Trade Routes

European definition of micro, small and medium enterprises as an instrument of the development policy of the enterprise sector – experience, postulates and conclusions for the future

The subject of the article is the issue of separating micro, small and medium enterprises (SME) from the general economy which due to their small size encounter market barriers hindering their development. The basic legal instruments in this matter is the definition of the SME sector at the level of the EU regulations. The purpose of the analysis is to look for advantages and disadvantages of the existing definition, as well as to refer to the selected ideas of its modification, considering European Union case law. The main research hypothesis is: regarding the importance of SME’s definition for the EU economy, the changes that must be made in the analysed concept must take into account the existing economic conditions as well as the previously available use of the same definition by the institutions. However, it is equally important to identify the purpose for which the SMEs were separated under a specific definition. The purpose of this separation was to provide support for such SMEs, which they de facto need. The basic research method used in the article is the dogmatic and legal method. Its subject was the analysis of the content of normative acts, the EU case law, as well as reports and analyses in the field of the SME sector.

Przedmiotem artykułu jest problematyka wyodrębnienia z ogółu gospodarki mikro, małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw (MŚP), które z uwagi na swoje nieduże rozmiary napotykają na bariery rynkowe utrudniające im rozwój. Podstawowym narzędziem prawnym w tym zakresie jest definicja sektora MŚP określona na poziomie przepisów UE. Celem prowadzonej analizy jest poszukiwanie zalet i wad obecnej definicji oraz odniesienie się do poszczególnych pomysłów jej modyfikacji, z uwzględnieniem linii orzeczniczej organów Unii Europejskiej. Zasadnicza hipoteza badawcza brzmi: z uwagi na znaczenie definicji MŚP dla gospodarki UE, zmiany jakie powinny zostać dokonane w analizowanej definicji, muszą uwzględniać zarówno obecne uwarunkowania gospodarcze, jak i dotychczasowe doświadczenia organów stosujących tę definicję, jednak zasadniczym punktem odniesienia przy konstruowaniu zmian jest cel, dla którego przedsiębiorstwa te zostały wyodrębnione. Celem tym jest wsparcie podmiotów, takiej pomocy de facto potrzebujących. Podstawową metodą badawczą, zastosowaną w artykule jest metoda dogmatyczno-prawna. Jej przedmiotem była analiza treści aktów normatywnych, orzecznictwa organów UE, a także branżowych raportów i analiz z zakresu sektora MŚP.

This study demonstrates how routes over mountain plateaus and passes connected farms, hamlets and regions. The routes enabled wide social and economic networks and were a prerequisite for regional surplus production in the Norwegian inland areas from the Viking Age.
Iron, furs, skins and antlers were among the important commodities for farmers in the mountain and valley regions. These resources were exchanged for goods from the coastal areas, and it is likely that the purpose for much of the traffic over the mountains was trade. Medieval law texts and later historical sources indicate that the bulk of the traffic over mountains took place during the summer. The commodities were transported on packhorses or by foot.
Using archaeological sites and findings, as well as place-names and historical sources, I have mapped the main mountain trails in South Norway. The historical significance of these communication routes are indicated by large burial sites, some consisting of hundreds of burial mounds, at the foot of several mountain crossings. These sites are testament to the great importance and value of communication and transportation across mountains passes – and its control – well before the extensive regional surplus production from the last half the Viking Age.

This is an earlier and substantially lengthier version of the European Commission’s Green Paper on Ports and Maritime Infrastructure, which I had prepared as a member of Commissioner Neil Kinnock’s wise men group.

The Green Paper has often been described as the most influential port policy document ever produced by the EC. The current version does not in any way commit the European Commission and interested readers are advised to refer to the final version of the Green Paper as published by the EC.

The present work requires careful and persistent reading so that the reader bypasses the necessary bureaucratic 'superficiality' and identifies my core arguments which, I am happy to say, have not changed to the slightest in the 15 years since its publication. Many of these arguments had been described as ‘politically dangerous’ and, consequently, did not find their way into the Green Paper. I quote one of them in p.7 (emphasis added):

…The Commission’s White Paper on the future development of the common transport policy  laid down a new vision for transport policy, following the principle of sustainable mobility; i.e. a strategy that acknowledges the need for a more balanced transport system that would fulfil its economic and social role while, at the same time, containing its effects on the environment. The overall objective of such an approach, as clearly described by the European Parliament , is to …promote sustainable, efficient transport systems which meet the economic, social, environmental and safety needs of European citizens; help reduce regional disparities; and enable European business to compete effectively in world markets… Again, the ‘challenge’ is apparent: a more balanced  pan-European transport system with the above objectives is in stark contrast with hub-porting; concentration of traffic to selected ports; longer distances; and consequent transport externalities. It is thus increasingly felt that the European Commission needs to depart from its all-pleasing ‘statements’ and make hard-nosed decisions in order to effectuate its cohesion and regional development objectives which are the overarching ones…(unquote).

A closing note of caution on my use of the word 'superficiality': With remarkable consistency, European institutions involved in the maritime sector have been focusing all along on issues such as safety and environmental protection; issues which, among others, have allowed the proliferation of various monopolies in the port sector. I believe this has not happened accidentally. I believe instead that the focus on the ‘secondary’ has obscured and diverted attention from the ‘primary’, which comprises the ‘politically sensitive’ issues of port pricing; infrastructure financing; state aids; transparency of port accounts; and, finally, a European ‘port governance’ model.

The paper presents the problems of the topography of Zawichost in the early Middle Ages. The author discusses archaeological sources associated with the Zawichost-Podgórze settlement complex with the stronghold dated to the period between the 8th and 10th centuries. The paper also contains the analysis of the development of the settlement on Zawichost Hill on the site of the modern-day town in connection with the changes of the road network and the Vistula River crossings. Furthermore, the author discusses the problem of the location of the Zawichost stronghold, presenting in his paper results of archaeological excavations and architectural investigations of monumental buildings from the settlement area and their place in the topographic structure

Illegal wildlife trade is one of the most potentially threatening crimes globally, listing at the third highest criminal activity, next to illegal drug and gun sales. Elephants and Rhinoceros are exploited for their charismatic features for human consumption, commodities, Chinese traditional medicine and profitable investment. This study aims to assess annual trade from 1975-2017 (42-year) to determine increase or decrease in trade activity. Statistical regression analysis showed annual trading activity was (p = 0.495 Elephant) and (p = 0.032 Rhinoceros). Elephants showed a stable increase over the years, whereas Rhinoceros showed an increase and decrease over the 42-year period. MIKE data was to determine if year impacted the percentage of illegal killings in elephants. There was a significant difference in trade levels. Transport routes and hotspots presented that Europe, Asia and Africa were the highest areas of the world to have popular trafficking routes. MIKE data with a (p = 0.036) suggested a significant increase in illegal killings in Elephant over the time period of 15 years.

Developments in freight transport and transport infrastructure have a strong influence on economic growth. The Baltic States have recently undergone a transformation from planned economies to market orientation. The interest in the Baltic States originates from their importance as new markets within the European Union, and their transit function for trade with Russia. Rising trade volumes and increasing freight transport are forecasted in the near term for the region. This study aims at developing an understanding of the regulatory, structural and developmental conditions and trends affecting the transport infrastructure in a region in economic transition, namely the Baltic States, in the light of its current economic development. Comparisons are made with Buchhofer’s [Buchhofer, E., 1995. Transport infrastructure in the Baltic States during the transformation to market economies. Journal of Transport Geography 3(1), 69–75] assessment of transport infrastructure in the Baltic States in the early years of transformation to market economies.

Zusammenfassung/Abstract:
Anhand archäologischer Zeugnisse aus Naukratis in Ägypten, von Aigina in der Ägäis und aus Gravisca in Etrurien wird die Spur des Sostratos von Aigina aufgenommen, jenem naúkleros, mit dessen Handelsgewinnen – nach Herodot – ‚niemand konkurrieren kann’. Auf dieser Basis werden drei
Schlüsselkonzepte der archäologisch-historischen Forschung diskutiert, mit denen soziale Räume des archaischen Mittelmeerhandels beschrieben werden können: empórion – port of trade – extraurbanes Heiligtum. Abschließend wird versucht, die historische Entwicklung archaischen Austauschs zu
erfassen: von der xenía zur emporía.


Archaeological evidence from Naukratis in Egypt, Aegina in the Aegean and Gravisca in Etruria is used to follow the track of Sostratos of Aigina, that naukleros, with whose profits – according to Herodotus – ‘none can compare’. On that basis are discussed three key-concepts of archaeological-historical research, which allow us to describe the social spaces of archaic Mediterranean trade: emporion – port of trade – extra-urban sanctuary. In concluding, an attempt is made to record the historical development of archaic exchange: from xenía to emporía.

Inventory of marine archaeological sites discovered in the province of Nampula, including the Island of Mozambique, during the archaeological surveys from 2001 to 2013. The list comprises 45 wreck sites of archaeological importance. Also includes cultural material located out of archaeological contexts.

The present paper explores the shifting roles and understandings of the Singapore Straits from the latter Middle Ages until the opening decades of the eighteenth century. In pursuing this task, I will develop a set of basic questions that historicize and problematize the roles, functions and understandings of the Straits across the centuries, and also tease out historical and historiographical paradigms shaping and underpinning the understanding of the region’s past. In pursuing this programme I will make use of a broad range of sources including chronicles and histories, letters and treaties, navigational instructions and travel literature, as well as (European) cartography of the 16th to 18th centuries. In order to gain deeper appreciation of the multi-faceted roles and understandings of the Singapore Straits across the longue durée, I  not only adduce and evaluate materials of European colonial origin, but importantly also heed special attention to sources of Asian origin in general, and specifically to materials that have originally been written in Arabic, Malay, Chinese and have been made accessible to the wider reading public in various contemporary translations. The modes of enquiry and the insights brought to paper here differ both in terms of scope and objectives from my earlier findings expounded in The Singapore and Melaka Straits published in 2010.

Features Itinerario, first published in 1596 by Dutchman Jan Huygen van Linschoten. The publication is valued for revealing directions into the trade routes of the East, besides its beautiful engravings and  early modern maps which provide insights into the cultures and commodities of the region.

In the thesis study examining the strategic importance of Trans-Caucasia in terms of the future of historical trade routes, the history of trade routes and the role of regions in the development of these routes are mentioned, and the strategic geographical location and political importance of Trans-Caucasia in international relations are emphasized. In addition, the importance of Trans-Caucasia in terms of world trade routes and economy is emphasized, as well as the trade corridor development policy in the region, issues related to the transport and logistics infrastructure of Trans-Caucasian states are examined. In the study, the geostrategic and geopolitical importance of Trans-Caucasia is analyzed and the effects of the fundamental conflicts of Trans-Caucasian states on the region are investigated. In the last parts of the thesis study, new international projects born in the region after the 1990s and the effects of these projects on the regional economy are also examined, and information is provided about the historical development of projects such as TANAP and TAP, which have become more important in recent years.

Nel corso degli ultimi decenni il processo di globalizzazione dell’economia mondiale ha portato ad una crescita del commercio internazionale. Le ragioni di questo sviluppo sono molteplici: il decentramento delle attività produttive, le mutate caratteristiche nella divisione internazionale del lavoro, la specializzazione produttiva, le rivoluzioni tecnologiche intercorse, il conseguimento dell’obiettivo di catching-up da parte di alcuni Paesi in via di sviluppo ed il conseguente aumento dei redditi e della domanda. Tutti questi fenomeni hanno aumentato considerevolmente le relazioni commerciali a livello globale e, in questo contesto, il servizio di trasporto ha avuto un ruolo fondamentale nel trasferire beni e persone in maniera sempre più rapida. Considerate le caratteristiche fisiche della Terra, caratterizzata da una prevalenza delle acque sulle terre emerse, la modalità più indicata per trasferire la merce dai luoghi di produzione a quelli di consumo a livello globale risulta essere prevalentemente quella marittima. Il trasporto marittimo ha attraversato dalla seconda metà del XX secolo un periodo di radicali cambiamenti strutturali, in cui la containerizzazione, l’intermodalità e l’introduzione di nuove tecnologie informative hanno congiuntamente giocato un ruolo fondamentale. Dalla sua introduzione nel 1956 fino ad oggi, il traffico containerizzato ha assunto un andamento continuamente crescente, favorito anche da un sistema produttivo decentrato, che ha richiesto il trasferimento di semilavorati e prodotti finiti tra le diverse aree geoeconomiche. In questo contesto, la crescita del traffico containerizzato ha avuto, rispetto agli altri comparti del traffico marittimo commerciale, un impatto certamente maggiore nell’organizzazione degli spazi geografici e della gestione d’impresa, con una serie di effetti che verranno diffusamente trattati all’interno della ricerca. Alla luce di quanto detto, lo scopo della tesi è quello di accertare se e come le dinamiche dei trasporti marittimi riscontrate a livello globale hanno avuto effetti sulla città portuale di Trieste, sulla natura dei suoi traffici e sui suoi rapporti con il territorio servito. Ulteriore scopo della tesi è quello di cercare di fornire, attraverso un’indagine condotta presso operatori del settore, un ordine di grandezza del contributo della funzione portuale nella formazione dell’occupazione e del valore riferito al territorio provinciale.

Persistence and change are necessary for the stability and development of both the human individual and the human society, since the beginnings of human history. Man needs a static framework, which, related to his self-awareness, defines a topocentric system of perception, evaluation, order, and meaning. He also requires a dynamic impetus, which allows exceeding the limits of special world views, shifting of perspectives and transformations of individual as well as social approaches to life. Travelling especially helped to broaden man’s horizon and mind. Accross cultures voyages guided by the skies are linked with practical concepts of exploring and domesticating time and space, but also figuratively with the life’s journey and with other worlds, being expressed by mythic, ritual and later scientific language.

This paper examines several interrelated aspects of maritime connectivity within the Roman Mediterranean. First, it considers Fulford’s suggestion of a divide between eastern and western trading zones along the North African coast in the light of new discoveries since the publication of his article in Libyan Studies in 1989. Some evidence supports his analysis; the distribution of Italian bricks imported as return cargoes to North Africa does not extend east of the Gulf of Sirt; by contrast the identifiable exports from Cyrenaica go north up the Adriatic but not west to Tripolitania. However, the imported finewares at Berenice (Benghazi) in the third century AD are almost exclusively African Red Slip ware from Tunisia, though it is unclear if they have been imported directly (as clearly occurred much earlier with the import of Punic cooking wares to Cyrenaica), or as return cargoes from an intermediate entrepôt such as Portus. The idea of a certain amount of traffic along the North African littoral is supported by the epigraphic evidence suggesting Alexandrian worshippers at sanctuaries of Isis and Sarapis at major North African ports west of the Gulf of Sirt, who may be part of trading diaspora communities, of the kind attested at Puteoli and elsewhere. Such trading communities at major ports suggest regular mercantile connections on established routes, with knowledge about general market demand (if not actual price levels) at distant ports, and sometimes contacts between known trading partners. The glass industry is considered as a case study illustrating the geographical integration of the Roman economy through maritime networks between ports. Roman glass production relied heavily on large-scale primary production of raw glass in the Levant, using natron imported from Egypt. The raw glass was then shipped around the Roman world to secondary production centres where it was transformed into a final product; the different stages of production were linked by long-distance maritime trade routes. Finally, the paper examines how port structures, capacities and facilities might relate to and reflect the patterns of maritime trade in antiquity. The type and size of port infrastructure and harbour capacity can help to construct hierarchies of ports, ranging from villa harbours to major entrepôts like Portus, and to suggest connections between them within regional hierarchies. It is noteworthy that some of the villa harbours of the Roman period could accommodate sizeable sea-going ships capable of undertaking open-water voyages to distant emporia.

This paper examines several interrelated aspects of maritime connectivity within the Roman Mediterranean. First, it considers Fulford’s suggestion of a divide between eastern and western trading zones along the North African coast in the light of new discoveries since the publication of his article in Libyan Studies in 1989. Some evidence supports his analysis; the distribution of Italian bricks imported as return cargoes to North Africa does not extend east of the Gulf of Sirt; by contrast the identifiable exports from Cyrenaica go north up the Adriatic but not west to Tripolitania. However, the imported finewares at Berenice (Benghazi) in the third century AD are almost exclusively African Red Slip ware from Tunisia, though it is unclear if they have been imported directly (as clearly occurred much earlier with the import of Punic cooking wares to Cyrenaica), or as return cargoes from an intermediate entrepôt such as Portus. The idea of a certain amount of traffic along the North African littoral is supported by the epigraphic evidence suggesting Alexandrian worshippers at sanctuaries of Isis and Sarapis at major North African ports west of the Gulf of Sirt, who may be part of trading diaspora communities, of the kind attested at Puteoli and elsewhere.

Such trading communities at major ports suggest regular mercantile connections on established routes, with knowledge about general market demand (if not actual price levels) at distant ports, and sometimes contacts between known trading partners. The glass industry is considered as a case study illustrating the geographical integration of the Roman economy through maritime networks between ports. Roman glass production relied heavily on large-scale primary production of raw glass in the Levant, using natron imported from Egypt. The raw glass was then shipped around the Roman world to secondary production centres where it was transformed into a final product; the different stages of production were linked by long-distance maritime trade routes.

Finally, the paper examines how port structures, capacities and facilities might relate to and reflect the patterns of maritime trade in antiquity. The type and size of port infrastructure and harbour capacity can help to construct hierarchies of ports, ranging from villa harbours to major entrepôts like Portus, and to suggest connections between them within regional hierarchies. It is noteworthy that some of the villa harbours of the Roman period could accommodate sizeable sea-going ships capable of undertaking open-water voyages to distant emporia.

Devotion to the goddess Tanit/Tinnit, a permutation of Astarte, took place in Mediterranean cave sanctuaries and on Phoenician ships. Employing both material and textual evidence, it is argued that her worship at sea and at port required a degree of religious competency of seamen that served as crew and combatants on trading vessels and military vessels, respectively. With the Phoenician priesthood centered in cities, coastal inhabitants would have depended on part-time officiants to supervise and perform certain rites. Reasons for the lack of mention in the literature of this non-elite class are proposed.

Zum Geleit (Preface to Wd0 43/2)
Die Herausgeber der „Welt des Orients“ freuen sich, dass mit dem vorliegenden Faszikel über „Permutations of Astarte“ nach WdO 40/2 (2010) bereits das zweite Themenheft der WdO erscheinen kann. Anders als das Themenheft von 2010 (Excavations at Qubur al-Walaydah, 2007–2009) ist das vorliegende Heft religionsgeschichtlich ausgerichtet. Unser Dank gilt
den Herausgebern des Themenheftes Prof. Dr. Mark Christian (Nashville) und Prof. Dr. Rüdiger Schmitt (Münster) für die Zusammenarbeit sowie dem Verlag, vertreten durch seinen LektorHerrn Jörg Persch und Frau Friederike Lonz, für die Unterstützung bei der Realisierung des Heftes.

Mainz, Heidelberg, Berlin undWürzburg am 1. Oktober 2013
Sebastian Grätz, Joachim Friedrich Quack, Bernd U. Schipper
und Daniel Schwemer
DieWelt des Orients, 43. Jahrgang, S. 149, ISSN 0043-2547
© 2013 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen
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