslavia), which caused a serious problem for general practitioners, who had to be vigilant and ensure that all patients registered in their practice were fully immunized. This case has provided a clear indication of the necessity for strategies of both vaccination and ensuring hygienic co...

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The plants of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) are widely distributed in most tropical and subtropical countries, and have long been used in folk medicine to treat several diseases. Particularly, Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Excell, commonly called "mbolongo" in Cameroon, is used by pygmies baka as a remedy for tetanus and wound infections. Aim of the study: To investigate the antimicrobial properties of Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Excell (family Euphorbiaceae) stem bark used in Cameroon by baka pygmies as a remedy for wound healing and tetanus. Materials and methods: Aqueous and methanol extracts with and without defatting treatment, were prepared and their activity against Clostridium sporogenes ATCC 3584, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Streptococcus mutans ATCC 25175, Streptococcus pyogenes ATCC 19615, Escherichia coli ATCC 10536, Candida albicans ATCC 10231, was evaluated on the basis of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal-fungicidal concentration (MBC-MFC) by the macrodilution method. Results: Water extract showed a weak activity against Clostridium sporogenes (MIC 900 g/mL) and resulted inactive at the tested concentrations against all the other microorganisms. The defatted methanol extract, inactive against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, exhibited a very interesting activity against Clostridium sporogenes and Streptococcus pyogenes (MIC 100 g/mL and 300 g/mL, respectively), which seems to validate the use of this plant in pygmies traditional medicine for the treatment of tetanus and wound infections. The activity found against Streptococcus mutans (300 g/mL), aetiological agent of caries, may suggest a possible use of this plant as natural remedy to prevent dental diseases. Conclusions: The activity against streptococci and Clostridium sporogenes ATCC 3584, showed by stem bark extracts of Phyllanthus muellerianus, traditionally used by baka pygmies to treat wound infections and tetanus, is reported for the first time.

A pooled analysis of data from four vaccination studies conducted in Europe was undertaken to assess the immunogenicity of Infanrix TM hexa (DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib, GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals) when administered in a total of 702 healthy infants at 3, 5 and 11-12 months of age. One month after dose 2, between 96.3% and 100% of subjects had seroprotective antibodies against diphtheria, tetanus, hepatitis B and poliovirus types 1, 2 and 3; 91.7% against Hib and ≥99.0% were seropositive for each pertussis antigen. One month after the third dose, 98.9-100% of subjects were seroprotected/seropositive for all vaccine antigens. Geometric mean antibody concentrations/titres for each vaccine antigen increased by 6.7-52.9 fold after the third vaccine dose. No serious adverse events in DTPa-HBV-IPV/Hib recipients were vaccine related. Infanrix TM hexa induces an adequate immune response after 2-dose primary plus booster doses when administered according to a 3, 5 and 11 months schedule.

Tetanus is a vaccine-preventable disease that yearly causes a total of 309,000 deaths. Of particular concern is maternal and neonatal tetanus (MNT), which can be prevented through immunization of the mother in pregnancy. In 2000, neonatal tetanus alone was responsible for an estimated 200,000 deaths. While the focus is on 57 priority countries, 90% of the neonatal tetanus deaths occur in 27 countries. UNICEF is spearheading the effort to eliminate MNT by the year 2005, with the support of numerous partners. MNT elimination is defined as less than one case of neonatal tetanus per 1000 live births at district level. The main strategies consist of promotion of clean delivery practices, immunization of women with a tetanus toxoid (TT) containing vaccine, and surveillance. Maternal tetanus immunization is, in most developing countries, implemented as part of the routine immunization program. However, large areas remain underserved, due to logistical, cultural, economical or other reasons. In order to achieve the target of MNT elimination by 2005, and to offer protection to women and children otherwise deprived from regular immunization services, countries are encouraged to adopt the &amp;quot;high risk approach&amp;quot;. This approach implies that, in addition to routine immunization of pregnant women, all women of child bearing age living in high risk areas are targeted for immunization with three doses of a tetanus toxoid containing vaccine (TT or Td), implemented as &amp;quot;supplemental immunization activities&amp;quot; (SIAs). Through SIAs, about 17 million women have been reached with at least two doses of TT vaccine in the past 3 years, and it is estimated that another 200 million need to be targeted in the years to come. SIAs should substantially reduce the burden of disease. Countries will also have to improve their existing immunization and clean delivery programs to ensure that the elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus is maintained.

This review covers the pathogenesis and treatment of the disease along with the reexamination of the current recommendations for prophylaxis against tetanus in the United States. Although tetanus is still a major problem worldwide, the incidence in North America has become almost negligible because of the highly effective primary immunization program. Recently, there have been no deaths reported attributable to tetanus in the United States in trauma patients who had received the primary childhood immunization. However, tetanus immunization and prophylaxis in the acute injury setting is frequently misused and misunderstood. A review of the literature regarding tetanus. After review, the authors recommend tetanus toxoid in adults only if it has been more than 10 years since their last immunization. There is no urgency for the administration of tetanus toxoid in the acute setting, as it provides protection against the next injury and not the current injury. Tetanus-diphtheria toxoid is not required unless there are plans for the injured patient to travel to diphtheria-prone countries in the future, as the incidence of diphtheria is negligible in the United States. The review of reported cases of tetanus demonstrates that it is not possible to clinically determine which wounds are tetanus prone, as tetanus can occur after minor, seemingly innocuous injuries, yet is rare after severely contaminated wounds. Tetanus immunoglobulin should be reserved for patients with wounds who had never received primary immunization against tetanus.

Aceh Province in Indonesia was the area most severely affected by the tsunami of 26 December 2004. Extensive loss of life, property, and livelihood left a large segment of the population without basic needs and vulnerable to epidemic-prone diseases. Following the tsunami, a surveillance/early warning and response system was implemented to detect, investigate, and respond to outbreaks of communicable diseases. Fixed and mobile clinics, hospitals, and laboratories, operating all over the affected areas, reported weekly figures and daily alerts. Over 1 month following the tsunami, 106 cases of clinically diagnosed tetanus were reported. Most cases occurred among adults. The case fatality ratio was 18.9%, higher among older patients and among those with short incubation periods. No other major outbreaks occurred in the acute phase of the emergency. This series of tetanus cases was the largest cluster reported following a natural disaster or mass casualty event, overtaken only by the recent earthquake in the Kashmir (139 cases reported), and reflects the high number of injuries which occurred during the tsunami and poor prior immunization status of the population. In the context of natural disasters, preventive measures against tetanus, including wound cleaning and active and passive immunization, should be routinely conducted. Immediate disaster relief should include supplies for the management of wounds and cases of tetanus.

Introduction: Based on the existing studies, measuring serum level of immunoglobulin for making decisions regarding prescription of tetanus prophylaxis seems logical and cost effective. Therefore, the present study was done with the aim of evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of tetanus quick stick (TQS) in comparison with ELISA method in this regard.

Methods: The present diagnostic accuracy study was carried out on trauma patients presenting to emergency department, who were in need of receiving tetanus prophylaxis due to dirty wounds or injuries. Patients’ blood was evaluated regarding presence of anti-tetanus antibody via TQS and ELISA methods and screening performance characteristics of TQS in identifying the cases in need of receiving prophylaxis was calculated compared to ELISA as the reference test.

Results: 148 patients with the mean age of 34.58 ± 15.86 years (4-86) were studied (87.8% male). Agreement rate between the results of TQS and ELISA was 0.78 based on calculation of kappa coefficient. Sensitivity, specificity and area under the ROC curve of TQS were estimated to be 100 (95% CI: 96.50 – 100), 66.66 (95% CI: 38.68 – 86.01), and 0.83 (95% CI: 0.68 – 0.98), respectively. If TQS was used, the cost of treatment regarding use of tetabulin could have a 91.7% reduction.

Conclusion: Based on the findings of the present study, TQS has good diagnostic accuracy in comparison with ELISA and considering its 100% sensitivity and negative predictive value in cases with dirty wound, it can be considered as a reliable tool for screening patients that do not need to receive anti-tetanus prophylaxis.

To study the serological response to various doses of tetanus toxoid given to pregnant women, 320 samples of blood obtained from 173 pregnant women were analysed using the indirect haemagglutination technique. Two doses of toxoid were necessary to achieve protective titres in women who were previously unimmunized. The antibody levels appeared to persist for up to 4 years. During a subsequent pregnancy, a single booster dose of toxoid was sufficient to raise the titres adequately for protection. These findings are in accordance with the immunization programme followed for prophylaxis against tetanus among pregnant women.

Introduction: Tetanus vaccine and immunoglobulin administration are challenging decisions mostly because of the fact that the current protocol for immunization against tetanus is based on 2 variables: the vaccination status of the patient and the nature of wound and its exposure. To solve this problem, Tetanus Quick Stick (TQS; Nephrotek Laboratory, Rungis, France), an immunochromatographic dipstick test, was developed to determine the tetanus immunity of the patients. The aim of this present study was to investigate the sensitivity, specificity, and the positive and negative predictive values and cost-effectiveness of TQS in the emergency department (ED) setting. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 200 patients presenting to our ED. Information including demographic information, tetanus immunization status, wound description, and the preventive measures taken by the emergency physician were gathered by a preeducated nurse. Tetanus Quick Stick test and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were performed as the standard diagnostic test by an emergency physician and a laboratory technician, respectively; and results of the 2 techniques were compared. Result: Overall, tetanus vaccine was administered to 141(70.5%) patients and immunoglobulin to 105 (52.5%) patients. The analysis revealed 88.1% sensitivity and 97.6% specificity for the TQS test. The positive and negative predictive values of TQS test were 99.3% and 66.1%, respectively. Our analysis is also showed a significant decrease in cost when TQS was applied for patients with dirty, tetanus prone wounds or injuries and unknown or incomplete vaccination history (€ 9.48 versus € 12.1). Conclusion: This study revealed TQS test to be appropriate and cost-effective for ED use especially in evaluating patients who do not remember or cannot give their tetanus immunization history.

Maternal and neonatal tetanus are important causes of maternal and neonatal mortality, claiming about 180 000 lives worldwide every year, almost exclusively in developing countries. Although easily prevented by maternal immunisation with tetanus toxoid vaccine, and aseptic obstetric and postnatal umbilical-cord care practices, maternal and neonatal tetanus persist as public-health problems in 48 countries, mainly in Asia and Africa. Survival of tetanus patients has improved substantially for those treated in hospitals with modern intensive-care facilities; however, such facilities are often unavailable where the tetanus burden is highest. The Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus Elimination Initiative assists countries in which maternal and neonatal tetanus has not been eliminated to provide immunisation with tetanus toxoid to women of childbearing age. The ultimate goal of this initiative is the worldwide elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus. Since tetanus spores cannot be removed from the environment, sustaining elimination will require improvements to presently inadequate immunisation and health-service infrastructures, and universal access to those services. The renewed worldwide commitment to the reduction of maternal and child mortality, if translated into eff ective action, could help to provide the systemic changes needed for long-term elimination of maternal and neonatal tetanus.

The current study was undertaken to assess the knowledge of the internees regarding tetanus
immunization in children, pregnant women and adults as per the NIS and the guidelines regarding
tetanus immunization in relation to the wound categories depending on the immunisation status of
the patients. A pre tested questioner used to access knowledge among 108 internees. 57.4% internees
were not aware of the number of doses of tetanus vaccine recommended for children under the age of
16 years and 76.8% internees were not aware of the number of doses of tetanus vaccine recommended
for adults over the age of 16 years. More than 90% of the internees considered contaminated wounds,
animal bites, burn injuries and wounds greater than 6 hours old to be tetanus prone. 91.7% of
internees had considered wounds greater than 6hours old as tetanus prone and 5.6% did not consider
this wound to be tetanus prone. On the other hand 97.2% of internees had considered contaminated
wounds and animal bite to be tetanus prone and 2.8% did not consider. While 93.5% of internees
considered burn injuries to be prone to the development of tetanus, 6.5% of internees thought
otherwise. 13% of the internees did not consider human bite to be tetanus prone. 25% of the
internees considered every cut injury to be tetanus prone. Better TT awareness of tetanus prophylaxis
recommendations is necessary and tetanus prophylaxis recommendations may be more effective if
they are better adhered to at the ED and the other departments that are involved in providing tetanus
prophylaxis to their patients.

INTRODUCTION Injecting drug abusers are vulnerable to many infectious complications. We describe a case of tetanus in a Singaporean who regularly abused buprenorphine. CLINICAL PICTURE A 49-year-old male was hospitalised for progressive generalised spasms associated with dysarthria and opisthotonus. Tetanus was diagnosed clinically. TREATMENT Supportive management was instituted in the intensive care unit (ICU). Toxicology samples tested positive for buprenorphine. OUTCOME He recovered rapidly and was transferred out of the ICU after 8 days. Retrospective questioning confirmed parenteral abuse of buprenorphine. CONCLUSION This case highlights an uncommon and potentially lethal complication of parenteral drug abuse.