M.K. Amila Indika

Archaeological tourism has been an important niche within the adjectival tourism in the world. Both international and domestic tourism of the island highly depend on the archaeological heritage as one of the major tourist attractions. Sri Lanka has a rich archaeological heritage including six out of the eight world heritage sites of the island are archaeological and thousands of other sites. At the present context, there is a huge potential to ameliorate archaeological tourism. In the process of development of the sustainable tourism in Sri Lanka, positive and negative impacts of tourism on archaeological heritage must be evaluated correctly and heritage management strategies should be improved. Tourism is main potential source for development of archaeology in the island. The income of tourism gained by archaeological heritage sites and related institutions can be used for further research works such as explorations, excavations and so on. The priority must be given to conservation...

Technological adaptations facilitate finding innovative solutions for crisis-driven
issues confronted by human societies. The covid-19 pandemic is widely
recognized as a significant global crisis of modern times which created a
devastating impact on most industries of the world, especially at the peaks of
‘Covid waves’. The event industry is inevitably hardly hit the sector of this crisis
due to the restrictions on mobility and human gatherings. Virtual events became
a widely popular technological adaptation for the pandemic throughout the
globe. This chapter expects to analyze the prospects of this technological
adaptation, challenges and future of virtual events in Sri Lanka in its application
as a strategy of survival and revival in the event industry and the wider sector. When the Covid-19 pandemic hit Sri Lanka in March 2020, the island's event
industry boomed. Restrictions on travel and events made the sector out of
operations for a prolonged period, generating several adverse effects such as
cancellation and postponement of events, financial losses, and bankruptcy of
event industry business firms. In these circumstances, some physical events
were converted into virtual and hybrid forms opening new domains of opportunities.
Despite certain limitations, the technology-enabled event organizers to reach
a larger international audience with reduced cost, especially in relatively low
physical participation events such as conferences, workshops, and special lectures.
Although it is hard to convert certain types of events such as weddings, parties,
get together events, parades, festivals into virtual events while providing the
expected event experience.
A few event management companies, such as professional conference organizers
in Sri Lanka, converted their events into virtual events with relatively higher
success in this new venture. Most industry players failed or did not attempt to
use this strategy because of the high cost for production in some forms of
virtual events, perception of it as a short-term strategy, and difficulty organising
certain events in virtual platforms. In some instances, technical issues made
events to be postponed. Attempts to convert convocations into virtual events
caused criticism and dissatisfaction from participants. However, virtual exhibitions
like Sri Lanka MICE Expo, Kalapola and Wedding Wishes were succeeded.
In addition to that, there is a boom of non-commercial events such as webinars
with a targeted wider audience.
Acquiring technological competencies for events beyond virtual meetings with
immersive experience to avoid multitasking of the audience is a crucial challenge
for most companies. Another major challenge for virtual events in the country is
internet infrastructure issues which limit proper internet access for large potential
markets and diminish event experience. There is a drastic difference in internet
coverage between urban areas with solid coverage and other areas with poor
coverage. High internet traffic with low-quality service is not uncommon, even
in urban areas. Increased prices and non-availability of internet accessing
devices caused by the rise of demand and strict temporary control of import on
those devices by the government had kept potential audience segments out of
the virtual event market.
Even beyond the time of the crisis virtual event market for some events will
remain in Sri Lanka due to the cost reduction intention of event funding
agencies and is expected to reach a larger global audience. Nationwide internet
infrastructure development would create a proper techno-environment for
virtual event participants. Collaborative attempts of the event industry with
the IT sector and television production sector may help design more immersive
events with different new technologies. Enhancement of knowledge and skills
on virtual event design and implementation among the industry workforce and
students via workshops and new virtual event contents in curriculums would
yield positive results.

Keywords: Virtual events, Technological adaptations, Covid-19, Event management,
Sri Lanka

Event industry can be considered as one of the hardly hit industries by the Covid-19 pandemic throughout the world since, main prevention methods of social distancing and banning of getting together  reflect the contrast situation to an essential characteristic of events which is assemble of people to one place. This chapter intends to discuss impact of Covid-19 on event industry of Sri Lanka and business revival strategies. The event industry in Sri Lanka has two main categories as tourism related event industry and local event industry which may interconnected with each other at some occasions. MICE events, destination weddings and heritage festivals are main components of the first category while the second segment is comprising from weddings, parties, musical concerts, other social and entrainment events mainly. Easter bomb attacks on April 2019 caused to the decline of the event tourism and local event industry. Covid-19 pandemic started to spread in March 2020 in Sri Lanka, made a disastrous impact on the recovering event industry from the previous crisis.  Due to prolonged quarantine curfew and national and international travel restrictions, lockdowns, banning of human gatherings, large number of international and local events were cancelled and postponed. Event entrepreneurs lost their income and lot of employees were out from their jobs.  Events were restarted to stage in periods of time between different ‘waves’ of Covid-19 with released restrictions. Criticisms were made on some events due to violation of health guidelines and making risky environment for further spread of the pandemic. Covid-19 event industry strategies should be developed considering changing markets, direct marketing and product development, flexibility and adaptability, usage of technology and innovative solutions, safety and health within a holistic approach. Virtual and hybrid events, training on virtual technologies and risk management, innovative solutions with immersed experience, collaborative industry approach, adaptation of international best practices, continuous marketing and providing flexible packages can be recognized as potential strategies.
Key words: Event industry, Covid-19, Business revival, MICE tourism, Event tourism, Sri Lanka

The present study expects to identify technical determinants affecting the success of international conventions and relative importance of those in convention industry of Sri Lanka. Findings of the research would be able to apply in managing the events of convention industry. The conceptual model of the study was formulated based on the literature review comprises from three independent variables. This study is confined to the internal technical factors of the convention event projects and data was obtained from 84 professional convention organizers using quantitative online survey questionnaire. Impacts of independent variables on the dependent variable were tested and measured using statistical methods of regression analysis and one-way ANOVA analysis with SPSS 16.0 as the data analysis software. All three independent variables of marketing & promotion, financial management and techniques of project management were recognized as important technical determinants for the success of conventions in Sri Lanka. Marketing & promotion was identified as the most important technical determinant for success of the events which is followed by financial management and techniques of project management respectively.
Key Words: Conference Studies, Event Management, Event Tourism, Determinants, MICE Tourism

The aim of this research is to understand ideological setting caused to the heritagization of newly emerged set of Buddhist festivals in 21st century A.D Sri Lanka with special reference to Kanchuka puja festival. In depth interviews and netnography was applied as methods for data collection of the study. The researcher used content analysis within a qualitative approach in order to conduct the data analysis. The Buddhist festivalization process is associated with re-interpretation, invention and reinvention of heritage which is geared by the intention of glorifying heritage within the contested ground of ethno-religious identities.
Key words: Heritage studies, Buddhist festivals, Heritagization, Festivalization, Event studies

This study intends to recognize success factors in the managing of international conferences in
Sri Lanka. Special emphasis was given to understand the relative usefulness of those working in
conference management. The seven hypotheses of the study were formulated based on the
conceptual model comprised from seven independent variables. A quantitative online survey
questionnaire was used to obtain data from the respondents: professional conference organizers.
Hypotheses were tested using statistical methods of regression analysis and one-way ANOVA
analysis utilizing SPSS 16.0. All hypotheses were proven by the analyses. Six important success
factors and one less important success factor in managing international conferences in Sri Lanka
were identified by this study. Stakeholder commitment and attitude, availability of competent human
resources, marketing & promotion, financial management, techniques of project management, cooperation and communication among stakeholders are important success factors while leadership is
the only less important factor. Stakeholder commitment and attitude was recognized as the most
useful determinant for the success of international conferences of Sri Lanka in this context. It was
concluded that human factors are more important than technical factors as success factors.

Traditional manuscript heritage of Sri Lanka completely consists from palm leaf
manuscripts with exception of some documents written on metal plaques. Both tangible
and intangible segments of the palm leaf manuscripts heritage in the island have been
deteriorated rapidly due to number of environmental and anthropogenic factors including
those associated with tourism. Manuscripts are stolen from repositories and sometimes
deformed to sell tourists as antiques and aesthetic objects. Thousands of Sri Lankan palm
leaf manuscripts have become properties of foreign collections and tourism has played a
major role in this terrible circumstances.
In contrast to that phenomenon, tourism can be identified as a main potential source to
utilize for preservation of palm leaf manuscript heritage in Sri Lanka with its intangible
and tangible components. Positive relationship between tourism and palm leaf manuscript
heritage which is generated using concepts of craft tourism, cultural tourism, creative
tourism and living museums will provide economic benefits, new employment
opportunities and strengthen the national identity in tourism market while safeguarding the
manuscript heritage.

Buddhist religious tourism has been very popular since Anuradhapura period with
participation of kings, Buddhist monks, elites and ordinary people, which was facilitated
by rulers providing accommodation, access, sometimes foods and so on. This concept
was motivated by some teachings of Buddhist doctrinal works such as Maha Parinibbana
Sutta and the commentary of Deegha Nikaya.
Rasavahini and Pali commentaries reveal about large and small groups of pilgrims
comprising five hundred to a few pilgrims and Kelaniya, Nagadeepa, Ruvanveliseya, Sri
Maha Bodhi and Tissamaharama were most popular pilgrim destinations. According to
epigraphical and literary sources, kings like Vijayabahu I, Nissankamalla and Kerti Sri
Rajasinghe visited some famous religious sites of the island. Sri Lankan pilgrims went to
famous Buddhist pilgrim sites of India. Clay votive tablets with Nagari letters and some
other artifacts with foreign origin found from various places of the island may have been
brought by these pilgrims. Inbound and outbound Buddhist religious tourism cause to the
exchange of the teachings of various Buddhist schools and other cultural elements as
well.
Sometimes, ancient rulers patronize to upgrade the facilities not only for domestic
religious tourists but also outbound Sri Lankan tourists in India as well. They established
Ambalam or way house rests and pilgrim rests, renovated pilgrim roads and bridges,
donated villages and other sources of revenue to the pilgrim destinations and so on. There
was a building known as Doratupenmadiya in urban monasteries of Anuradhapura to
provide some facilities for religious tourists

Although, diverse ethnic groups of Sri Lanka had co-existed harmoniously before
colonialism, after that combination of the number of factors and consequences caused to change
it leading to the disastrous long lasting civil war. Even after the war and eradication of terrorism,
root cause of conflict still remains and desirable sort of ethnic harmony and reconciliation has
not been achieved so far. But, there is a golden opportunity to create harmony and reconciliation
among the various ethnic groups of the country which should not be avoided.
Among the different strategies for peace making in modern world, tourism has been widely
recognized as a prime ‘tool’. It is not only, bring people together that foster understanding of
cultural differences, good will and desire to overcome problems, but also its’ capacity to
positively addresses and reduces the ground factors for violence, hate, discrimination and
aggression such as poverty, underdevelopment and marginalizing of certain communities is very
important.
Concepts related with cultural tourism, domestic tourism, pro poor tourism, social tourism,
responsible travel, volun-tourism and community based tourism can be used to promote ethnic
harmony and reconciliation among the different ethnic groups of Sri Lanka. Participation and
support of various people such as religious leaders, politicians, educationalists, diasporas,
community leaders, students and children, government officials, ordinary people irrespective of
their status and perceptions, is immensely important to implementate various programmes related
with tourism and affiliation with education, sports, religions, festivals, home stay, peace parks,
peace vessels, peace pole and so on. Relevant concepts and programmes must be designed and
implemented with great care scoping to encourage appropriate contacts, reducing anxiety, status
equality and reconciliation, affirming human rights, poverty alleviation and promoting
awareness

Ethno tourism is a concept of tourism which focuses attention on traditional life styles
and related rituals, subsistence strategies, folk art and other material and non material
components of indigenous or relatively simple societies. In these societies, utilizing
tourism as a development strategy has become a developing trend and specially, the
concept of community tourism approach is employed on the relevant context.
This case study was conducted about the ethno tourism of the Vedda people in
Dambana village, Badulla district of Uva province in Sri Lanka. Identifying the present
condition of the tourism, analyzing the positive and negative impacts of tourism,
recognizing problems and lapses associated with it, identifying potentials for tourism
development and proposing tourism development strategies with special emphasis on
increasing the community participation, protecting traditional cultural elements, their
authenticity and natural environment are main objectives of the present study.

In a broader sense, domestic tourism of ancient Sri Lanka can be classified to two main
categories as religious tourism and non-religious tourism. Archaeologists have found numerous
historical and archaeological evidences regarding the religious tourism and in contrast to that the
evidence about non-religious tourism only has been revealed from Sigiri graffiti.
Buddhist religious tourism has been very popular since Anuradhapura period with
participation of kings, Buddhist monks, elites and ordinary people, which was facilitated by
rulers providing accommodation, access, sometimes foods and so on. This concept was
motivated by some teachings of Buddhist doctrinal works such as Maha Parinibbana Sutta and
the commentary of Deegha Nikaya.
Rasavahini and Pali commentaries reveal about large and small groups of pilgrims
comprising five hundred to a few pilgrims and Kelaniya, Nagadeepa, Ruvanveliseya, Sri Maha
Bodhi and Tissamaharama were most popular pilgrim destinations. According to epigraphical
and literary sources, kings like Vijayabahu I, Nissankamalla and Kerti Sri Rajasinghe visited
some famous religious sites of the island.
Sometimes, ancient rulers patronize to upgrade the facilities for domestic religious tourists.
They established Ambalam or way house rests and pilgrim rests, renovated pilgrim roads and
bridges, donated villages and other sources of revenue to the pilgrim destinations and so on.
There was a building known as Doratupenmadiya in urban monasteries of Anuradhapura to
provide some facilities for religious tourists.
During Kandian period, with popularization of Buddhist religious tourism, emergence of
pilgrim literature can be observed comprising from pilgrim poetries and Pali verses for
worshiping famous Buddhist shrines. According to above facts, it can be concluded that there
was a Buddhist pilgrim culture in ancient Sri Lanka.

A newly interpreted painting from Vijayasundararama Buddhist monastery,
Dambadeniya in North Central province of Sri Lanka can be identified as an immensely
important archaeological record in the aspects of painting technique, chronology, subject
matter and colour application within the art history of Sri Lanka.
The painting has been created by scratching the top layer to emerge the layer beneath
in the form of lines. Both layers had been intentionally formed for the relevant function
and clearly distinguishable colours have been employed. This painting technique is
referred to as ' Sgraffito' which was hitherto unknown in Sri Lankan context.
In comparison with the Buddhist doctrinal work, Petavatthu Pali, the scene of the
painting can be interpreted as an incident of the Karnamunda Petavasthu. According to
the story and the painting, the female goblins are depicted as being tortured in a hell.
This painting is safely assigned to the 13th century A.C. on the basis of literary
evidence and some elements of the painting style. In this context, the painting becomes
the earliest depiction of the concept of hell as a visual art form in Sri Lanka.
In 13th century A.C, foreign invader, Kalinga Magha carried out a huge campaign to
demolish the traditional social system and Buddhism which may have adversely affected
society. Emergence of the concept of hell in a visual art form may indicate a part of the
re-establishment process of traditional social system.

Ten image houses on pillars are remained in Gampaha district, Sri Lanka, which can be dated from 18th to 20th century AD. These monuments have an immense importance in studying religious, social, economical, technological and aesthetic aspects of the contemporary society.
        It is noteworthy that all the buildings were designed to be orientated towards nearby paddy fields, except one instance. This means that the Buddha statues of the image houses are facing to the paddy fields. But directions of orientation of these buildings are varied to each other.
        When that phenomenon is analyzed in a border sense with geographical and environmental factors, location of paddy fields, economic status of the period, religious concepts, agrarian rituals and plan of the image houses on pillars, it becomes clear that was a conscious intentional action.
      Rural economy of the study area in that period was based on wet rice cultivation. This area belongs to the Low Land Wet Zone of the country, which has not much favorable for rice cultivation due to high rainfall, damages of insects, weeds and so on. Struggles between Kandian kingdom and colonial powers, colonial administrative policies and new tax amendments caused to worsen the hardships confronted by the farmers.
      Therefore, they may have intended to get blessings of Buddha to protect their harvest from environmental factors and other elements as well. This was architecturally symbolized by being orientated image houses of pillars of the area towards nearby paddy fields.

Dambadeniya was a capital city and main religious center of ancient Sri Lanka during
13 CAD. The archaeological site comprises from ancient fortress, Vijayasundararama
monastery and Vaduvaketugala.
Relevant site is situated close to the Dambadeniya town and modern settlements of the
area are expanded rapidly. Construction of factories, roads and houses, renovations of the
monastery, other anthropogenic factors and environmental factors badly affected to the
archaeological heritage. There are problems and lapses pertaining with site maintenance,
tourist facilities, tourist guidance and advertising.
In these circumstances, it has become essential to mange heritage combing with modern
development strategies. Due to the richness of archaeological and religious heritage
which is fuel for cultural tourism and availability of well developed road network there
is a huge potential for development of tourism.
In the process of heritage management, conservation, new research programmes,
proper maintenance procedure and public participation are crucial factors. A structural
body is proposed to be formed named Dambadeniya heritage committee in hope of taking
community participation for archaeological works and heritage management. It must
comprise archaeology officers, chief incumbent of the monastery, gramaniladari officer,
chief officer of the police station, principle of the Dambadeniya maha vidyalaya, business
community of the town and president of Dambadeni heritage protection organization.
This will function as coordinating, relationship development and fund raising body.
The tourism development programme must be designed with special emphasis on
improvement of tourist facilities, guidance and promotion activities. Developing
adventure tourism at Vaduvaketugala and attraction of Buddhist religious tourists from
East and South East Asian countries can be identified as possible programmes.

This study was conducted regarding the image houses on pillars and associated socioreligious landscape in Gampaha district which is situated in the Low Land Wet Zone of
the country. Ten image houses on pillars are remained in the study area, which can be
dated from 18th to 20th century AD. These monuments have an immense importance in
studying religious, social, economical, technological and aesthetic aspects of the
contemporary society.
It is noteworthy that all the buildings were designed to be orientated towards nearby
paddy fields, except one instance. This means that the Buddha statues of the image
houses are facing to the paddy fields. But directions of orientation of these buildings are
varied to each other.
When that phenomenon is analyzed in a border sense with geographical and
environmental factors, location of paddy fields, economic status of the period, religious
concepts, agrarian rituals and plan of the image houses on pillars, it becomes clear that
was a conscious intentional action.
Rural economy of the study area in that period was based on wet rice cultivation.
This area belongs to the Low Land Wet Zone of the country, which has not much
favorable for rice cultivation due to high rainfall, damages of insects, weeds and so on.
Struggles between Kandyan kingdom and colonial powers, colonial administrative
policies and new tax amendments caused to worsen the hardships confronted by the
farmers.
Therefore, they may have intended to get blessings of Buddha to protect their harvest
from environmental factors and other elements as well. This was architecturally
symbolized by being orientated image houses of pillars of the area towards nearby paddy
fields.

Archaeological tourism has been an important niche within the adjectival tourism in
the world. Both international and domestic tourism of the island highly depend on the
archaeological heritage as one of the major tourist attractions.
Sri Lanka has a rich archaeological heritage including six out of the eight world
heritage sites of the island are archaeological and thousands of other sites. At the present
context, there is a huge potential to ameliorate archaeological tourism. In the process of
development of the sustainable tourism in Sri Lanka, positive and negative impacts of
tourism on archaeological heritage must be evaluated correctly and heritage management
strategies should be improved.
Tourism is main potential source for development of archaeology in the island. The
income of tourism gained by archaeological heritage sites and related institutions can be
used for further research works such as explorations, excavations and so on. The priority
must be given to conservation, maintenance of sites and welfare of employees is another
important issue.

Tourist pressure badly affects to the sites and the experiences of tourists as well. It can
be observed that behaviors of domestic tourists and foreign tourists make different
impacts on archaeological heritage. Deterioration of archaeological heritage, exportation
of artifacts and losing of authenticity are main negative factors.
Policy making, promotion, maintenance and management of sites, improvement of
tourist facilities, site presentation and development of unpopular sites are major issues
should be highly concerned within the sustainable development of the both forms of
archaeological tourism. The collaboration of government institutions related with
archaeology and tourism, community organizations and tourism agencies in private sector
is very important in this process

Tourism sector and researchers mainly focus their attention on international tourism and
very little emphasis is given on domestic tourism. But in tourist arrivals domestic tourism
is a few times larger than international tourism in the globe and as well as in Sri Lanka.
Domestic tourism has been increasing rapidly in the island since the end of the long
lasting war. In these circumstances, domestic tourism can be recognized as a highly
potential tool for sustainable development.
It has number of economical, social and cultural benefits to the country. Domestic
tourism positively affects on national integration, appreciation of regional diversities and
development for flexible attitudes on different cultural elements of the various ethic and
religious groups of the island. It can be used to promote the national identity and social
values. The public gain wide knowledge on history, culture and environment of the
country and so on from native tourism. Outbound tourism expenditure can be retained
within the country as a result of the development of domestic tourism sector.
All economical befits of international tourism except earning of foreign exchange would
gain from domestic tourism. Large percentage of the income earning from international
tourism flows back to developed countries as expenditure for imported goods for
hospitality services and wages of highly paid foreign professionals. Relatively, small
investment is enough to promote domestic tourism in contrast to the international
tourism. In Sri Lanka, domestic tourism causes to rapid regional development around
destinations and provide large number of direct and indirect employment opportunities,
specially for low income groups. It has the potential to minimize the negative impacts of
the seasonality of inbound tourism. External factors such as terrorism, political conflicts
and acceleration of air transport rates do not generate negative impact on domestic
tourism in the island. On the other hand, negative cultural impacts of domestic tourism
are low in comparison with international tourism