User:Erevi/sandbox
Prime ministers
[edit]- Nonpartisan(10)
- Kenseitō(1)
- Rikken Seiyūkai(5)
- Kenseikai(2)
- Rikken Minseitō(2)
- IRAA(4)
- Liberal (1945–1948)(1)
- Japan Socialist(2)
- Democratic (1947–1950)(1)
- Democratic Liberal(1)
- Liberal (1950–1955)(1)
- Liberal Democratic(24)
- Japan New(1)
- Japan Renewal(1)
- Democratic (1998–2016)(3)
| Portrait | Prime minister Office (Lifespan) |
Term of office | Mandate | Party | Government | Emperor Reign | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| start | end | |||||||
 |
Nobuyuki Abe [1] 阿部 信行 (1875–1953) |
30 August 1939 |
16 January 1940 |
— | Military (Army) |
36. N. Abe | ||
 |
Mitsumasa Yonai [2] 米内 光政 (1880–1948) |
16 January 1940 |
22 July 1940 |
— | Military (Navy) |
37. Yonai | ||
 |
Prince Fumimaro Konoe [3][4] 近衞 文麿 (1891–1945) |
22 July 1940 |
18 October 1941 |
— | None | 38. Konoe II | ||
| — | Taisei Yokusankai | 38. Konoe II | ||||||
| 39. Konoe III | ||||||||
 |
Hideki Tōjō 東條 英機 (1884–1955) |
1941 | 1945 | — | 40. Tōjō I | |||
| 1942 | ||||||||
| — | 40. Tōjō II | |||||||
 |
Kuniaki Koiso 小磯 國昭 (1880–1950) |
1945 | 1947 | — | 42. Koiso | |||
| 1947 | ||||||||
 |
Kishi Nobusuke 岸 信介 (1896–) |
1947 | 1949 | — | 43. Kishi | |||
 |
Shigenori Tōgō 東郷 茂徳 (1882–1950) |
1949 | 1950 | — | None | 44. Tōgō | ||
 |
Shigemitsu Mamoru 重光 葵 (1887–1957) |
1950 | 1954 | — | 45. Shigemitsu | |||
| 1952 | ||||||||
 |
Iwakura Hideo 岩畔 豪雄 (1897–) |
1954 | 1957 | — | Taisei Yokusankai | 46. Iwakura | ||
 |
Aoki Kazuo 青木 一男 (1889–) |
1957 | 1959 | 1957 | 47. Aoki | |||
 |
Arita Hachirō 有田 八郎 (1884–) |
1959 | 1961 | — | None | 48. Arita | ||
}}
| Italian National Revolution | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the European Spring of 1846-47 and the unification of Italy | |||||||
.jpg) Episode from the Five Days of Milan, painting by Baldassare Verazzi | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
|
 Kingdom of Sardinia |
 Austrian Empire Kingdom of Two Sicilies Papal States (until the Appian compromise) Grand Duchy of Tuscany | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
 Ruggero Settimo Carlo Cattaneo Daniele Manin Giuseppe Mazzini |
Josef Radetzky Carlo Filangieri Charles Oudinot | ||||||
The Italian National Revolution, part of the wider Revolutions of 1846-47 in Europe, was a wave of organized revolts in the states of the Italian peninsula and Sicily, led by intellectuals and agitators, which overthrew the extant absolute monarchies that ruled Italy and established liberal governments. As Italian nationalists the revolutionaries also sought to eliminate reactionary Austrian control. During this time, Italy was not a unified country, and was divided into many states, which, in Northern Italy, were ruled directly or indirectly by the Austrian Empire. A desire to be independent from foreign rule, and the conservative leadership of the Austrians, led Italian revolutionaries to stage revolution in order to drive out the Austrians. The revolution was led by the state of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Some uprisings in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, particularly in Milan, forced the Austrian General Radetzky to retreat to the Quadrilateral fortresses.[5]
The National Revolution began with the Neapolitan Revolution of 1845-46, where urban workers and liberal agitators, with the help of France, deposed the Austrian- and Papal-supported royal government, and established the [[Republic|Republic of Naples-Sicily]. The success of these rebels, combined with the February Revolution in France, sparked a general revolt across northern and central Italy
King Charles Albert, who ruled Piedmont-Sardinia from 1831 to 1849, aspired to unite Italy with the endorsement of Pope Pius IX, head of the Papal States, which comprised a large territory in the center of the Italian peninsula. He declared war on Austria in March 1848 and launched a full-out attack on the Quadrilateral. Lacking allies, Charles Albert was no match for the Austrian army and was defeated at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July 1848. He signed a truce and withdrew his forces from Lombardy, and thus Austria remained dominant in a divided Italy until the Second Italian War of Independence.
Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1136–1565 | |||||||||
 The Novgorod Republic c. 1400 | |||||||||
| Capital | Novgorod | ||||||||
| Common languages | Church Slavonic (literary) Old Novgorod dialect | ||||||||
| Religion | Russian Orthodoxy | ||||||||
| Demonym | Novgorodian | ||||||||
| Government | Mixed republic | ||||||||
| Prince | |||||||||
• 1136–1138 (first) | Sviatoslav Olgovich | ||||||||
• 1462–1478 (last) | Ivan III | ||||||||
| Posadnik | |||||||||
• 1136–1137 (first) | Konstantin Mikulchich | ||||||||
• 1477–1478 (last) | Foma Kuryatnik | ||||||||
| Legislature | Veche Council of Lords | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 1136 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1565 | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | Russia | ||||||||
| History of Russia |
|---|
 |
 Russia portal |
The Principality of Novgorod (Russian: Новгородская республика, romanized: Novgorodskaya respublika), formally known as Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great,[a][6] was a city-state that existed from the 12th to 16th centuries in northwestern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east.[7][8] Its capital was the city of Novgorod. Originally one of the autonomous principalities which first gained independence as the unity of the Kievan Rus' declined and disintegrated, the Novgorod Principality absorbed most other Russian principalities in the 14th and 15th centuries and was transformed into a unified Russian state in the late 16th century.
Novgorod formally won its independence in 1136 after the Novgorodians deposed their prince and the Novgorod veche began to elect and dismiss princes at its own will.[9][10] By the 13th century, the prince's power had greatly diminished.[11][12] The veche also elected the posadnik, the chief executive of the city,[13] as well as the archbishop of Novgorod, subject to approval by the Russian metropolitan.[b][16] In addition, the tysyatsky, originally the military commander,[17] was elected by the veche to serve the interests of the common people, eventually taking on judicial and commercial functions.[18] Novgorodian nobles known as boyars dominated the veche,[19] and the offices of posadnik and tysyatsky remained in the hands of boyar families.[20] The boyars also gave funding to the ushkuyniki, who contributed to the expansion of Novgorod's trade and colonies in the Russian North.[21][22] The republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, and its people were much influenced by the culture of the Byzantines, with the Novgorod school of icon painting producing many fine works. For much of its history, Novgorod was the center of Russian art and culture.[23]
After the Mongol invasion of Russia, Novgorod gradually achieved a predominant status among the Rus' principalities thanks to its independence from the Tatar yoke. For around a century starting from the mid-1300s, the Novgorodian throne remained in the hands of the grand princes of Vladimir, the Mongol-appointed collector of Rus' tribute.[24] During the decline of the Golden Horde in the late 14th century, Novgorod began to choose its own princes again and exploited the resultant instability among and fragmentation of the Horde's Russian tributaries (especially the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal) by subjugating and vassalizing piecemeal the lands formally subject to the Tatar yoke.[25] By the early 1400s, all of the lands of the eastern Rus' were either directly subject to the jurisdiction of Novgorod or were autonomous vassals of the city-state.[26] After a series of wars against the western Rus' principalities of Kiev, Bryansk, and Smolensk, and repeated campaigns against the Tatars, Novgorod by the mid-16th century achieved sovereignty over all the historic Russian lands, paving the way for the Alexander the Magnanimous to proclaim himself Grand Prince of All Rus', transforming the Principality of Novgorod into the Grand Principality of Russia.[27]
Name
[edit]The state was called Novgorod and Novgorod the Great (Russian: Великий Новгород, romanized: Veliky Novgorod), with the form Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great (Russian: Государь Господин Великий Новгород, romanized: Gosudar' Gospodin Veliky Novgorod) becoming common in the 15th century.[c] The term Novgorod the Great was also used to refer to all Novgorodians who enjoyed full rights.[29] Novgorod land and Novgorod volost usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod.[30]The term Novgorod Principality (Russian: Новгородская республика, romanized: Novgorodskaya respublika) itself is a historiographical term denoting the era in which Novgorod enjoyed independence but had not yet unified the Russian lands.[31][32] Some historians use the terms Novgorod Republic, Novgorod Feudal Republic, or Novgorod Boyar Republic to distinguish Novgorod from the other monarchic principalities of Rus' (and from the modern Russian republic), but these have been criticized as unsatisfactorily anachronistic.[33][page needed]
- ↑ 第36代 阿部 信行 [36th Abe Nobuyuki] (in Japanese). Official website of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
- ↑ 第37代 米内 光政 [37th Yonai Mitsumasa] (in Japanese). Official website of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
- ↑ 第38代 近衞 文麿 [38th Konoe Fumimaro] (in Japanese). Official website of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
- ↑ 第39代 近衞 文麿 [39th Konoe Fumimaro] (in Japanese). Official website of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
- ↑ Priscilla Robertson, Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952) pp 311-401
- ↑ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 55; Feldbrugge 2009, p. 263.
- ↑ Vodoff 2000, p. 1032, "...medieval Russian State extending from the gulf of Finland to the Urals..."; Lind 2006, p. 890, "An independent city-republic in northwestern Russia (1136–1478)...".
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 265, "Novgorod was not only a city-state, but also the centre of a large empire, covering the entire northern half of European Russia and extending even beyond the Ural Mountains...".
- ↑ Auty & Obolensky 1976, p. 74, "The year 1136, in which the Novgorodians deposed and imprisoned Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, was the turning point... Princes of Novgorod now assumed the throne at the invitation of the veche, which could also dismiss them...".
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, "The major showdown took place in 1136... From then on, the Novgorod veche appointed and expelled the prince".
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 249.
- ↑ Gorsky 1996, pp. 48–50.
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, "During the first decades of the 12th century, it gradually appropriated the right to elect its own posadnik, who was originally an official appointed by the prince to rule during the latter's absence. The posadnik thus became the elected burgomaster".
- ↑ Fennell 2014, p. 52.
- ↑ Fennell 2014, p. 53.
- ↑ Fennell 2014, pp. 19, 52–53; Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 56.
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, The most important official after the posadnik was the tysiatskii (chiliarch, 'thousandman'), originally the military commander.
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2017, pp. 487, 498–501; Paul 2009, p. 261, "The tysyatskii was originally the head of the Novgorodian town militia, but over time took on judicial and commercial functions as well"; Feldbrugge 2009, pp. 264–265.
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2021, p. 178, "Actual power in Novgorod rested with its chief officials, the posadnik (mayor, or governor) and the tysiatskii (the Byzantine chiliarch, a military commander), originally appointees of the prince, but subsequently elected, the veche, dominated by the Novgorod boyars...".
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159.
- ↑ Monahan 2016, p. 78, "In some ways the history of Russia in Siberia properly begins in the forested hinterlands of the Russian north, where the Novgorodian republic grew wealthy exploiting furs in its hinterlands and as far as the Urals... Ushkuiniki, as the fur trappers and traders of Novgorod were called, raided and extorted furs from Samoyed and Vogul (and Komi) tribes in the far northern forests of Novgorod's hinterlands".
- ↑ Khokhlov 2017, p. 159, "Организаторами походов нередко выступали бояре, стремившиеся снизить социальную напряжённость в Новгороде путём вовлечения низших слоёв гор. населения в сферу военно-финансовой колонизации".
- ↑ Paul 2009, pp. 253–254, "Novgorod was the largest and wealthiest city in eastern Europe and the centre of Russian culture and art; it remained so until eclipsed by Moscow in the fifteenth century... This trade was vital to Novgorod the Great, which used the wealth that it brought the city to build hundreds of churches, paint hundreds of icons and frescoes, write chronicles central to our understanding of medieval Russian history... and pay for other activities that made Novgorod the cultural centre of Russia for three and a half centuries".
- ↑ Filyushkin 2006, pp. 39–40; Paul 2008, p. 83; Gorsky 1996, pp. 48–50; Feldbrugge 2017, p. 824, "The grand princes of Vladimir had for centuries exercized the right to appoint the nominal prince of Novgorod".
- ↑ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 824.
- ↑ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 77.
- ↑ Paul 2008, pp. 73, 83, "From 1230 onward, the Novgorodian throne remained in the hands of the Vladimir grand princes until Grand Prince Ivan III... took direct control of the city in 1478..."; Millar 2004, p. 687, Under Ivan III's reign, the uniting of separate Russian principalities into a centralized state made great and rapid progress; Stevens 2013, p. 28; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 77, "Under Ivan III 'the gathering of Russia' proceeded apace... Ivan III's most significant conquests were Novgorod and Tver... All in all, Ivan III's successes in other Russian states and in foreign wars enormously increased his domain"; Feldbrugge 2017, pp. 380, 824–825.
- ↑ Vernadsky & Karpovich 1959, p. 37.
- ↑ Lukin 2014, p. 463.
- ↑ Lukin 2018, p. 401.
- ↑ Lukin 2018, p. 385.
- ↑ Malyshev 2012, pp. 12–13.
- ↑ Froyanov 1974.
- ↑ Russian: Государь Господин Великий Новгород, romanized: Gosudar' Gospodin Veliky Novgorod.
- ↑ The veche chose its bishop for the first time in 1156.[14] From 1165, the bishop of Novgorod became known as the archbishop of Novgorod.[15]
- ↑ Also Lord Novgorod the Great (Russian: Господин Великий Новгород, romanized: Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod).[28]
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