Connectedness to Nature

In this paper, the phenomenon of “Places of Power” is discussed from a cultural, cognitive and psychophysical perspective in order to understand the specific mental state of people who sense the existence of "places of power" as well as the specific circumstances of their perception. Therefore, characteristics of modern life such as commercialisation, consumption and permanent connectedness are examined in order to explain widespread mental complaints such as burn-out or diverse forms of addiction. In this context, calming “places of power” are conceptualized as offering shelter from the pressures of the modern world. In the framework of Antonovsky’s concept of a “Sense of Coherence,” such places protect a person temporarily against irritations arising from daily life, allowing them to re-establish inner peace and orientation. To better explain the important social effects of distancing oneself from peer-groups in order to “transcend” social constraints, the tradition of pilgrimage is discussed. This traditional collective visitation of officially recognized “places of power” is explained using Maslow’s concept of the “hierarchy of needs”. Finally, this concept is adapted to natural places that could serve as individual “power places”, and the fundamental requirements needed to promote such places in the context of mental health tourism are discussed.

Singapore is committed to creating a biophilic city in nature where both people and biodiversity flourish. We believe that greenery and nature are essential for citizen health and wellbeing, and making a highly liveable city. Apart from continuing to intensify local greenery and building up the urban ecosystem to increase prospects of ‘taking in’ enough nature, citizens’ ability to derive the various benefits of nature can be enhanced by strengthening their connection with/to nature. Increasing connection to nature in turn reinforces commitment to protect nature and our
environment, lending greater impetus to our pursuit of climate-mending sustainable development. In this article, we will look at glimpses of the links we found between nature-connected people, their nature experiences and environmentally-responsible citizenry, from a public survey done in 2016 on the connectedness with nature of local residents.

Understanding how people's relationships with nature form, how they influence personal values and attitudes, and what behavioural implications they may have could provide more insight into how connectedness to nature (CNT) can effectively contribute to environmental management goals. This paper undertakes a review of literature published over the past thirteen years (2002 & 2014) on SCOPUS; and describes the current state of knowledge regarding CNT, assesses any efforts towards the spatial mapping of CNT for environmental management, and identifies measures of CNT defined in the broader literature. This review suggests that there is quite some overlap in the literature on CNT concepts, and that more effort needs to be made towards multi-disciplinary research which explores how CNT can be useful to environmental planning and conservation research on the field. It also further corroborates the need and relevance of applying more social and affective strategies to promote conservation behaviour. The main progress in CNT theory seems to have been made in the development of measurement tools, and it is clear that there is a strong convergent validity amongst the different measures due to their similarity, and functional associations. Further efforts towards the exploration of multi-dimensional measures is recommended since they consistently stand out as showing better results. The geographic visualisation of CNT constructs is another area of research that deserves attention since it can provide a unique point of view towards guiding participatory protected area planning and management.

Educational gardens are powerful outdoor learning environments to address the subject of climate change and foster climate action. Using an online questionnaire, this study examines the influence of the main sociodemographic and academic factors, and the role of connectedness to nature, on the perception of educational gardens as contexts of climate change education (CCE) among Spanish preservice teachers (PSTs). The sample consisted of 889 PSTs enrolled in 9 university campuses of Spain. The statistical analyses performed evidenced that women are more likely to use educational gardens than men and that there is a progressive decrease in the positive perception of PSTs about the usefulness of gardens for CCE as the educational level at which they are being trained increases. Statistics also revealed that the variable connectedness to nature and the rating of the importance of educational gardens in CCE are not significantly related. Nevertheless, the Mann–Whitney U test indicated that PSTs who scored higher on connection to nature wished to broaden their knowledge of sustainable agriculture and, thus, connectedness to nature could be considered a predictor of environmental attitudes, each influencing the other. Based on these findings, recommendations for PSTs’ training in the CCE context are provided.

Given experimental evidence of enhancement of well-being as a result of brief exposure to nature, we sought to study the effect of ongoing nature involvement on well-being. Undergraduate participants (N = 84) were randomly assigned to either a nature intervention condition or a control condition. Results indicated that, at the end of two-weeks, net-positive affect and feelings of elevation were significantly higher, and meaning was marginally higher, in the nature intervention condition relative to the control condition. Self-concordant motivation was also higher for the nature condition, suggesting that the nature intervention was perceived as intrinsically pleasant. Levels of trait connectedness to nature did not moderate the impact of the nature intervention on well-being, suggesting that nature involvement is beneficial among a variety of individuals. High levels of nature involvement were voluntarily sustained throughout the two-weeks of the study. For the most part, participants engaged in simple activities involving nature close to home, indicating that drastic life changes need not be made in order to improve positive functioning and feelings. This research provides important empirical groundwork for future research concerning daily nature involvement as an effective positive psychology intervention.
https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/eco.2014.0023

In Tin Man the story begins with DG waking up from a dream (in what most would consider which her mom speaks to her) to a stable family environment. As the days evolve the perceived notion gathered may be that DG is beginning her transition into adulthood. This is to say, that she is starting to notice things for herself and take precautions or enforce aspects that may have not seemed that clear in the past. Dg, herself, began to experience a sort of resentment especially after the tornado and it was revealed after that, her robot parents were working alongside Azkadellia. I even felt like the tornado was symbolic of change in the direction of the story. It was almost like a sweeping away of one life that DG knew so that she would be introduced to a new way of living. That in which, would prepare her for the life she was destined for all along. Comparable to things that happen in people's lives almost autonomously or in their subconscious state of mind. Lavender Eye's stable mindset in the midst of not being able to communicate, verbally or nonverbally, was something that stood out to me. Her metal strength in that capacity displayed a ton of confidence and toughness that enlightened me on why she was so sought after and (preyed upon. You could almost compare her subliminal (brain) messages with DG as s one way line of nonverbal communication. She had the ability to chat with her daughter essentially, there was just no response able to be interpreted from her daughter. (If it were facebook she would be online, her daughter would be offline. Therefore DG could internalize images and reflect on them but could not verbally respond with the intent to make it known to Lavender Eyes; seeing the messages just not able to tap into the network and respond. Pg. 65­66 of the

Esse plano de trabalho é associado ao projeto de pesquisa “A ecomotricidade no estado de Sergipe”, iniciado no ano de 2014. Ecomotricidade é compreendida como a intencionalidade do ser em suas inter-ações com a natureza, desde que essa inter-ação seja lúdica e ecológica. A relação é lúdica quando o que traz significação para a experiência é a alegria ou o prazer circunscritos à própria experiência. A relação é ecológica quando se satisfazem os preceitos (ecosomaestéticos-ambientalmente éticos-ecopolíticos) da justiça ambiental. Justificando-se na crítica à associação direta entre o contato com a natureza e as possibilidades de conscientização/educação ambiental e compreendendo a importância do engajamento ecopedagógico para a concretização de mudanças no habitus ecológico do sujeito, o objetivo do projeto é investigar aspectos fundamentais da relação de homens e mulheres com suas experiências de ecomotricidade no estado de Sergipe buscando a identificação de categorias analíticas que fundamentem percepções sobre como essas relações influenciam percepções ser humano-mundo. Tal investigação é realizada a partir do desenvolvimento de dezoito estudos de caso com indivíduos com experiências regulares na natureza. A análise dos dados destaca o potencial para se (re)conhecer possibilidades e limitações para o desenvolvimento de processos educativos nas relações corpo-meio ambiente, especialmente pela “normalização” de valores (estéticos, éticos e políticos) da ecomotricidade localizados geo-epistemologicamente no habitus de movimento do indivíduo.

Esse plano de trabalho é associado ao projeto de pesquisa “A ecomotricidade no estado de Sergipe”, iniciado no ano de 2014. Ecomotricidade é compreendida como a intencionalidade do ser em suas inter-ações com a natureza, desde que essa inter-ação seja lúdica e ecológica. A relação é lúdica quando o que traz significação para a experiência é a alegria ou o prazer circunscritos à própria experiência. A relação é ecológica quando se satisfazem os preceitos (ecosomaestéticos-ambientalmente éticos-ecopolíticos) da justiça ambiental. Nesse ano de pesquisa foram finalizadas as etapas de unitarização e categorização (Análise Textual Qualitativa) dos 93 textos que totalizam o corpus da pesquisa. Dessa análise emergiram sete (7) categorias, nas quais foram enquadradas todas as unidades de significado destacadas do corpus, a saber: Relação com meio ambiente/natureza; Relações com o jogo e com o esporte; Risco; aventura; radical; Benefícios e sensações positivas; Espaço e tempo para educação (ambiental); Opção de lazer; Formação de culturas e identidades. A análise interpretativa dessas categorias possibilitou discussões e conclusões em relação aos objetivos centrais da pesquisa.

From the mere presence of plants to window views of nearby nature, contact with nature in the workplace has been associated with increased productivity and creativity, as well as positive emotional and physical health outcomes. Nevertheless, if nature is to be incorporated within or near workplaces effectively, it is important that workers perceive natural spaces to be conducive, and not detrimental, to performance on activities that they may engage in at work or else these changes to the physical environment may not be fully embraced by workers. Thus, in the current research we examine workers’ preferences and perceptions of different natural and constructed (built) environments for different workplace activities. In Study 1, 64 knowledge workers were exposed to images of natural outdoor and constructed indoor workspaces. They selected where they thought they would best and least be able to perform different workplace activities. Natural outdoor spaces were overrepresented as the b...

Numerous scholars have explored the notion that our relationship with nature is essential to our well-being, and some have suggested that we have an evolved inclination to affiliate with nature. A substantial body of research supports these hypotheses, and demonstrates both the restorative and additive capacity of affiliating with nature. This paper posits that experiences with the natural environment play a fundamentally important role in addressing the six existential anxieties of identity, happiness, isolation, meaning in life, freedom, and death—a perspective that we call Eco-Existential Positive Psychology. Moreover, we propose that affiliating with nature affords us the opportunity to be fully flourishing human beings. This paper provides supporting evidence for Eco-Existential Positive Psychology via an interdisciplinary literature review.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2014.920335

This research explores a design approach for biophilic experiences applied to children's learning environments in cold climates. The primary research gaps addressed are the confusion among principles, experiences and architectural characteristics in biophilic design literature; the lack of common terminology for referencing spatial patterns that induce biophilic responses; and limited design methods and generative approaches for designers due to the focus on empirical validation and broad theoretical generalisations. A visual biophilic design vocabulary, including spatial enclosure and adjacencies, is developed for experiences of abiotic and biotic nature. A framework is proposed for biophilic design schemas. In the context of renovating primary schools in Quebec, Canada, 38 schemas for cold climates are developed within this framework. Using these tools in an architectural design studio course showed that this common graphic language integrates experiences of nature in design processes, enabling researchers and architects to describe biophilic spaces with shared terms and logic.

Reimagine fragmented cities and neighborhoods through a design blueprint for healthy communities to Reclaim the Public Realm, and improve mobility and connectivity.
Urban Cores within these neighborhoods will comprise a more
Livable, Walkable and Vibrant City.

Wilson’s (1984) biophilia hypothesis predicts that people’s psychological health is associated with their relationship to nature. Two studies examined associations among nature connectedness, well-being, and mindfulness in samples of undergraduate students while socially desirable responding was controlled. Significant associations emerged among measures of nature connectedness and indices of wellbeing (in Study 1 and Study 2) and mindfulness (in Study 2). Results are discussed in relation to possible mediators and moderators of the association between nature connectedness and mental health.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.037

Ambiguity exists between environmental education and other types of education such as education for sustainable development (ESD) and Sustainable Education (SE) and a clear understanding as to its aims and objectives remains elusive. Considering the wide-ranging scope of global environmental destruction and the implications for social, cultural, political and economic development, environmental education carries both high expectations and levels of responsibility. However, there are questions to be asked regarding these expectations as recent criticisms suggest that environmental education has failed to halt environmental degradation (Saylan and Blumstein, 2011).There are real gaps and problems emerging not because all current approaches have failed but because research does not acknowledge that there are different approaches to environmental education and that different people and interested parties view the role and content of environmental education very differently. The research study critically examined the status of environmental education in Ireland to establish whether, and to what extent, this type of education (re)connects children with the natural world. Opportunities for informal ways of learning about the natural world through unstructured, experiential outdoor play for children have significantly diminished. Such educational opportunities are replaced by more formal approaches to environmental education, which is now firmly embedded within the mainstream primary education system. The research provides an in-depth analysis based on critical and reflective interpretations of environmental education and its position within the primary school environment, while also reflecting on the modernisation processes within society that have contributed to and driven the formalisation of environmental education overall. In doing so, it addresses a research gap by mapping the evolution of environmental education in Ireland and the influences of wider societal, historical, and political developments on its (in)effectiveness.

It has been over 25 years since E.O. Wilson (Biophilia, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984) wrote Biophilia, in which we argued for an evolved inclination among humans to affiliate with nature. Psychologists have examined both restorative and additive effects of nature-related experiences on health and well-being. We review correlational and experimental studies showing associations between nature affiliation (or nature immersion) and positive markers of mental health. The research evidence converges on the conclusion that nature involvement is good for us. We discuss future lines of research concerning mediators and moderators of the relationship between nature and well-being., the role of technologically-mediated nature experiences, and the development of nature-related interventions aimed at boosting well-being.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5195-8_11

The nature connectedness research suggests that (re)creating human-nature connections can address both escalating ecological issues and rising mental health concerns by fostering (ecological) self-realization. Given that the nature connectedness literature oversimplifies experience of ecological self, however, there remains a need to explore lived ecological self experience, and how this experience influences mental health and environmental behaviour. In this exploratory interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA), I sought to flesh out the nature connectedness research by investigating ecological self experience among a small group of gifted adults (n=8) who measure relatively high in nature connectedness. Three research questions guided the study. The project’s primary research question was: How do gifted adults experience ecological self? Two secondary, theory-driven sub-questions refined the project further: 1. How does experience of ecological self influence mental health? 2. How does experience of ecological self influence environmental behaviour? Analysis of data collected via two semi-structured interviews held with each participant reveal that while ecological self experiences might often enhance mental health, nature experiences can also be intense, distressing, and/or ambivalent, and environmental concerns can precipitate anguish and anger. Findings also illustrate how experience of ecological self can be inconsistent: conceptions of the human-nature relationship varied, and experience of ecological self seemed to oscillate along with diurnal and seasonal cycles and appeared to evolve over the lifespan. Finally, results demonstrate that while ecological self experience may motivate pro-environmental behaviour, movement from experience to action is not automatic. Findings show how a variety of intra- and interpersonal factors can hinder pro-ecological engagement. Taken together, study results nuance the nature connectedness literature by illustrating the complexity of ecological self experience. While (re)creating human-nature connections can be considered one approach to addressing escalating ecological issues and rising mental health concerns, findings from this project suggest that the back-to-nature strategy is not a cure-all.

El progreso tecnológico y el desarrollo de sistemas informáticos de las últimas décadas, unido a su impacto en nuestra vida cotidiana, ha favorecido el surgimiento de distintas formas de enseñanza y aprendizaje, como es el caso de los MOOC/COMA.
Siendo así, se hace necesario revisar si los principios establecidos en el Informe Delors de 1996, que estableció las bases de la Educación a lo largo de toda la vida, a partir de la determinación de los Cuatro Pilares de la Educación, se garantizan en esta nueva metodología de aprendizaje on-line, masivo y abierto.

Creating ecologically sustainable ways of life is desirable, necessary, and urgent for the collective future of life on Earth. Although this is acknowledged, aspired to, and increasingly pursued in action, broad-scale sustainability remains unrealised. Western cities offer a strategic place to exemplify and accelerate global sustainability transitions. Such cities are characterised by dense human populations with excessive per capita resource use, but they can also be cornucopias of economic development, progressive politics, and diverse culture and correspondingly act at global hotspots of innovation and change. This exploratory research proposes pragmatic backcasted pathways for furthering such change, constructing future visions of more sustainable ways of life in Western cities, identifying presentday barriers to realising these, and generating practical solutions ‘here and now’ that could contribute strategically to overcoming the barriers, towards a sustainable future. An insight and foresight rich distillation of evidence-based knowledge and practical experience was generated to inform these pathways, through qualitative interviews with 25 esteemed experts specialising in fields of socio-ecology and cities, including planning, design, sociology, psychology, philosophy, art, activism, economics, and government. To analyse this data and conceptualise alternative pathways, ‘ecological habitus’, an emergent socio-ecological theory, was developed and employed as a practical framework for conceptually linking broad-scale socio-ecological issues with everyday practice; analysing the inter-dependent variables (e.g. normative, material, social, and psychological) of social reproduction and change; and assessing their sustainability at different scales (e.g. individual and institutional). Two components were added to the theory: ‘natural capital’ (the ecological/biophysical factors within socio-ecological relationships), and ‘ecological reflexivity’ (people’s responses to natural capital whether intentional-critical, periodic-conscious, or routine-subconscious). These enhance ecological habitus as a versatile tool for socio-ecological and sustainability-transition research.The ultimate research outcomes are three backcasted pathways towards a future of ‘sustainable ecological habitus’, which could begin pragmatically with: collaborative practice among city authorities to develop as ecologically-reflexive sustainability leaders and overcome disciplinary silos; strategic enrichment of cities with accessible, place-based natural capital to enhance human-nature connection; and everyday self-, or socially-directed sustainability micro-interventions among city-dwellers, to incrementally grow mainstream sustainable ecological habitus. These actions combined could accelerate sustainable ecological habitus in Western cities and beyond. The power is ours.

Research has established nature connectedness as a reliable correlate of well-being. In the current research, we examined whether meaning in life mediated the association between nature connectedness and well-being. In Study 1, 311 undergraduates completed multiple measures of nature connectedness, multiple measures of meaning in life, and multiple measures of well-being. Mediational analyses revealed that meaning in life fully mediated the association between nature connectedness and well-being. In Study 2, we examined whether mediation of the association between nature connectedness and well-being by meaning in life could be demonstrated alongside a previously documented mediation of the association between religiousness and well-being by meaning in life. Undergraduates (N = 227) completed measures of nature connectedness, religiousness, meaning in life, and well-being. Mediational analyses revealed that meaning in life fully mediated both the association between nature connectedness and well-being and the association between religiousness and well-being.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9403-x

Connecting with nature has been described by some as an important psychological need. Indeed, research shows that a strong connection to nature predicts flourishing across a wide range of well-being indices. Engaging with natural beauty may be one route by which people satisfy this presumed need to connect with nature. Based on this reasoning, the purpose of the current research was to investigate whether nature connectedness mediates the relationship between engagement with natural beauty (i.e., the tendency to notice and be moved by beauty in nature) and well-being in three different cultures. Four cross-sectional surveys involving Canadian, Japanese, and Russian undergraduate students were conducted (N = 1,390). Engagement with natural beauty and nature connectedness were positively associated with a variety of well-being measures. Moreover, we found relatively consistent support for the indirect effect of nature connectedness in explaining the relationship between engagement wit...

Human bodies and minds evolved together - simultaneously and interdependently. Therefore, if nature provides for our physical health and well-being, it follows that nature also provides for our mental health and well-being. Indeed, a substantial body of supporting evidence has accumulated demonstrating both the resotrative and additive effects of nature affiliation (or immersion) on our physical health and mental well-being. Based on a book chapter and several research studies which Holli-Anne Passmore and Dr. Andrew J. Howell collaborated on at Grant MacEwan University, this presentation will review studies showing associations between nature affiliation (or nature immersion) and positive markers of both physical and mental health.

Gandy, S., Forstmann, M., Carhart-Harris, R., Timmermann, C., Luke, D., & Watts, R. (2020). The potential synergistic effects between psychedelic administration and nature contact for the improvement of mental health. Health Psychology Open, 7(2), 1-21. doi: 10.1177/2055102920978123

Abstract: Therapeutic psychedelic administration and contact with nature have been associated with the same psychological mechanisms: decreased rumination and negative affect, enhanced psychological connectedness and mindfulness-related capacities, and heightened states of awe and transcendent experiences, all processes linked to improvements in mental health amongst clinical and healthy populations. Nature-based settings can have inherently psychologically soothing properties which may complement all stages of psychedelic therapy (mainly preparation and integration) whilst potentiating increases in nature relatedness, with associated psychological benefits. Maximising enhancement of nature relatedness through therapeutic psychedelic administration may constitute an independent and complementary pathway towards improvements in mental health that can be elicited by psychedelics.

There is a need to better understand the types of natural environments that different individuals and groups find mental health promoting. In this exploratory qualitative study, twelve university students were invited to photographically document a natural place that they considered beneficial to their mental health. Thematic analysis of photographs and follow-up in-depth interviews revealed that students prefer natural places that are familiar, contain a variety of natural elements (especially mature trees and some form of water), and are separate from the context of everyday campus life (distanced from both the built and social campus environment). Overall, study findings demonstrate the importance of acknowledging symbolic and social factors when assessing the potential mental health benefits of natural places for different groups and individuals.

(Poster presented at the Third World Congress on Positive Psychology, Los Angeles, 2013).  Kellert (1997) speculated that involvement with nature may satisfy needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness - the very needs underscored in Self-Determination Theory as being key to optimal human functioning (Deci & Ryan, 2000). We sought to examine the pattern of relationships between the three SDT needs, nature affiliation, and well-being. A sample of 236 undergraduate students completed self-report measures of each of these variables. Significant, positive correlations were found between nature affiliation, self-determination, autonomy, competence, relatedness, and well-being. Structural equation modelling supported a model wherein self-determined functioning mediated the relationship between nature affiliation and well-being.

The objective of this research was to study the relation between Depression and contact  with  Nature  in  first  year  college  students  from  universities  from  Lisboa and  Porto.  Participants  were  N=396,  ages  ranging  between  18-54,  M=22,41,  of wich 65,2% were female. Instruments were a questionnaire for socio-demographic and  contact  with  Nature,  the  Beck  Depression  Inventory  –  II  (BDI-II)  and  the Connectedness  to  Nature  Scale  (CNS).  Questionnaires  were  applied  by  the teachers to their students. Results indicate correlations between Depression and outdoors activities (r=-0,17; p=0,001), particularly for men (t=-0,51; p=0,001) and Nature  conservation  status  (r=-0,10;  p=0,045).  Women  were  in  average  more depressed (t=2,5;p=0,01). Only one CNS item showed significant correlation with Depression (r=-0,11;  p=0,04).  We  found  no  further  significant  correlates  for Depression.  Conclusions,  limitations  and  consequences  for  further  research  are discussed.

Background: Smartphone use has increased greatly at a time when concerns about society's disconnection from nature have also markedly increased. Recent research has also indicated that smartphone use can be problematic for a small minority of individuals. Methods: In this study, associations between problematic smartphone use (PSU), nature connectedness, and anxiety were investigated using a cross-sectional design (n = 244). Results: Associations between PSU and both nature connectedness and anxiety were confirmed. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to identify threshold values on the Problematic Smartphone Use Scale (PSUS) at which strong associations with anxiety and nature connectedness occur. The area under the curve was calculated and positive likelihood ratios used as a diagnostic parameter to identify optimal cutoff for PSU. These provided good diagnostic ability for nature connectedness, but poor and non-significant results for anxiety. ROC analysis showed the optimal PSUS threshold for high nature connectedness to be 15.5 (sensitivity: 58.3%; specificity: 78.6%) in response to an LR+ of 2.88. Conclusions: The results demonstrate the potential utility for the PSUS as a diagnostic tool, with a level of smartphone use that users may perceive as non-problematic being a significant cutoff in terms of achieving beneficial levels of nature connectedness. Implications of these findings are discussed.

'CCK08' was a unique event on Connectivism and Connective Knowledge within a MOOC (Massive Open Online Course) in 2008. It was a course and a network about the emergent practices and the theory of Connectivism, proposed by George Siemens as a new learning theory for a digital age. It was convened and led by Stephen Downes and George Siemens through the University of Manitoba, Canada. Although the event was not formally advertised, more than 2000 participants from all over the world registered for the course, with 24 of these enrolled for credit.

The course presented a unique opportunity to discover more about how people learn in large open networks, which offer extensive diversity, connectivity and opportunities for sharing knowledge. Learners are increasingly exercising autonomy regarding where, when, how, what and with whom to learn. To do this, they often select technologies independent of those offered by traditional courses. In CCK08 this autonomy was encouraged and learning on the course was distributed across a variety of platforms.

This paper explores the perspectives of some of the participants on their learning experiences in the course, in relation to the characteristics of connectivism outlined by Downes, i.e. autonomy, diversity, openness and connectedness/interactivity. The findings are based on an online survey which was emailed to all active participants and email interview data from self-selected interviewees.

The research found that autonomy, diversity, openness and connectedness/interactivity are indeed characteristics of a MOOC, but that they present paradoxes which are difficult to resolve in an online course. The more autonomous, diverse and open the course, and the more connected the learners, the more the potential for their learning to be limited by the lack of structure, support and moderation normally associated with an online course, and the more they seek to engage in traditional groups as opposed to an open network. These responses constrain the possibility of having the positive experiences of autonomy, diversity, openness and connectedness/interactivity normally expected of an online network. The research suggests that the question of whether a large open online network can be fused with a course has yet to be resolved. Further research studies with larger samples are needed, as is an investigation into the ethical considerations which may need to be taken into account when testing new theory and practice on course participants.